Smart Objects: The “Things” in
IoT
Module 2
Sensors are fundamental building blocks of IoT networks
Sensors are the foundational elements found in smart
objects—the “things” in the Internet of Things
Smart objects are any physical objects that contain
embedded technology to sense and/or interact with
their environment in a meaningful way by being
interconnected and enabling communication
among themselves or an external agent.
SENSORS, ACTUATORS, AND SMART OBJECTS
A sensor: It senses
More specifically, a sensor measures some physical
quantity and converts that measurement reading into a
digital representation.
That digital representation is typically passed to another
device for transformation into useful data that can be
consumed by intelligent devices or humans
Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data.
They are able to provide an extremely wide spectrum of
rich and diverse measurement data with far greater
precision than human senses
Categories
Active or passive:
Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce
an energy output and typically require an external
power supply (active) or
Whether they simply receive energy and typically require
no external power supply (passive).
Invasive or non-invasive:
Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is
part of the environment it is measuring (invasive) or
External to it (non-invasive).
Contact or no-contact:
Sensors can be categorized based on whether they
require physical contact with what they are
measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).
Absolute or relative:
Sensors can be categorized based on whether they
measure on an absolute scale (absolute) or based on
a difference with a fixed or variable reference value
(relative).
Area of application:
Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry
or vertical where they are being used.
How sensors measure:
Sensors can be categorized based on the physical
mechanism used to measure sensory input (for
example, thermoelectric, electrochemical, piezoresistive, optic, electric,
fluid mechanic, photoelastic).
What sensors measure:
Sensors can be categorized based on their applications
or what physical variables they measure.
Note that this is by no means an exhaustive list, and there
are many other classification and taxonomic schemes for
sensors, including those based on material, cost, design,
and other factors
Categorization based on what physical
phenomenon a sensor is measuring
11
Precision agriculture (smart
farming)
which uses a variety of technical advances to improve the efficiency,
sustainability, and profitability of traditional farming practices.
This includes the use of GPS and satellite aerial imagery for determining
field viability; robots for high-precision planting, harvesting, irrigation, and so
on; and real-time analytics and artificial intelligence to predict optimal crop
yield, weather impacts, and soil quality.
Among the most significant impacts of precision agriculture are those
dealing with sensor measurement of a variety of soil characteristics.
These include real- time measurement of soil quality, pH levels, salinity,
toxicity levels, moisture levels for irrigation planning, nutrient levels for
fertilization planning, and so on.
All this detailed sensor data can be analyzed to provide highly valuable
and
actionable insight to boost productivity and crop yield.
IoT Use Case: Area of precision
agriculture (smart farming)
biodegradable, passive microsensors to measure soil and crop
and conditions
.
These sensors, developed at North Dakota State University
(NDSU), can be planted directly in the soil and left in the
ground to biodegrade without any harm to soil quality.
Figure 3-1 Biodegradable Sensors Developed by NDSU for Smart Farming
Sensors in a Smart Phone
Figure 3-3 Growth and Predictions in the Number of Sensors
Actuators
Actuators are natural complements to sensors
Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically
any measurable variable in the physical world.
They convert their measurements (typically analog) into
electric signals or digital representations that can
be consumed by an intelligent agent (a device or a
human).
Actuators, on the others hand, receive some type of
control signal (commonly an electric signal or
digital command) that triggers a physical effect,
usually some type of motion, force, and so on.
Sensors provide the infORMAtion, ACTUAtors provide
the ACtion
Actuators also vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on.
Some common ways that they can be classified include the
following:
Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type
of motion they produce (for example, linear, rotary,
one/two/three- axes).
Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power
output (for example, high power, low power, micro power)
Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on
the number of stable-state outputs.
Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the
specific industry or vertical where they are used.
Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on
their energy type.
Classification based on energy
type
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS)
Interesting advances in sensor and actuator technologies is in
how they are packaged and deployed.
Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), sometimes simply
referred to as micro-machines, can integrate and combine electric
and mechanical elements, such as sensors and actuators, on a very
small (millimeter or less) scale.
One of the keys to this technology is a
microfabrication technique that is similar to what is
used for microelectronic integrated circuits.
This approach allows mass production at very low costs
The combination of tiny size, low cost, and the ability to
mass produce makes MEMS an attractive option for a huge
number of IoT applications.
MEMS devices have already been widely used in a variety
of different applications and can be found in very familiar
everyday devices.
For example, inkjet printers use micropump MEMS.
Smart phones also use MEMS technologies for things
like accelerometers and gyroscopes.
In fact, automobiles were among the first to commercially
introduce MEMS into the mass market, with airbag
accelerometers.
Figure 3-6 Torsional Ratcheting Actuator (TRA) MEMS (Courtesy Sandia National
Laboratories, SUMMiT™ Technologies, [Link]/mstc.)
Smart Objects
Smart objects are, quite simply, the building blocks of IoT.
They are what transform everyday objects into a
network of intelligent objects that are able to learn
from and interact with their environment in a
meaningful way
The real power of smart objects in IoT comes from
being networked together rather than being isolated as
standalone objects
If a sensor is a standalone device that simply
measures the humidity of the soil, it is interesting and
useful, but it isn’t revolutionary
If that same sensor is connected as part of an
intelligent network that is able to coordinate
intelligently with actuators to trigger irrigation
systems as needed based on those sensor readings, we
have something far more powerful
Extending that even further, imagine that the coordinated
sensor/actuator set is intelligently interconnected with
other sensor/actuator sets to further coordinate
ferTILIZAtion, pest control, AND so on—AND even
commUNICAte with AN intelligent BACkend to CALCULAte
crop yield potentIAL
A smart object, is a device that has, at a
minimum, the following four defining
characteristics
Processing unit:
Some type of processing unit for
Acquiring data,
Processing and analyzing sensing information
received by the sensor(s),
Coordinating control signals to any actuators, and
Controlling a variety of functions on the smart
object, including the communication and power
systems
The most common is a microcontroller because
of its small form factor, flexibility, programming
simplicity, ubiquity, low power consumption, and
low cost
Sensor(s) and/or actuator(s):
A smart object is capable of interacting with the
physical world through sensors and actuators
Communication device:
The communication unit is responsible for connecting
a smart object with other smart objects and the
outside world (via the network).
Communication devices for smart objects can be either
wired or wireless
Power source:
Smart objects have components THAt need to be powered.
The most significant power consumption usually comes from
the communICAtion unit of A SMArt object
Trends in Smart Objects
Size is decreasing
Power consumption is decreasing
Processing power is increasing
Communication capabilities are improving
Communication is being increasingly standardized
SENSOR NETWORKS
A sensor/actuator network (SANET), is a network of
sensors that sense and measure their environment
and/or actuators that act on their environment
The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET are
CAPAble of commUNICAting AND cooperAting
Effective ANd well-coorDINAted communICAtion ANd
cooperAtion is a prominent challenge, primarily because the
sensors and actuators in SANETs are diverse, heterogeneous,
and resource-constrained
SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation
capabilities.
Smart homes are a type of SANET that displAy this
coorDINAtion between distributed sensors AND ACTUAtors
For example, smart homes can have temperature sensors
that are strategically networked with heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning (HVAC) actuators.
When a sensor detects a specified temperature, this CAn
trigger AN ACtuAtor to TAKE ACtion ANd heAt or cool the
home AS needed.
Advantages and disadvantages that a wireless-based
solution offers:
Advantages:
Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme
environments or hard-to-reach places)
Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
Lower implementation costs
Easier long-term maintenance
Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes
Disadvantages:
Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)
Typically lower transmission speeds
Greater level of impact/influence by environment
Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs)
Wireless sensor networks are MAde up of wirelessly
connected SMARt objects, which are sometimes referred
to as motes.
The fact that there is no infrastructure to
consider with WSNs is surely a powerful advantage
for flexible
deployments, but there ARe A VARIETY of design
constrAINts to consider with these wirelessly connected
SMArt objects
The following are some of the most significant
limitations of the smart objects in WSNs:
Limited processing power
Limited memory
Lossy communication
Limited transmission speeds
Limited power
Note
Smart objects with limited processing, memory, power,
and so on are often referred to as constrAINed nodes.
These limitations greatly influence how WSNs are
designed, deployed, and utilized.
The fact that individual sensor nodes are typically so
limited is a reason that they are often deployed in very
large numbers.
As the cost of sensor nodes continues to decline, the
ability to deploy highly redundant sensors becomes
increasingly feasible.
Because many sensors are very inexpensive and
correspondingly inaccurate, the ability to deploy smart
objects redundantly allows for increased
accuracy
Such large numbers of sensors permit the introduction
of hierarchies of smart objects.
Such a hierarchy provides, among other
organizational advantages, the Ability to AggregAte
simiLAr sensor rEAdings from sensor nodes THAt
ARe in close proximity to EAch other
. Figure 3-9 shows an example of such a data aggregation function
in a WSN where temperAture rEADINGS from A loGICAL
grouping of temperAture sensors ARe AggregAted AS AN
AVerAge temperAture rEADING.
Figure 3-9 Data Aggregation in Wireless Sensor Networks
These data aggregation techniques are helpful in reducing
the AMOUnt of overALL trAFFic (AND energy) inWSNs with
very large numbers of deployed smart objects.
This data aggregation at the network edges is where fog
AND mist computing are critical IoT architectural elements
needed to deliver the scale and performance required by so
many IoT use cases
Wirelessly connected smart objects generally have one of the
following two communication patterns:
Event-driven:
Transmission of sensory information is triggered only when a smart
object detects a PARTICULAR event or predetermined threshold.
Periodic:
TrANSMISSion of sensory infORMAtion occurs only At periodic
intervALS.
The decision of which of these communication schemes is used
depends greatly on the specific application
For eXAMPLE: MEDICAL use CASES
For example, in some medical use cases, sensors
periodicALly send postoperAtive viTAls, such
AS temperAture or blood pressure rEAdings. In
other medical use cases, the SAMe blood
pressure or temperAture rEAdings ARe triggered
to be sent only when cerTAIN critiCAlly low or
high rEAdings ARe meASURed.
Communication Protocols for
Wireless Sensor Networks
There are literally thousands of different types of sensors and actuators.
WSNs are becoming increasingly heterogeneous, more sophisticated
with
interactions.
Any communication protocol must be able to scale to a large
number of nodes.
Likewise, when selecting a communication protocol, you must
carefully take into account the requirements of the specific
application and consider any trade-offs the communication
protocol offers between power consumption, MAXIMum
trANSMISsion speed, rANge, tolerANCE for PAcket loss,
topology OPTIMIZAtion, security, ANd so on
They must also enable, as needed, the overlay of autonomous
techniques (for example, self-organization, self-healing, self-
configuration)
Wireless sensor networks interact with their environment. Sensors
often produce large amounts of sensing and measurement data that
needs to be processed. This data can be processed locally by
the nodes of a WSN or ACross zero or more hierARCHICAL levels
in IoT networks.
Communication protocols need to facilitate routing and
message handling for this data flow between sensor
nodes as well as from sensor nodes to optionAL gAtewAys, edge
compute, or centrALIZed cloud compute
standardization of communication protocols is
a complicated task.
While there isn’t a single protocol solution, there is
beginning to be some clear market convergence around
several key communication protocols.
Connecting Smart Objects
IoT devices and sensors must be connected to the
network for their data to be utilized.
In addition to the wide range of sensors, actuators, and
smart objects that make up IoT, there are also a number of
different protocols used to connect them
COMMUNICATIONS CRITERIA
The characteristics and attributes you should consider
when selecting and dealing with connecting smart
objects
Range
Frequency Bands:
Power Consumption:
Topology
Constrained Devices:
Constrained-Node Networks:
Range
How far does the signal need to be propagated?
That is, what will be the area of coverage for a
selected wireless technology?
Should indoor versus outdoor deployments be differentiated?
Short range:
The classical wired example is a serial cable.
Wireless short-range technologies are often considered
as an alternative to a serial cable, supporting tens of
meters of maximum distance between two devices.
Examples of short-range wireless technologies are IEEE
802.15.1 Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.7 Visible Light
Communications (VLC)
Medium range:
This range is the MAIN CAtegory of IoT access
technologies.
In the range of tens to hundreds of meters,
many specifications and implementations are
available.
The maximum distance is generally less tHAN 1
mile between two devices
Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include
IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.15.4, and 802.15.4g
WPAN.
Wired technologies such as IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and
IEEE 1901.2 Narrowband Power Line Communications
(PLC)
Long range:
DISTANCES grEAter THAN 1 mile between two devices
require long-range technologies.
Wireless eXAMPLES are CELLULAr (2G, 3G, 4G) and
some applications of outdoor IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi and
Low-Power Wide-Area (LPWA) technologies.
LPWA communications have the ability to communicate over a
large area without consuming much power. These
technologies are therefore IDEAL for BAttery-powered IoT
sensors
Frequency Bands
Radio spectrum is regulated by countries and/or
organizations, such as the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
These groups define the regulations and transmission
requirements for various frequency bands
For example, portions of the spectrum are ALLOCAted to
types of telecommUNICAtions such AS rADIO, television,
MILITARy, AND so on.
Focusing on IoT access technologies, the frequency
bands leveraged by wireless communications are
split between licensed and unlicensed bands.
Licensed spectrum is generALLy APPLICAble to IoT
long- rANge ACcess technologies
In order to utilize licensed spectrum, users must
subscribe to services when connecting their IoT
devices
In exchange for the subscription fee, the network
operator can guarantee the exclusivity of the frequency
usage over the target area and can therefore sell a
better guarantee of service.
The ITU has also defined unlicensed spectrum for the
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) portions of the
radio bands.
These frequencies are used in many communications
technologies for short-range devices (SRDs).
Unlicensed MEANS that no guarantees or protections
are offered in the ISM bands for device
communications
ISM bands for IoT access
2.4 GHz band as used by IEEE 802.11b/g/n Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN
Unlicensed spectrum is usually simpler to deploy
than licensed because it does not require a service
provider.
However, it can suffer from more interference because
other devices may be competing for the same
frequency in a specific area
The frequency of transmission directly impacts how a
signal propagates and its practical maximum range.
Power Consumption
Powered nodes and battery-powered nodes
A powered node has a direct connection to a power
source, and communications are usually not limited
by power consumption criteria.
However, ease of deployment of powered nodes is
limited by the availability of a power source,
which makes mobility more complex
Battery-powered nodes bring much more flexibility
to IoT devices.
These nodes are often CLASsified by the required
lifetimes of their BAtteries.
For BAttery-powered nodes, IoT wireless ACcess
technologies must ADdress the needs of low power
consumption And connectivity
A new wireless environment known as Low-Power
Wide- Area (LPWA)
Battery-powered nodes are often placed in a “sleep mode”
to preserve battery life when not transmitting
Wired IoT access technologies consisting of powered
nodes are not exempt from power optimization
Topology
Among the access technologies available for connecting IoT
devices, three main topology schemes are dominant: star,
mesh, and peer-to-peer
For long-range and short-range technologies, a star topology
is prevalent
Star topologies utilize a single central base station or
controller to allow communications with endpoints
For medium-range technologies, a star, peer-to-peer, or
mesh topology is common
Peer-to-peer topologies allow any device to communicate
with any other device as long as they are in range of
each other
Ex: Indoor Wi-Fi deployments and Outdoor Wi-Fi deployments
Constrained Devices
Constrained-Node Networks
IEEE 802.15.4 and 802.15.4g RF, IEEE 1901.2a PLC,
LPWA, and IEEE 802.11ah access technologies
Constrained-node networks are often referred to
as low-power and lossy networks (LLNs).
Low power – battery powered constraints
Lossy network -- network performance may suffer
from interference and variability due to harsh
radio environments
Protocols that can be used for constrained-node
networks must be evaluated in the context of the
following characteristics: DATA rAte ANd throughput,
LAtency and determinism, and overHEAD AND
PAYLOAD.
Data Rate and Throughput
The data rates available from IoT access technologies
range from 100 bps with protocols such as Sigfox to
tens of megabits per second with technologies such
as LTE and IEEE 802.11ac
However, the ActuAl throughput is less
Therefore, understanding the bandwidth requirements of
a particular technology, its applicability to given use
cases, the capacity planning rules, and the expected real
throughput are important for proper network design and
successful production deployment
Technologies not particularly designed for IoT, such as
cellular and Wi-Fi, match up well to IoT applications
with high bandwidth requirements
For example, nodes involved with video analytics have a
need for high data rates, IoT endpoints are not
constrained in terms of computing or network
bandwidth, the design guidelines tend to focus on
application requirements, such as latency and
determinism
Short-range technologies can also provide medium to
high data rates that have enough throughput to connect
a few endpoints.
For example, Bluetooth sensors that are now appearing
on connected wearables fall into this category.
In this case, the solutions focus more on footprint and
battery lifetime than on data rate.
The IoT access technologies developed for constrained nodes
are optimized for low power consumption, but they are
also limited in terms of data rate
Another characteristic of IoT devices is that a
majority of them initiate the communication.
Upstream traffic toward an application server is usually
more common than downstream traffic from the
application server.
Understanding this behavior also helps when deploying
an IoT access technology, such as cellular, that is
asymmetrical because the upstream bandwidth must be
considered a key parameter for profiling the network
capacity
Latency and Determinism
Latency expectations of IoT applications should be
known when selecting an access technology
This is particularly true for wireless networks,
where PACket loss AND retrANsmissions due to
interference, collisions, ANd noise ARe noRMAL
BEHAVIOrs
On constrained networks, latency may range from
a few milliseconds to seconds, and applications and
protocol stacks must cope with these wide-ranging
values
Overhead and Payload
When considering constrained access network technologies,
it is important to review the MAC payload size
characteristics required by applications
You should be aware of any requirements for IP.
The minimum IPv6 MTU size is expected to be
1280 bytes.
Therefore, the fragmentation of the IPv6 payload
has to be taken into account by link layer access
protocols with smaller MTUs