AP Physics C: Mechanics

Unit 6: Oscillations & Gravity

Section 6.1 – Springs………………………………………………….………………….………….…96

Section 6.2 – Pendulums…………………………………………….…………...………….…...……102

Section 6.3 – Gravity………………………………………………………………………….………105

95
AP Physics C: Mechanics Unit 6 – Oscillations & Gravity
6.1 Springs (Chapter 15)
Focus Question: What is the equation for simple harmonic motion?
Simple Harmonic Motion
 In period motion, an object moves repeatedly over the same path in equal intervals for time. The
repetitive movements are called oscillations. If periodic motion is directed towards an equilibrium
position, the motion is simple harmonic motion.
 If an object undergoing periodic motion is in simple harmonic motion, it has two simple characteristics:
-The force acting on the object is directed towards the equilibrium position.
-The force is proportional to the distance from equilibrium.
A mass vibrating at the end of a spring undergoes simple harmonic motion
 The restoring force for a mass-spring system is the force that causes the system to return to equilibrium
is given by Hooke’s Law:
Hooke’s Law: The restoring force of a spring varies linearly with the displacement from equilibrium and
acts in the opposite direction -

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Simple Harmonic Motion Equation

In simple harmonic motion, acceleration is not constant. Kinematics

from unit 1 can’t be used. However, conservation of energy applies.

𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

1 1
𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 2
At max displacement (the amplitude), x = A and v = 0. At
equilibrium, x =0 and v is at its maximum value:

 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 + 𝑘𝐴 → 𝑣 = ± (𝐴 − 𝑥 )

 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣

*Background Info* General Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion

The differential equation for a simple harmonic oscillator is given by: + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0. The general solution to
this differential equation is 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙). The period of the function is . Since the differential
equation is a little above Calc 1, the main goal in physics C will be to get the equation in the form of +
𝜔 𝑥 = 0 and know how to use this to get the general position function and period.

 Simple Harmonic Motion Equation for Springs:

𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 → 𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 −> + 𝑥=0

Comparing this to the general harmonic motion differential equation ( + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0), 𝜔 = , so the period
𝒎
can be found to be 𝑇 = = → 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅
𝒌

The general solution to the equation is 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), so for a spring, the general equation is:

𝒌
𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝒕 + 𝝓)
𝒎

Velocity and acceleration functions can be found using simple differentiation:

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) = −𝐴 sin( 𝑡 + 𝜙) 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡) = −𝐴 cos( 𝑡 + 𝜙)

97
Example A: A 0.2 kg mass vibrates with SHM with amplitude 0.50 m and frequency 5.0 Hz. Find:

a) the total energy of the motion.

b) the maximum velocity.
c) The maximum acceleration.
d) The time it takes to move from 25 cm to the left of the equilibrium point to 25 cm to the right of the
equilibrium point.

a) The spring constant, k, can be found using the frequency: 𝑇 = = 2𝜋 → 𝑘 = 4𝜋 𝑓 𝑚

1 1
𝐸 =𝑈 = 𝑘𝐴 = 4𝜋 𝑓 𝑚𝐴 = 2𝜋 (5 𝐻𝑧) (0.2 𝑘𝑔)(0.5 𝑚) = 𝟐𝟓 𝑱
2 2

𝒎
b) 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣 →𝑣 =𝐴 =𝐴 = (0.5 𝑚) 4𝜋 (5 𝐻𝑧) = 𝟏𝟔
𝒔

𝒎
c) 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 → 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝐴 → 𝑎 = = = 4𝜋 (5 𝐻𝑧) (. 5 𝑚) = 𝟒𝟗𝟑
𝒔𝟐

*the negative sign was dropped since it does not affect the magnitude of the maximum acceleration.

d) 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝑡 → 𝑥(𝑡) = 0.5 cos 4𝜋 (5 𝐻𝑧) 𝑡 → 𝑥(𝑡) = 0.5 cos(10𝜋𝑡)

*Phase constant is ignored since we are only looking for a difference in times, t = 0 is defined as when the
object is at x = 0.5 m. This question needs to be solved in radians.

𝑡 : − .25 = 0.5 cos(10𝜋𝑡) → 𝑡 = ~.068 𝑠

𝑡 : .25 = 0.5 cos(10𝜋𝑡) → 𝑡 = ~.033 𝑠

∆𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑡 = ~. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝒔

Some equations that can be derived if initial conditions for positive and velocity are given: 𝑥 , 𝑣
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(ω𝑡 + 𝜙), At t = 0, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙)
𝑣(𝑡) = −𝐴ω sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), At t = 0, 𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜙

 Equations for phase angle, 𝜙:

𝒙 𝒗 𝒗𝟎
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 = 𝟎 , 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟎, 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 = −
𝑨 𝝎𝑨 𝝎𝒙𝟎
 Equation that relates initial conditions to amplitude:
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙), = −𝐴 sin 𝜙
𝑣 𝑣
→𝑥 + = (𝐴 cos 𝜙) + (𝐴 sin 𝜙) → 𝑥 + = 𝐴 (cos 𝜙 + sin 𝜙)
𝜔 𝜔
𝒗𝟐𝟎
→𝑨= + 𝒙𝟐𝒐
𝝎𝟐

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Example B: An object executes SHM with angular frequency of 0.50 Hz. The object is initially 10 cm from its
equilibrium position and moving back toward the equilibrium with a velocity of -5.0 cm/s.

a) Find the period of the motion.

b) Find an expression for the object’s displacement as a function of time.
c) Find an expression for the object’s velocity as a function of time.

a) 𝑇 = = → 𝑇 = 4𝜋 𝑠
.
b) Using the equations derived above to find amplitude and phase constant:

𝑣 −.05
𝐴= +𝑥 = + (. 10 𝑚) = .14 𝑚
𝜔 (. 5 𝐻𝑧)

𝑣 −.05 𝜋
tan 𝜙 = − → 𝜙 = tan (− )=
𝜔𝑥 (. 5 𝐻𝑧)(. 10 𝑚) 4
𝝅
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(ω𝑡 + 𝜙) → 𝒙(𝒕) =. 𝟏𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬(. 𝟓𝒕 + )
𝟒
c) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) → 𝑣(𝑡) = −(. 14 𝑚)(. 5 𝐻𝑧) sin . 5𝑡 +

𝝅
→ 𝒗(𝒕) = −. 𝟎𝟕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 . 𝟓𝒕 +
𝟒

Vertical Springs
Example C: A mass m=1.0 kg is dropped onto a vertical spring whose force constant in k = 2 N/m. The initial
speed of the mass is vo =22 m/s after it sticks to the spring. The spring is unstretched at this moment. What is
the amplitude of its subsequent motion?

𝑈 +𝐾 = 𝑈 +𝐾

1 1 1 1
→ 𝑚𝑔𝑑 + 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑘𝑑 → 𝑘𝑑 − 𝑚𝑔𝑑 − 𝑚𝑣 = 0
2 2 2 2
1 𝑁 𝑚 1 𝑚
→ 2 𝑑 − (1 𝑘𝑔) 10 𝑑 − (1.0 𝑘𝑔) 22
2 𝑚 𝑠 2 𝑠

→ 𝑑 − 10𝑑 − 11 = 0

→ 𝑑 = 11 𝑚, −1 𝑚

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Since d was defined as distance below the starting position, this result means the object will oscillate between
going 11 m below and 1 m above the starting position.

The amplitude is then 6 m.

Spring Combinations

 Whenever two springs are connected in parallel, the total force of the springs is the sum of the two.

𝒌𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 : 𝒌𝒆𝒒 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐

Springs in parallel are stiffer.

Examples: spring mattresses for beds, shocks on a car

 Whenever springs are connected in series, the effective spring constant is smaller than either springs
individual constant since each spring stretches a smaller amount for the same total linear displacement
of the mass.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒌𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 : = +
𝒌𝒆𝒒 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐

Springs in series are less stiff.

Example D: A car with a mass of 900 kg is constructed so that its frame is supported by four springs. Each
spring has a force constant of 20,000 N/m. Two people riding in the car have a combined mass of 160 kg. Find
the frequency of vibration of the car after it is driven over a pothole in the road.
The 4 shocks are springs in parallel, so the springs constants add:
𝑁
𝑘 = 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 𝑘 = 4𝑘 = 4 20,000 = 80,000 𝑁/𝑚
𝑚
1 1 𝑘 1 80,000 𝑁/𝑚
𝑓= = = = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝑯𝒛
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 900 𝑘𝑔

Damping

In reality, the energy of a system will decrease overtime, in a process called damping. The mathematics of
damping is explored in differential equations courses.

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Example E: Sketch a kinetic, potential, and total energy vs. time graph for a damped mass-spring system.

 Underdamped system – Resistant force is small; allowing for some oscillations before the system comes
to rest eventually.

 Overdamped system – Systems comes to rest at equilibrium in the quickest time possible without
oscillating.

 Critically damped system - System comes to rest without oscillating, but after a longer time than it
would normally take to return to equilibrium.

Rate your understanding: Simple Harmonic Motion

0 1 2 3 4
Simple Harmonic Motion I can solve SHM I can set up and solve I can set and solve SHM I can explain and teach
is going to simply harm problems with help. SHM problems with problems with no errors. simple harmonic
my grade. minor errors. motion.

101
AP Physics C: Mechanics Unit 6 – Oscillations & Gravity
6.2 Pendulums (Chapter 13)
Focus Question: How is a pendulum an approximation of Simple Harmonic Motion?
The Simple Pendulum

 A simple pendulum is an ideal model consisting of a point mass suspending from a weightless string.

When an ideal pendulum is displaced a small angle 𝜃 from equilibrium (the

vertical), the restoring force towards equilibrium is mgsin𝜃.

*For small angles, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃. Since x is an arc of a circle of radius L,

𝑥 = 𝐿𝜃. Therefore, 𝜃 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃*

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑 𝑥
→ −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎 → −𝑔 sin 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑔𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥 𝑔
→− = → + 𝑥=0
𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿

Comparing this to the general harmonic motion differential equation ( + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0), 𝜔 = , so the period
𝑳
is 𝑇 = = → 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 .
𝒈

Using the general solution, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), with the amplitude (max displacement of x) equal to the
largest arc length (L𝜃), the general solution for the x-position for an ideal pendulum is:

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐿𝜃 cos 𝑡+𝜙

 The period of a pendulum is independent of mass. It depends only on length and acceleration due to
gravity for small amplitude (15o or less).
 A simple pendulum only approximates simple harmonic motion. It differs only slightly from simple
harmonic motion for small amplitudes; however, the restoring force, gravity, does not point towards
equilibrium.


Example A: A pendulum consists of a 5.00 kg mass suspended from a 2.00 m wire. The pendulum is pulled
10.0 cm from the vertical and released from rest.
a) What is the maximum velocity of the mass?
b) What is the acceleration of the mass?
c) What is the period of the motion?
d) What is the tension in the wire at the bottom of the swing?

*These questions is also easily solved using conservation of energy methods from previous topics. They will be
solve with harmonic motion methods here.

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a) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) = = −𝐿𝜃 sin 𝑡+𝜙

The maximum value of this velocity function has a magnitude of 𝐿𝜃 .

𝑔 10
𝑣 = 𝐿𝜃 = (2 𝑚)(. 05) =. 𝟐𝟐 𝒎/𝒔
𝐿 2𝑚
b) 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡) = −𝐿𝜃 cos 𝑡+𝜙
The maximum value of the acceleration function is 𝑔𝜃.
𝑚 𝒎
→𝑎 = 10 (. 05) = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟐
𝑠 𝒔
c) 𝑇 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 𝟐. 𝟖 𝒔
/

d) ∑ 𝐹 = = 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 → 𝑇 = + 𝑚𝑔
(5 𝑘𝑔) . 22 𝑚
→𝑇= + (5 𝑘𝑔) 10 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟏 𝑵
2𝑚 𝑠

The Physical (real, non-ideal) Pendulum

 The object on the right is in equilibrium when the center of mass (m) is below
the pivot point (O). When the mass is displaced a certain angle from
equilibrium, there is a restoring torque:

𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼

𝑑 𝜃
→ −𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃𝑑 = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝜃
→ sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 → −𝑚𝑔𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑑
→ + 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 𝐼

Comparing this to the general harmonic motion differential equation ( + 𝜔 𝑥 = 0), 𝜔 = , so

𝑰
the formula for a period of a physical pendulum is 𝑇 = = → 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅
𝒎𝒈𝒅

General solution for angular position as a function of time: 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜃 cos( 𝑡 + 𝜙)

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Example B: A thin uniform rod is pivoted at a point one quarter of its length from one end and the period is
measured. Then the rod is pivoted at its end and its period is measured again. Find the ratio of the first period to
the second period.

𝑰
In the equation for the period of a physical pendulum, 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 , the d is the distance from the pivot to the
𝒎𝒈𝒅

center of mass.

𝐼 √𝟏𝟒
= = =
𝐼 𝟒

Rate your understanding: Pendulums

0 1 2 3 4
I can solve pendulum I can set up and solve I can set and solve I can explain and teach
problems with help. pendulum problems pendulum problems pendulums.
with minor errors. with no errors.

104
AP Physics C: Mechanics Unit 6 – Oscillations & Gravity
6.3 Gravity (Chapter 13)
Focus Question: What affects the gravitational attraction between two objects?
Physics 1 Review Stuff
 Weight – Force exerted on an object by the earth or another body.
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation – Every object in the universe attracts every other particle:

𝐹= G = 6.67𝑥10
*The direction of the gravity force is along a straight line connecting the center of mass of the objects.
 Weight on earth is mg, but it is also the force of gravity between an object and the planet its own:

Using the two formulas for weight (mg and the force of gravity):
𝐹 =𝐹
𝐺𝑀𝑚
→ 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑟
𝑮𝑴
Acceleration due to gravity on a given: 𝒈= 𝟐
𝒓
 M – mass of planet r – radius of planet g – acceleration due to gravity on planet

Example A: Planet X has half the radius and half the density of Earth. What is the acceleration due to gravity
on planet X?

When given density and radius, a new formula needs to be derived to relate acceleration due to gravity to
density. Using the formula for acceleration due to gravity, mass can be replaced by using the fact that density
(𝜌) is mass over volume. A planet is roughly spherical, so the volume for a sphere is used:

Now, ratios can be used again to find the acceleration on the unknown planet.

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Kepler’s Laws

 Kepler’s First Law

Concept: Planets have elliptical orbits with its star as a focus.
Math: Average orbital speed can be calculating using circular motion.
 If a satellite has a circular orbit with constant velocity, then the satellite experiences an acceleration
directed toward the center of the orbit. The force providing the force to keep it in its orbit is gravity:
𝐹 =𝐹
→ = (for a body of mass m orbiting a larger object of mass M)

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=
𝑟

 Kepler’s Second Law:

Concept: Planets move faster closer to their star.
Math: Angular momentum of a planet about its star is conserved.

“Moment of inertia” of planet about star: 𝑰 = 𝒎𝒓

Angular momentum of planet about star:𝑳 = 𝒎𝒗𝒓
*Angular momentum of planet about its star is always conserved during a planetary orbit since no
outside forces act on the planet/star system.
𝒎𝒗𝟏 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝒓𝟐

 Kepler’s Third Law:

Orbital period: 𝑇 = =

4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋
→𝑇 = →𝑇 = 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
→ 𝑇 ~𝑟

The square of orbital period is proportional to the cube of average orbital radius.

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  Gravitational Potential Energy (with respect to the universe) - The potential energy between object on a
planet and the planet is equal in magnitude to the work done to bring it equal from its current location to
a point infinitely far away in space where the potential energy due to the planet is zero:

Potential energy is equal in magnitude to the work required to give something

potential energy:
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈 = −𝐹𝑟 = − 𝑟
𝑟

−𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝑼𝒈 =
𝒓
This energy is negative. This is because it would take positive work just to reach a point in space with
no energy. Potential energy is the ability to do work. Since it takes work to have no energy, there is a
large amount of negative energy.

* This is technically true for any two objects with mass, but is only significant for celestial bodies. It
takes energy to separate two bodies that are bound together with gravity.
Mechanical Energy for a Circular Orbit

Total Mechanical Energy is the sum of kinetic and potential

energies: A satellite in orbit has a large kinetic energy, but it’s
overall energy is still negative since it would take work to escape
planet’s gravity –

𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
𝐸 =𝑈+𝐾 =− + 𝑚𝑣
𝑟 2

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝐺𝑀 𝑮𝑴𝒎

→𝐸=− + →𝑬=−
𝑟 𝑟 𝟐𝒓

Example B: Matt Damon pilots a 6000 kg spaceship around Mars. Mars has a mass of 6.4x10 23 kg and a radius
of 3.4x106 m.

a) If Matt Damon orbits Mars in a circular orbit with at a distance of 6000 km above the surface of
Mars, how long would it take him to complete one orbit of Mars? Answer in hours.

107
 b) Now, Matt Damon orbits Mars in an elliptical orbit, with Mars acting as one of the foci. The farthest
point from Mar in the orbit is A and the closest is B. A is a distance of 30x10 6 m from the center of
Mars and point B is 12x106 from the center of Mars.

i. Matt Damon’s rocket has a speed of 900 m/s at point A. Calculate its total mechanical energy
at this point.

Even though Matt Damon has positive kinetic energy, his overall energy is still very negative as he is
still within Mar’s gravity well.

ii. Describe how the speed of Matt Damon’s rocket will change as it moves towards point B.
Justify your answer.

As Matt Damon flies closer to Mars, his speed will increase in order to conserve angular
momentum (gravity is also stronger closer to the planet).

iii. Calculate the speed of the rocket at point B.

Example C: A rocket is launched vertically from the surface of the Earth with an initial velocity of 10 km/s.
What maximum height does it reach, neglecting air resistance? Note that the mass of the Earth is 6×10 24 kg and
the radius of the Earth is 6.37×106 m. You may not assume that the acceleration due to gravity is a constant

This is solve using conservation of energy since kinematics cannot be used. h can be found with a solver.

108
Escape Velocity

To derive the escape velocity formula, conservation of energy will be used. For minimum
escape velocity, the final energy will be zero as the object will have escape all negative
potential energy gravity wells. When the object is launched, it has negative potential energy
and positive kinetic energy.

𝑈 +𝐾 =𝑈 +𝐾

𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
− + 𝑚𝑣 = 0
𝑟 2

𝟐𝑮𝑴
→ 𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 =
𝒓

Example D: Calculate the escape velocity for a 6000 kg spacecraft that wants to escape Earth’s gravity well.

This means an object would have to be going 11 km/s at launch to escape Earth. This is if there is no force
propelling the object while in the air.

Calculate gravitational fields inside and outside a solid shell of mass.

 The total gravitational field at a point is the vector sum of all gravitational fields of the individual
masses that produce the field. If you know the field at a point, you can calculate the gravitational force
at that point.

Example E: An object of mass m is in space at point P at a distance of D away from the center of a hollow ring
of mass M. Find the force of gravity between the 2 masses.
The y-components of gravity cancel out so only the x-component needs to
be solve for as follows:
𝑑𝐹 = cos 𝜃,
where cos 𝜃 = √ and 𝑑𝑀 = 𝜌𝑅𝑑𝜃 (Rd𝜃 is the tiny arc length)
𝑀 𝑀
→ 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝐷 𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐷
𝐹 = →𝐹 = 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋(𝐷 + 𝑅 ) √𝐷 + 𝑅 2𝜋(𝐷 + 𝑅 )
𝑮𝒎𝑴𝑫
→ 𝑭𝒙 = 𝟑
(𝑫𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 )𝟐
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 Gravitational field due to a hollow sphere.
Again, only the x-component is calculated here since y
cancels out. The sphere is separated into a bunch of
time rings of mass dM.
𝐺𝑚𝑑𝑀
𝑑𝐹 = cos 𝜙
𝑠
where 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
→ 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑀 = 𝜎(2𝜋𝑅 sin 𝜃)(𝑅𝑑𝜃)
𝑀
→ 𝑑𝑀 = (2𝜋𝑅 sin 𝜃)(𝑅𝑑𝜃)
4𝜋𝑅
→ 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑀 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝐺𝑚𝑀 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
→ 𝑑𝐹 = cos 𝜙
2𝑠
This is bombad and very scary since 𝜃, 𝜙, and s are all variables, so some math is required.

Law of cosines for 𝜙: 𝑅 = 𝑠 + 𝑟 − 2𝑠𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑠 +𝑟 −𝑅
→ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 =
2𝑠𝑟

Law of cosines for 𝜃: 𝑠 = 𝑟 + 𝑅 − 2𝑟𝑅 cos 𝜃

Differentiating: 2𝑠𝑑𝑠 = 2𝑟𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑠𝑑𝑠
→ sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 =
𝑅𝑟

This can be plugged into the original equation to get everything in terms of the variable s:
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑠 +𝑟 −𝑅
𝑑𝐹 =
2𝑠 2𝑠𝑟
𝐺𝑚𝑀(𝑠 + 𝑟 − 𝑅 )𝑑𝑠
→ 𝑑𝐹 =
4𝑠 𝑟 𝑅
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑠 +𝑟 −𝑅 𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑟 −𝑅
→𝐹= ( )𝑑𝑠 → 𝐹 = (1 + )𝑑𝑠
4𝑟 𝑅 𝑠 4𝑟 𝑅 𝑠
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑟 −𝑅 𝑟+𝑅
→𝐹= 𝑠− |
4𝑟 𝑅 𝑠 𝑟−𝑅
𝐺𝑚𝑀 𝑟 −𝑅 𝑟 −𝑅
→ 𝐹= (𝑟 + 𝑅) − − ((𝑟 − 𝑅) − )
4𝑟 𝑅 𝑟+𝑅 𝑟−𝑅
GmM
→F= (4R)
4r R
𝑮𝑴𝒎
→𝑭=
𝒓𝟐

110
  Gravitational field inside a hollow shell.

Anywhere inside a hollow shell will have gravity cancel out. Any mass attracting
the object “above” it will cancel out with a piece of mass somewhere else inside
the shell. Only mass “below” an object will attract a mass to a large body.

 Graph of Gravitational Field Starting at Earth’s Center

Since gravity field strength is only due to mass “under” an object, it will increase higher up in Earth’s crust. The
maximum value will be at the surface, after which point, g will decrease asymptotically according to 𝑔 = .

The End

AP Physics C will return in

“Electricity and Magnetism”

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