Rectifier

In a large number of electronic circuits, we require DC voltage for

operation. We can easily convert the AC voltage or AC current into DC
voltage or DC current by using a device called P-N junction diode.

One of the most important applications of a P-N junction diode is the

rectification of Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). A P-N
junction diode allows electric current in only forward bias condition and
blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple words, a diode
allows electric current in one direction. This unique property of the diode
allows it to acts like a rectifier.

Rectifier definition

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an Alternating Current (AC)

into a Direct Current (DC) by using one or more P-N junction diodes.

What is a rectifier?

When the voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode in such a way that
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
n-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be forward biased.

When this forward bias voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode, a large
number of free electrons (majority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor
experience a repulsive force from the negative terminal of the battery
similarly a large number of holes (majority carriers) in the p-type
semiconductor experience a repulsive force from the positive terminal of
the battery.

As a result, the free electrons in the n-type semiconductor start moving

from n-side to p-side similarly the holes in the p-type semiconductor start
moving from p-side to n-side.

We know that electric current means the flow of charge carriers (free
electrons and holes). Therefore, the flow of electrons from n-side to p-side
and the flow of holes from p-side to n-side conduct electric current. The
majority carriers produce the electric current in forward bias condition. So
the electric current produced in forward bias condition is also known as
majority current.

When the voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode in such a way that
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type
semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
p-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be reverse biased.
When this reverse bias voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode, a large
number of free electrons (majority carriers) in the n-type semiconductor
experience an attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery
similarly a large number of holes (majority carriers) in the p-type
semiconductor experience an attractive force from the negative terminal of
the battery.

As a result, the free electrons (majority carriers) in the n-type

semiconductor moves away from the P-N junction and attracted to the
positive terminal of the battery similarly the holes (majority carriers) in the
p-type semiconductor moves away from the P-N junction and attracted to
the negative terminal of the battery.

Therefore, the electric current flow does not occur across the P-N junction.
However, the minority carriers (free electrons) in the p-type semiconductor
experience a repulsive force from the negative terminal of the battery
similarly the minority carriers (holes) in the n-type semiconductor
experience a repulsive force from the positive terminal of the battery.
As a result, the minority carriers free electrons in the p-type semiconductor
and the minority carriers holes in the n-type semiconductor starts flowing
across the junction. Thus, electric current is produced in the reverse bias
diode due to the minority carriers. However, the electric current produced
by the minority carriers is very small. So the minority carrier current in the
reverse bias condition is neglected.

Thus, the P-N junction diode allows electric current in forward bias
condition and blocks electric current in reverse bias condition. In simple
words, a P-N junction diode allows electric current in only one direction.
This unique property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.

The forward bias and reverse bias voltage applied to the diode is nothing
but a DC voltage. A DC voltage produces a current which always flows in
one direction (either forward direction or backward direction).

But an AC voltage produces a current which always reverses its direction

many times a second (forward to backward and backward to forward).

We have observed how a diode behaves when DC voltage (forward bias

voltage and reverse bias voltage) is applied to it. Now let’s take look at a
P-N junction diode when AC voltage is applied to it.

The AC voltage or AC current is often represented by a sinusoidal

waveform whereas the DC current is represented by a straight horizontal
line.

In the sinusoidal waveform, the upper half cycle represents the positive half
cycle and the lower half cycle represents the negative half cycle.

The positive half cycle of the AC voltage is analogous to the forward bias
DC voltage and the negative half cycle of the AC voltage is analogous to
the reverse bias DC voltage.
The alternating current starts from zero and grows to peak forward current
or peak positive current. The positive peak of the sinusoidal waveform
represents the maximum or peak forward current. After reaching the peak
forward current, it starts decreasing and reaches to zero.

After a short period, the alternating current starts increasing in the reverse
or negative direction and grows to peak reverse current or peak negative
current. The negative peak of the sinusoidal waveform represents the
maximum or peak reverse current. After reaching the peak reverse current,
it starts decreasing and reaches to zero. Likewise, the alternating current
continuously changes its direction in a short period.

When AC voltage or AC current is applied across the P-N junction diode,

during the positive half cycle the diode is forward biased and allows electric
current through it. However, when the AC current reverses its direction to
negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and does not allow electric
current through it. In simple words, during the positive half cycle, the diode
allows current and during the negative half cycle, the diode blocks current.
Thus, electric current flows through the diode only during the positive half
cycle of the AC current.

This current which flows across the diode is nothing but a DC current.
Thus, the P-N junction diode acts like a rectifier by converting the AC
current into DC current.
However, the DC current produced by a basic rectifier (half wave rectifier)
is not a pure DC current. It is a pulsating DC current.

The pulsating direct current is a type of DC current whose value changes

over a short period.

The pulsating DC current starts from zero and grows to the maximum
forward current (peak level), and decreases to zero. However, the pulsating
DC current does not change its direction periodically like AC current.

The pulsating DC current always flows in one direction like the pure DC
current. However, the value of pulsating DC current or pulsating DC voltage
slightly changes over a given period. The electric current produced by
batteries, power supplies, and solar panels is a pure DC current.

By using the combination of components such as capacitors, inductors, and

resistors in the circuit, we can achieve the smoothening of pulsating DC to
pure DC.
Types of rectifiers

The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types:

●​ Half wave rectifier

●​ Full wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier

As the name suggests, the half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which
converts half of the AC input signal (positive half cycle) into pulsating DC
output signal and the remaining half signal (negative half cycle) is blocked
or lost. In half wave rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.

Full wave rectifier

The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC input
signal (positive half cycle and negative half cycle) to pulsating DC output
signal. Unlike the half wave rectifier, the input signal is not wasted in full
wave rectifier. The efficiency of full wave rectifier is high as compared to the
half wave rectifier.

Rectifier practical example

In our houses, almost all the electronic appliances use AC current.

However, some electronic appliances such as laptops or notebook
computers convert this AC current into DC current before they consume the
power.

The AC adapter of the laptop connected to the AC source converts the high
AC voltage or high AC current into low DC voltage or low DC current. This
low DC current is supplied to the laptop battery and this is what we called
laptop charging. However, the laptop will not turn on unless you manually
turned it on by pressing the on button. When you press the laptop "power
on" button, the laptop battery starts supplying DC current.
We have forgotten an important step; how the AC adapters convert high AC
voltage or high AC current into low DC voltage or low DC current.

The AC adapters consist of all the essential components needed for AC to

DC conversion.

These components are a transformer, capacitor, and several diodes. Out of

these components, the main key component is a diode which converts the
alternating current into direct current.

The transformer in the AC adapter reduces the high AC voltage to a low AC

voltage.

The rectifier (made up of diodes) converts this low AC voltage or AC

current into low DC voltage or DC current. However, the converted current
is not pure DC current. It is a pulsating DC current.

The capacitor filters this pulsating DC current to pure DC current.

 Half wave Rectifier
A rectifier is nothing but a simple diode or group of diodes which converts
the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC).

We know that a diode allows electric current in one direction and blocks
electric current in another direction. We are using this principle to construct
various types of rectifiers.

Rectifiers are classified into different types based on the number of diodes
used in the circuit or arrangement of diodes in the circuit. The basic types
of rectifiers are: half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.

Let's take a look at the half wave rectifier....

Half wave rectifier definition

A half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the positive half
cycle (positive current) of the input signal into pulsating DC (Direct Current)
output signal.
or

A half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which allows only half cycle (either
positive half cycle or negative half cycle) of the input AC signal while the
another half cycle is blocked.

For example, if the positive half cycle is allowed then the negative half
cycle is blocked. Similarly, if the negative half cycle is allowed then the
positive half cycle is blocked. However, a half wave rectifier will not allow
both positive and negative half cycles at the same time.

Therefore, the half cycle (either positive or negative) of the input signal is
wasted.

What is half wave rectifier?

The half wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier. We use only a
single diode to construct the half wave rectifier.

The half wave rectifier is made up of an AC source, transformer

(step-down), diode, and resistor (load). The diode is placed between the
transformer and resistor (load).

AC source

The AC source supplies Alternating Current to the circuit. The alternating

current is often represented by a sinusoidal waveform.

Transformer
Transformer is a device which reduces or increases the AC voltage. The
step-down transformer reduces the AC voltage from high to low whereas
the step-up transformer increases the AC voltage from low to high. In half
wave rectifier, we generally use a step-down transformer because the
voltage needed for the diode is very small. Applying a large AC voltage
without using transformer will permanently destroy the diode. So we use
step-down transformer in half wave rectifier. However, in some cases, we
use a step-up transformer.

In the step-down transformer, the primary winding has more turns than the
secondary winding. So the step-down transformer reduces the voltage from
primary winding to secondary winding.

Diode

A diode is a two terminal device that allows electric current in one direction
and blocks electric current in another direction.

Resistor

A resistor is an electronic component that restricts the current flow to a

certain level.

Half wave rectifier operation

Positive half wave rectifier

When high AC voltage (60 Hz) is applied, the step-down transformer

reduces this high voltage into low voltage. Thus, a low voltage is produced
at the secondary winding of the transformer. The low voltage produced at
the secondary winding of the transformer is called secondary voltage (VS).
The AC voltage or AC signal applied to the transformer is nothing but an
input AC signal or input AC voltage.

The low AC voltage produced by the step-down transformer is directly

applied to the diode.
When low AC voltage is applied to the diode (D), during the positive half
cycle of the signal, the diode is forward biased and allows electric current
whereas, during the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and
blocks electric current. In simple words, the diode allows the positive
half-cycle of the input AC signal and blocks the negative half-cycle of the
input AC signal.

The positive half-cycle of the input AC signal or AC voltage applied to the

diode is analogous to the forward DC voltage applied to the p-n junction
diode similarly the negative half-cycle of the input AC signal applied to the
diode is analogous to the reverse DC voltage applied to the p-n junction
diode.

We know that diode allows electric current when it is forward biased and
blocks electric current when it is reverse biased. Similarly, in an AC circuit,
the diode allows electric current during the positive half cycle (forward
biased) and blocks electric current during the negative half cycle (reverse
biased).
The positive half wave rectifier does not completely block the negative half
cycles. It allows a small portion of negative half cycles or small negative
current. This current is produced by the minority carriers in the diode.

The current produced by the minority carriers is very small. So it is

neglected. We can’t visually see the small portion of negative half cycles at
the output.

In an ideal diode, the negative half cycles or negative current is zero.

The resistor placed at the output consumes the DC current generated by

the diode. Hence, the resistor is also known as an electrical load. The
output DC voltage or DC current is measured across the load resistor RL.

The electrical load is nothing but an electrical component of a circuit that

consumes electric current. In half wave rectifier, the resistor consumes the
DC current generated by the diode. So the resistor in half wave rectifier is
known as a load.

Sometimes, the load is also refers to the power consumed by the circuit.

The load resistors are used in half wave rectifiers to restrict or block the
unusual excess DC current produced by the diode.

Thus, the half wave rectifier allows positive half cycles and blocks negative
half cycles. The half wave rectifier which allows positive half cycles and
blocks negative half cycles is called a positive half wave rectifier. The
output DC current or DC signal produced by a positive half wave rectifier is
a series of positive half cycles or positive sinusoidal pulses.

Now let’s take a look at the negative half wave rectifier........

Negative half wave rectifier

The construction and working of negative half wave rectifier is almost

similar to the positive half wave rectifier. The only thing we change here is
the direction of a diode.
When AC voltage is applied, the step-down transformer reduces the high
voltage to low voltage. This low voltage is applied to the diode.

Unlike the positive half wave rectifier, the negative half wave rectifier allows
electric current during the negative half-cycle of input AC signal and blocks
electric current during the positive half-cycle of the input AC signal.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased and during the
positive half cycle the diode is reverse biased, so the negative half wave
rectifier allows electric current only during the negative half cycle.

Thus, the negative half wave rectifier allows negative half cycles and blocks
positive half cycles.

The negative half wave rectifier does not completely block the positive half
cycles. It allows a small portion of positive half cycles or small positive
current. This current is produced by the minority carriers in the diode.

The current produced by the minority carriers is very small. So it is

neglected. We can’t visually see this small positive half cycles at the output.

In an ideal diode, the positive half cycle or positive current is zero.

The DC current or DC voltage produced by the negative half wave rectifier

is measured across the load resistor RL. The output DC current or DC
signal produced by a negative half wave rectifier is a series of negative half
cycles or negative sinusoidal pulses.
Thus, a negative half wave rectifier produces a series of negative
sinusoidal pulses.

In a perfect or ideal diode, the positive half cycle or negative half cycle at
the output is exactly same as the input positive half cycle or negative half
cycle. However, in practice, the positive half cycle or negative half cycle at
the output is slightly different from the input positive half cycle or negative
half cycle. But this difference is negligible. So we can’t see the difference
with our eyes.

Thus, the half wave rectifier produces a series of positive sinusoidal pulses
or negative sinusoidal pulses. This series of positive pulses or negative
pulses is not a pure direct current. It is a pulsating direct current.

The pulsating direct current changes its value over a short period of time.
But our aim is to produce a direct current which does not change its value
over a short period of time. Therefore, the pulsating direct current is not
much useful.

Advantages of half wave rectifier

●​ We use very few components to construct the half wave rectifier. So

the cost is very low.
●​ Easy to construct

Disadvantages of half wave rectifier

●​ Power loss

The half wave rectifier either allows the positive half cycle or negative half
cycle. So the remaining half cycle is wasted. Approximately half of the
applied voltage is wasted in half wave rectifier.

●​ Pulsating direct current

The direct current produced by the half wave rectifier is not a pure direct
current; it is a pulsating direct current which is not much useful.

●​ Produces low output voltage.

Full wave rectifier

The process of converting the AC current into DC current is called
rectification. Rectification can be achieved by using a single diode or group
of diodes. These diodes which convert the AC current into DC current are
called rectifiers.

Rectifiers are generally classified into two types: half wave rectifier and full
wave rectifier.

A half wave rectifier uses only a single diode to convert AC to DC. So it is

very easy to construct the half wave rectifier. However, a single diode in
half wave rectifier only allows either a positive half cycle or a negative half
cycle of the input AC signal and the remaining half cycle of the input AC
signal is blocked. As a result, a large amount of power is wasted.
Furthermore, the half wave rectifiers are not suitable in the applications
which need a steady and smooth DC voltage. So the half wave rectifiers
are not efficient AC to DC converters.

We can easily overcome this drawback by using another type of rectifier

known as a full wave rectifier. The full wave rectifier has some basic
advantages over the half wave rectifier. The average DC output voltage
produced by the full wave rectifier is higher than the half wave rectifier.
Furthermore, the DC output signal of the full wave rectifier has fewer
ripples than the half wave rectifier. As a result, we get a smoother output
DC voltage.

Let’s take a look at full wave rectifier………..

Full wave rectifier definition

A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts both half cycles of
the AC signal into pulsating DC signal.

As shown in the above figure, the full wave rectifier converts both positive
and negative half cycles of the input AC signal into output pulsating DC
signal.

The full wave rectifier is further classified into two types: center tapped full
wave rectifier and full wave bridge rectifier.

In this tutorial, center tapped full wave rectifier is explained.

Before going to the working of a center tapped full wave rectifier, let’s first
take a look at the center tapped transformer. Because the center tapped
transformer plays a key role in the center tapped full wave rectifier.

Center tapped transformer

When an additional wire is connected across the exact middle of the

secondary winding of a transformer, it is known as a center tapped
transformer.
The wire is adjusted in such a way that it falls in the exact middle point of
the secondary winding. So the wire is exactly at zero volts of the AC signal.
This wire is known as the center tap.

The center tapped transformer works almost similar to a normal

transformer. Like a normal transformer, the center tapped transformer also
increases or reduces the AC voltage. However, a center tapped
transformer has another important feature. That is the secondary winding of
the center tapped transformer divides the input AC current or AC signal
(VP) into two parts.
The upper part of the secondary winding produces a positive voltage V1
and the lower part of the secondary winding produces a negative voltage
V2. When we combine these two voltages at output load, we get a complete
AC signal.

I.e. VTotal = V1 + V2

The voltages V1 and V2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

That is the voltages (V1 and V2 ) produced by the upper part and lower part
of the secondary winding are 180 degrees out of phase with each other.
However, by using a full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer, we
can produce the voltages that are in phase with each other. In simple
words, by using a full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer, we can
produce a current that flows only in single direction.

What is center tapped full wave rectifier

A center tapped full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which uses a center
tapped transformer and two diodes to convert the complete AC signal into
DC signal.

The center tapped full wave rectifier is made up of an AC source, a center

tapped transformer, two diodes, and a load resistor.
The AC source is connected to the primary winding of the center tapped
transformer. A center tap (additional wire) connected at the exact middle of
the the secondary winding divides the input voltage into two parts.

The upper part of the secondary winding is connected to the diode D1 and
the lower part of the secondary winding is connected to the diode D2. Both
diode D1 and diode D2 are connected to a common load RL with the help of
a center tap transformer. The center tap is generally considered as the
ground point or the zero voltage reference point.

How center tapped full wave rectifier works

The center tapped full wave rectifier uses a center tapped transformer to
convert the input AC voltage into output DC voltage.

When input AC voltage is applied, the secondary winding of the center

tapped transformer divides this input AC voltage into two parts: positive and
negative.

During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become
positive, terminal B become negative and center tap is grounded (zero
volts). The positive terminal A is connected to the p-side of the diode D1
and the negative terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode D1. So
the diode D1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle and allows
electric current through it.

On the other hand, the negative terminal B is connected to the p-side of the
diode D2 and the positive terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode
D2. So the diode D2 is reverse biased during the positive half cycle and
does not allow electric current through it.

The diode D1 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced
at the load RL will return to the secondary winding through a center tap.

During the positive half cycle, current flows only in the upper part of the
circuit while the lower part of the circuit carry no current to the load
because the diode D2 is reverse biased. Thus, during the positive half cycle
of the input AC signal, only diode D1 allows electric current while diode D2
does not allow electric current.

During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, terminal A become
negative, terminal B become positive and center tap is grounded (zero
volts). The negative terminal A is connected to the p-side of the diode D1
and the positive terminal B is connected to the n-side of the diode D1. So
the diode D1 is reverse biased during the negative half cycle and does not
allow electric current through it.

On the other hand, the positive terminal B is connected to the p-side of the
diode D2 and the negative terminal A is connected to the n-side of the diode
D2. So the diode D2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle and
allows electric current through it.

The diode D2 supplies DC current to the load RL. The DC current produced
at the load RL will return to the secondary winding through a center tap.

During the negative half cycle, current flows only in the lower part of the
circuit while the upper part of the circuit carry no current to the load
because the diode D1 is reverse biased. Thus, during the negative half
cycle of the input AC signal, only diode D2 allows electric current while
diode D1 does not allow electric current.

Thus, the diode D1 allows electric current during the positive half cycle and
diode D2 allows electric current during the negative half cycle of the input
AC signal. As a result, both half cycles (positive and negative) of the input
AC signal are allowed. So the output DC voltage is almost equal to the
input AC voltage.

A small voltage is wasted at the diode D1 and diode D2 to make them

conduct. However, this voltage is very small as compared to the voltage
appeared at the output. So this voltage is neglected.

The diodes D1 and D2 are commonly connected to the load RL. So the load
current is the sum of individual diode currents.

We know that a diode allows electric current in only one direction. From the
above diagram, we can see that both the diodes D1 and D2 are allowing
current in the same direction.

We know that a current that flows in only single direction is called a direct
current. So the resultant current at the output (load) is a direct current (DC).
However, the direct current appeared at the output is not a pure direct
current but a pulsating direct current.

The value of the pulsating direct current changes with respect to time. This
is due to the ripples in the output signal. These ripples can be reduced by
using filters such as capacitor and inductor.
The average output DC voltage across the load resistor is double that of
the single half wave rectifier circuit.

Output waveforms of full wave rectifier

The output waveforms of the full wave rectifier is shown in the below figure.

The first waveform represents an input AC signal. The second

waveform and third waveform represents the DC signals or DC
current produced by diode D1 and diode D2. The last waveform
represents the total output DC current produced by diodes D1and D2.
From the above waveforms, we can conclude that the output current
produced at the load resistor is not a pure DC but a pulsating DC.

Advantages of full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer

High rectifier efficiency

Full wave rectifier has high rectifier efficiency than the half wave rectifier.
That means the full wave rectifier converts AC to DC more efficiently than
the half wave rectifier.

Low power loss

In a half wave rectifier, only half cycle (positive or negative half cycle) is
allowed and the remaining half cycle is blocked. As a result, more than half
of the voltage is wasted. But in full wave rectifier, both half cycles (positive
and negative half cycles) are allowed at the same time. So no signal is
wasted in a full wave rectifier.

Low ripples

The output DC signal in full wave rectifier has fewer ripples than the half
wave rectifier.

Disadvantages of full wave rectifier with center tapped transformer

High cost

The center tapped transformers are expensive and occupy a large space.

The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full
wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This
type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected
in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single
secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and
the load to the other side as shown below.
The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half
cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased.
The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

The Negative Half-cycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage
developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous
two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load
is 0.637Vmax.

Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes
instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops
( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is
now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a
60Hz supply.)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge
rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a
range of different voltage and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a
PCB circuit board or be connected by spade connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with one
corner cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest to the
corner is the positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the opposite
(diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The other two
connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a transformer
secondary winding.
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