Structural materials

Structural materials are materials used or studied primarily for their mechanical properties,as
opposed to their electronic, magnetic, chemical,or optical characteristics. This can include a
materials response to an applied force, whether this response is elastic or plastic, it's hardness,
and it's strength.
This area focuses on the relationship between the chemical and physical structure of materials
and their properties and performance. Regardless of the material class metallic, ceramic, polymer
or composite,an understanding of the structure-property relationships provide a scientific basis
for developing engineering materials for advanced applications.
Fundamentals and applied research in this area respond to an ever increasing demand for
improved or better characterized materials.
Structural Ceramics
Ceramics which serve as a structural member of the device, often being under mechanical
loading, are classified under structural ceramics.
These ceramics demonstrate excellent mechanical properties with good thermodynamic stability
under demanding conditions such as erosive, corrosive or high temperature environments. The
strong bond strength in these ceramics allow them to be employed in several applications such as
tiles for aerospace vehicles, thermal barrier coatings for gas turbines, tribological applications
such as mineral processing unit, cutting tools for machining, abrasives for polishing and grinding
etc. The fundamental research in this area involves understanding the effect of processing
parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties of ceramic materials, testing the
performance of ceramics under working environment etc.
Properties
Structural ceramics have excellent strength, hardness, insulation, thermal conductivity, high
temperature resistance, oxidation resistance, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, high
temperature strength and other characteristics. It can exhibit high stability and excellent
mechanical properties under very harsh environmental or engineering application conditions.
The main materials of structural ceramics are alumina ceramics (Al 2O3), silicon nitride ceramics
(Si3N4), silicon carbide ceramics (SiC), and hexagon boron nitride ceramics (BN).
Advanced structural ceramics, including oxide-, carbide-, nitride- and boride-based systems, are
characterized by high strength, stiffness, hardness, corrosion resistance, and durability. Such
ceramics retain these properties at high temperatures, making them ideal for a wide range of
demanding applications, including engine components for subsonic aircraft (combustor liners,
exhaust-washed structures, high temperature ducts, heat exchangers, and nacelle insulation) and
airframe and propulsion systems for high-speed vehicles. The primary benefit of structural
ceramic materials is the ability to withstand higher temperatures, which improves propulsion
system efficiency, increases lifetime, enables.

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Potential Applications
Advanced structural ceramics are being used or have the potential to be used in a large variety of
applications. Some of the primary application areas are listed in Table 1. This is not intended as a
complete list, but rather a sampling of some of the applications with the greatest potential and/or
the greatest interest. The number of potential applications is essentially infinite which is not
surprising considering the tremendous number of different “structural” products made from
traditional materials (metals, plastics, and fused quartz). Thus, the ceramic manufacturer must
have the versatility to produce parts of various shapes and sizes, as well as various quantities.
This capability, combined with some of the inherent features of processing advanced structural
ceramics, make these materials inherently expensive. Only under the best set of conditions can
advanced structural ceramics compete with traditional materials. Two examples of existing
markets in which advanced structural ceramics are competing effectively include cutting tool
inserts and mechanical seal rings.
Table 1. Potential uses for advanced structural ceramic components.
Use for components Example components Valuable properties
Liners for the combustion Low thermal
Adiabatic diesel engines chamber Cam roller followers conductivity
resistance
Wear

Advanced gas turbine Rotors, stators, shrouds High-temperature

engines strength

Automotive engines Valves, valve guides Wear resistance Low

Turbocharger rotors inertia

Aerospace systems Seal rings in the auxiliary Wear resistance

power unit
High-temperature
Heat exchangers Tubes strength, chemical
inertness
Manufacturing of silicon- Plasma etch domes and rings High corrosion and
based electronic devices erosion resistance
Chemical vapor deposition High corrosion and
domes erosion resistance

Medical products Balls and sockets for hip Wear resistance,

implants chemical inertness

Dental implants Biologically compatible,

reactive

Metal machining Cutting tools inserts Wear resistance,

chemical inertness

Military devices Rotors and nozzles for Light weight, high-

missiles temperature strength
Bearings Wear resistance

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Limitations
Structural ceramics are superior to metallic materials in their high-temperature strength and
critical heat-proof temperature. Structural ceramics are leading candidate materials for high-
temperature applications such as components in gas turbines and fusion reactors. However,
compared with metallic materials, ceramics exhibit lower fracture toughness; thus they are more
sensitive to flaws such as pores and cracks. The reliability of structural ceramics in machinery is
therefore limited by the following three problems:
 Cracks occur during machining (e.g. grinding and polishing), which considerably
decrease component reliability. In order to prevent this, precise polishing is required in
the final stage, which is time-consuming and lowers the fabrication efficiency while
raising the fabrication cost.
 In particular, cracks about 10 μm in depth affect reliability. Nondestructive inspection
technologies for detecting cracks of depth 100 μm are yet to be developed
 Owing to a variety of causes, cracks may occur in the components during their use at
higher temperatures.
Four technological approaches have been pursued to overcome these problems:
 Improve the fracture toughness of the material by microstructure control and fiber
reinforcement.
 Conduct a nondestructive inspection before service, and detect and repair any dangerous
cracks found.
 Conduct a proof test to prevent the use of a low-reliability member.
 Introduce self-crack-healing ability into the ceramic, so that all dangerous cracks can be
healed.
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide ceramic (SiC) is an advanced ceramic material containing silicon and carbon. It
is a nonoxide ceramic and is used in a wide range of products that must perform in thermally
(high heat and heat shock) and mechanically demanding applications. It is employed in both
abrasives and wear-resistant parts for its hardness; in refractories and ceramics for its resistance
to heat and low thermal expansion; and in electronics for its thermal conductivity and other
properties. The only materials harder than SiC are boron carbide and diamond.
With the rapid development of modern national defense, nuclear energy and space technology,
automobile industry, and marine engineering, requirements for materials are increasing. It is
urgent to develop all kinds of new high-performance structural materials.
Silicon carbide ceramic materials have many excellent features such as high-temperature
strength, good wear resistance, small thermal expansion coefficient, high hardness, thermal
shock, chemical corrosion resistance, and etc. Therefore, it is widely used in automobile,
mechanical and chemical industry, environmental protection, space technology, information
electronics, energy and other fields. Silicon carbide has become an irreplaceable structural
ceramic with excellent performance in many industrial fields.

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 Related products for Silicon Carbide
For specific examples, silicon carbide ceramics have been widely used as corrosion-resistant
containers and pipelines in the petrochemical industry, which has also been successfully used in
various bearings, cutting tools and mechanical seal parts in the mechanical industry. Besides that,
silicon carbide is also considered to be the most promising candidate for the future production of
gas turbines, rocket nozzles and engine components in the aerospace and automotive industries.
Silicon Carbide Ceramics Structure
There are 250 crystalline forms of silicon carbide. The polymorphic feature of SiC is a large
class of similar crystal structures called polymorphs. They are variants of the same compound,
the same in two dimensions but different in three dimensions. Therefore, they can be viewed as
layers stacked in a specific order.

Alpha silicon carbide (α-SiC) is the most common polymorph. It is formed at temperatures above
1700°C and has a hexagonal crystal structure (similar to wurtzite). The beta modification (β-
SiC), with a zinc blende crystal structure, is formed at temperatures below 1700 °C.

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Zinc Blende Structure (4:4)

Examples Cation Position Anion Position

ZnS
BeO ½ Tetrahedral sites (4 among 8) FCC
SiC

Zinc blend is a compound that comes in two forms: sphalerite and wurtzite. These are
characterized by a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of Zinc to Sulfur. It maintains a tetrahedral
arrangement in both forms.

Fig: Zinc Blende Structure

Wurtzite Structure (4:4)

Examples Cation Position Anion Position

ZnS
ZnO
½ Tetrahedral sites (6 among
SiC HCP
12)
AlN
ZnTe

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ZnS can become the wurtzite structure type which has a hexagonal type symmetry. Structure-
wise, the zinc blende structure is more thermodynamically favored, however, because of the
wurtzite structures slow construction, both forms of ZnS can be found.

Fig: Wurtzite structure

Basic Properties of Silicon Carbide Ceramics
Chemical properties
When the temperature in the oxygen reaction reaches 1300 ℃, a silicon dioxide protective layer
will be formed on the surface of the silicon carbide crystal. With the thickening of the protective
layer, the silicon carbide inside is resisted to continue to be combined, which makes the silicon
carbide has good anti-chemical property. In terms of acid, alkali and compound resistance,
silicon carbide has strong acid resistance but poor alkaline resistance because of the utility of
silica protective film.
Physical properties
The density of various silicon carbide crystals is similar, which is usually 3.20 g/mm³. Silicon
carbide has a hardness of 9.5 Mohs, and the hardness of Knoop is 2670 – 2815 kg/mm, which is
higher than that of corundum in abrasive materials, and second only to diamond, cubic boron
nitride and boron carbide. The thermal conductivity and thermal shock resistance of silicon
carbide ceramic are very high, and the thermal expansion parameters are small, so SiC ceramic is
a high-quality refractory material.

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Electrical properties
Industrial silicon carbide ceramic at constant temperature is a kind of semiconductor, which
belongs to impurity conductivity. The internal resistance of high purity silicon carbide decreases
with the increase of temperature. The conductivity of silicon carbide with different impurities is
also different.
Good hydrophilicity
As is known to all, SiC is a compound with strong covalent bonds. According to Pauling’s
calculation of electronegativity, the ionic property of the Si-C bond in SiC is only about 12%.
Therefore, SiC has high hardness, a large elastic modulus, and good wear resistance. It is worth
pointing out that the silicon dioxide layer formed on the surface will inhibit the further diffusion
of oxygen when SiC is oxidized, so the oxidation rate of which is low.
Typical silicon carbide characteristics include:
 Low density
 High strength
 Good high temperature strength (reaction bonded)
 Oxidation resistance (reaction bonded)
 Excellent thermal shock resistance
 High hardness and wear resistance
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity
Silicon Carbide Production Process
While alternative production methods have emerged for selected high purity silicon carbide over
the last years, the majority of SiC used today is produced using the so called Acheson process.
Silicon carbide (SiC) is a synthetic mineral most commonly produced in electrical resistance
furnaces, by the Acheson process, named after the American E.G. Acheson who invented it in
1891. In an Acheson furnace, a mixture of carbon material (usually petroleum coke) and a silica
or quartz sand is reacted chemically at high temperatures in the range of 1700 – 2500°C resulting
in the formation of α-SiC following the main reaction:

The energy for the reaction is provided by the resistive heating of a graphite core done by
connecting this core to two electrodes at both ends of the furnace.
SiC develops as a solid cylindrical ingot around the core, with radial layers ranging from
graphite in the inside, to α-SiC (the highest grade material with coarse crystalline structure), β-
SiC, metallurgical grade and finally un-reacted material on the outside. SiC can be produced as
either black or green, depending on the quality of the raw materials.

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After a cooling period, the SiC ingot is sorted accurately and further processed for different
applications.

The SiC crude material is carefully crushed, classified, sometimes milled again, and optionally
chemically treated in order to obtain the specific properties for which it will be applied.
Types of Silicon Carbide
For use in commercial engineering applications Silicon Carbide products are produced in three
forms. These are:
 Sintered silicon carbide (SSC)
 Nitride bonded silicon carbide (NBSC) and
 Reaction bonded silicon carbide (RBSC)
Other variations of the compound include clay bonded silicon carbide and SiAlON bonded
silicon carbide. There is also chemical vapor deposited silicon carbide called CVD Silicon
Carbide, which is an extremely pure form of the compound.
To sinter the Silicon Carbide it is necessary to add sintering aids which help to form a liquid
phase at the sintering temperature which allows the grains of silicon carbide to bond together.

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Sintered Silicon Carbide ( SiC )
Sintered alpha silicon carbide (SiC) is produced by initially mixing fine (sub-micron) and pure
silicon carbide powder with non-oxide sintering aids. The powdered material is formed or
compacted by using most of the conventional ceramic forming processes such as die pressing,
isostatic pressing and injection moulding. Following the forming stage the material is sintered in
an inert atmosphere at temperatures above 2000°C. The sintered silicon carbide can then be
machined to precise tolerances using a range of precision diamond grinding or lapping
techniques. As with most advanced ceramics the cost of the component is reduced if the amount
of diamond grinding is reduced i.e. either the material manufacturer can achieve the required
tolerances “as sintered” or the designer removes unnecessary tolerances.
Key Properties
 High hardness (second only to diamond)
 Low density 40% the density of steel – approximately the same as aluminium
 Low porosity
 Good wear resistance in sliding and abrasive environments
 Excellent corrosion resistance in most chemical environments
 Low thermal expansion and high thermal conductivity leading to excellent thermal shock
resistance.
Applications
Automotive Components and Seal Faces
Due to their greater resistance to both wear and thermal shock, sintered silicon carbide seal faces
for automotive water pumps are replacing seal faces made of materials such as aluminium oxide.
In many cases the material has proven more suitable in meeting the performance demands of
U.S. and European vehicles – i.e. lasting the lifetime of the vehicle without leaking. These
components are manufactured by conventional high volume pressing and injection moulding
methods to meet the economic constraints of the application.
Armor
Sintered Silicon Carbide has demonstrated an excellent performance record as ceramic material
in composite armor protection systems. The properties of sintered silicon carbide, such as its
high hardness, compressive strength and elastic modulus, provide superior ballistic capability
when confronted with high-velocity projectiles. The low specific density of the material makes it
suitable in applications where weight requirements are critical.
Heat Exchanger Tubes
Sintered Silicon Carbide tubes are used in shell and tube heat exchangers in the chemical process
industry. The tubes used in these applications are often over 4 m in length.

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Mechanical Seals
Pumps must operate in an infinite variety of demanding environments. Sintered Silicon Carbide
offers a high performance seal face material that has proven successful in such diverse pumping
applications as chemical processing, refining, mining and pulp and paper processing. The
material provides superior corrosion and abrasion resistance; shock resistance; and low sliding
friction against a wide range of mating materials.
Bearings
For state-of-the-art magnetically driven pumps, sintered silicon carbide is particularly suited for
thrust and journal bearing components. Excellent corrosion resistance provides optimum
performance in many chemical environments. High thermal conductivity minimizes the
likelihood of failure due to thermal shock, and its specific strength makes it safe to use at high
rotational speeds. Bearing components are usually produced as tight tolerance precision ground
parts.
Blast and Atomization Nozzles
Sintered Silicon Carbide is probably the most popular ceramic alternative to tungsten carbide for
blast nozzle applications. Typically providing long life (50% over WC) due to excellent wear
and corrosion resistance. The low wear rate maintains the internal nozzle geometry and provides
maximum blasting effectiveness, minimum compressor requirements and reduced downtime due
to replacement. Sintered silicon carbide is also about one fifth the weight of Tungsten Carbide,
so the blasting operation is also easier for the operator. Nozzles are often produced as semi
finished (non-ground) components thereby reducing costs.
Process Industry Valve Applications
The outstanding corrosion resistance of sintered silicon carbide, particularly in acids, makes it an
ideal candidate for valve and valve trim applications. Typical demanding applications such as
slurry flashing, HF acid handling and rare earth processing use sintered silicon carbide valve
components.
Paper Industry Applications
The excellent corrosion and wear resistance of sintered silicon carbide provides hard surfaces
that can be machined to smooth, highly polished finishes. These finishes offer low coefficients of
friction and compatibility with forming fabrics. Tiles, inserts and palm guides are available in
finished and semi-finished forms.
Centrifuge Tiles and Wear Parts
Often used in applications where tungsten carbide and alumina fail to provide optimum lifetime
performance.
Semiconductor Production
The benefit of using silicon carbide for semiconductor components includes; the thermal
expansion match to silicon, the resistance to wear and chemical corrosion which leads to reduced
maintenance and component recycling. The material is well suited as a structural material for

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low mass silicon wafer handling components and rigid, dimensionally stable platforms due to its
lightness in weight and high elastic modulus. Typical applications include vacuum chucks,
chemical mechanical polishing blocks, wafer carriers, and thermocouple protection tubes.
Nitride Bonded Silicon Carbide (NBSC)
Materials based on silicon carbide are generally employed for their good wear resistance and
thermomechanical properties. Pure silicon carbide tends to densify when heated at high
temperature and pressure; however, the process is not a commercially feasible one.
Silicon nitride bonded silicon carbide has excellent wear resistance even at high temperatures
and is also known for its corrosion resistance and thermal shock resistance. It also has ideal
refractory and chemical properties. NBSC resists wetting by non-ferrous metals. It is a
semiconductor at a high temperature.
High-density silicon carbide materials are manufactured by adding a sintering aid that creates a
second bonding phase. Most often, the thermo-mechanical properties are restricted by the bond
phase. For instance, the highest operating temperature of reaction bonded silicon carbide is 1375
°C, which is close to the silicon’s melting point.
Production
The nitrogen-bonded silicon carbide is produced by firing mixtures of high-purity silicon carbide
and silicon, or a mineral additive in a nitrogen atmosphere, at high temperature (usually 1350 ºC
to 1450 ºC). The silicon carbide is bonded by the silicon nitride phase (Si 3N4) formed during
nitriding. The highest operating temperature of the ensuing material is about 1750 ºC.
Key Properties
The properties of nitrogen bonded silicon carbide (NBSC) are suitable for many adverse service
conditions:
 High-mechanical strength is sustained up to 1650 °C, surpassing the service temperature
of typical metals and refractories. NBSC is especially robust under compressive loading.
 Good chemical resistance specifically to most molten salts, acids, and halogens. NBSC
may be attacked by oxidizing agents and strong bases like sodium hydroxide and iron
oxide.
 Thermal shock resistance owing to low-thermal expansion coefficient, high-temperature
strength, and high-thermal conductivity. Consequently, NBSC can be cycled through
large temperature variations without the loss of strength or formation of cracks.
 NBSC resists wetting through non-ferrous metals.
 Good wear resistance in abrasive settings.
 NBSC acts as a semiconductor at high temperatures.
Precise values of properties rely on the material’s composition and processing conditions. A
standard composition will have 70%–80% silicon carbide and 20%–30% silicon nitride. Table 1
shows the mechanical properties of such a material.

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Table 1. Typical mechanical and thermal properties for silicon nitride (20%–30%) bonded
silicon carbide (70%–80%)

Property

Density (g.m-3) 2.69

Apparent Porosity (%) 14

Young’s Modulus (GPa) 80

Bend Strength (MPa) 38

Thermal Expansion Coefficient (x 10-6/ºC) 2.7

Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) 32

Maximum Operating Temperature (ºC) 1580

Applications
Silicon Nitride Bonded Silicon Carbide Bricks
Leveraging the material’s superior mechanical strength and stability, NBSC bricks are used in a
variety of process kilns and furnaces such as the lower stack of blast furnaces, the side walls of
aluminum melting pots, and as kiln furniture.
Cast Refractories
NBSC is typically found as a cast refractory for use under extreme service conditions instead of
alloys or other refractory materials. Near net shapes can be engineered to replicate the metal
parts. The material’s high hardness and abrasion resistance means that parts can be designed to
prevent grinding or other finishing operations.
 Applications of cast refractories manipulate the chemical and physical properties of the
material and have the ability to develop the material into intricate shapes. Applications
include: Coal burner, exhaust, and pulverizer parts for use in the power generation sector.
Component life is said to be maximized by two to eight times when compared to other
materials.
 Cyclone liners are used in coal and mineral processing, and also in the paper and
chemical sectors.
 Kiln furniture has better stability and service life.
 Slurry pump components are used in mineral processing and specialty chemical sectors.
The service life of components is increased by 2 to 20 times when compared to
elastomeric and metal materials.

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  Pump components, spigots, valve liners, piping liners, and nozzles.
 Non-ferrous metals processing equipment, aluminum, zinc, and copper are routinely
handled with cast components.
 Corrosion-resistant parts for chemical plants.

Reaction Bonded Silicon Carbide (RBSC)

Apart from its main uses in metallurgy, abrasives and refractories, silicon carbide is also used in
structural applications where high temperature strength or high stiffness to weight ratios are
required.
The demand for more energy efficient engines and the need to replace critical metals drove the
development of a number of ceramic materials and processes, particularly for high temperature
gas turbine engines. Reaction bonded silicon carbide resulted from these investigations.
Processing
Although silicon carbide can be densified with high temperature and pressure, the process is not
a viable commercial process.
Reaction bonded silicon carbide is made by infiltrating compacts made of mixtures of SiC and
carbon with liquid silicon. The silicon reacts with the carbon forming silicon carbide. The
reaction product bonds the silicon carbide particles. Any excess silicon fills the remaining pores
in the body and produces a dense SiC-Si composite.
The ratio of SiC to carbon and particle size distribution varies widely in practice. Articles are
produced with a wide range of compositions and properties. At one extreme, carbon fibre felt or
cloth can be infiltrated with liquid silicon, whilst at the other extreme, an impervious silicon
carbide body can be made with a small amount of carbon.
Most reaction bonded silicon carbide is made with formulations that contain an organic
plasticiser, carbon and silicon carbide particles. This mixture is ideally suited to near net
formation by pressing, injection moulding or extruding. Further, since the reaction process
typically gives a dimensional change of <1%, manufacturers have excellent control of
component tolerances.
Key Properties
The properties of silicon carbide components depend on the material grade. In the case of a fully
dense SiC-Si composite, the material demonstrates good bend strength at room temperature

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(typically 400 MPa), which is maintained to the melting point of silicon (1410 ºC) where it
decreases to around 250 MPa. Young’s modulus is typically in the range 350 - 400 GPa.
The properties that lead to selection of the material are:
 Resistance to wear
 Resistance to corrosion; the material tolerates a wide range of acids and alkalis
 Resistance to oxidation
 Abrasion resistance
 Good thermal shock resistance due to low thermal expansion coefficient and high thermal
conductivity
 Strength at high temperature
 Good dimensional control of complex shapes
Table 1. Typical properties of a two phase reaction bonded silicon carbide (90%SiC, 10% Si)

Property Value

Density (kg.m-3) 3040

Apparent Porosity (%) 0

Young’s Modulus (GPa) 400

Bend Strength (MPa) 390

Hardness (VHN) 2500

Thermal Expansion Coefficient (x 10-6/ºC) 4.3

Thermal Conductivity (W/m.K) 145

Maximum Use Temperature (ºC) 1375

Applications
Kiln Furniture And Support Components
The high temperature strength, oxidation resistance and thermal shock resistance of RBSC
enable manufacturers to produce low mass kiln supports compared to conventional kiln furniture
materials such as cordierite. Kiln products include thin walled beams, posts, setters, burner
nozzles and rolls. The components lower the thermal mass of kiln cars, result in energy savings
and provide the possibility for faster product throughput. However, there a furnace support made
from RBSC would be typically about four times more expensive than cordierite.

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Wear Parts and Thrust Bearings
Good wear resistance, high temperature strength and corrosion resistance make RBSC an ideal
material for wear components, such as screws, plates and impellers. It can also be used in thrust
bearings that can carry extremely high loads in heavily contaminated liquids. The properties
enable the production of compact bearings capable of operating in the temperature range -200°C
and 400°C.
Mechanical Seals And Vanes
RBSC has been successfully used in mechanical seals and pump vanes with high abrasion
resistance. Careful control of the free graphite level within the final body determines the
material properties. RBSC with free graphite is used as a seal nose material contacting hardfaces
in hostile operating environments.
Precision Components
The negligible volume change after reacting with liquid silicon means that components can be
formed with complex shapes and to exacting tolerances. Examples of components made by this
route include laser mirror blanks, wafer handling devices and optical benches. The components
are lightweight and stiff with excellent thermal stability.

Reaction Bonded SiC has the lowest cost production technique with a course grain. It provides
somewhat lower hardness and use temperature, but higher thermal conductivity.
Direct Sintered SiC is better grade than Reaction Bonded and is commonly specified for high
temperature work.
CVD SiC is a face centered cubic, polycrystalline form produced by chemical vapor deposition.
This material is extremely pure, and is specified for it’s excellent thermal conductivity
approaching 300 W/mK. It is considerably more expensive to produce than the sintered or
reaction bonded grades.

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