TIME VALUE OF MONEY

1 Nominal interest rate= real risk-free rate + expected inflation rate

2 Required interest rate on security= nominal risk-free rate + default risk premium+ liquidity
premium + maturity risk premium
3 Effective Annual Return (EAR)= EAR=(1+periodic rate) m -1
Periodic rate= stated annual rate/m
M= number of compounding periods per year
4 FV= PV(1+ I/Y)N
FV= future value
PV= Present
value
I/Y=Rate of return per compounding period
N=Number of compounding periods

5 PV perpetuity = PMT
(I/Y)
PMT= Fixed periodic cash flow
DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW APPLICATION
6 CF
NPV= Σ
(1+r)t
CF= Expected cash
flow r =Discount rate
7 IRR
IRR= Rate of discounting at which NPV is zero

8 (Ending Value-Beginning Value)

HPR=
(Beginning Value)
HPR= Holding period return

9 RBD= D/F*360/t
RBD= Annualised yield on a bank discount
basis D=Dollar discount= purchase price - face
value F=Face value
t=Number of days until maturity
360=Bank convention of number of days in a year

10 Effective Annual Yield (EAY)= (1+HPY) 365/t -1

HPY= Holding period yield
11 RMM= 360/days*HPY
RMM=Money market yield
12 Bond equivalent yield= {(1+ effective annual yield)1/2-1} * 2
Geometric Mean= [(1+R1)(1+R2)…. (1+Rn)]1/n-1
13
Geometric mean return is also known as compound annual rate of return
N
14 Harmonic Mean=
Σ(1/x)
15 Position of observation at a given percentile
Y/100
Ly=(n+1)
16 Range= Maximum Value- Minimum Value
(ΣXi-X)
17 Mean Absolute Deviation(MAD) =
n
X=Arithmetic mean
18 Population Variance

(∑(Xi-μ)2)
σ2 =
N
19 Standard Deviation
σ = square root of variance
20
Sample Variance
(∑(Xi-μ)2)
σ2 =
N-1
21 Chebyshev’s Inequality
Percentage of observations that lie within k standard deviations of the mean is at least= 1-1/k2
22 Coefficient of Variation
CV= (standard deviation of x)
(average value of x)
23 (Rp-RFR)
Sharpe Ratio=
σp
Rp= Portfolio Return
RFR= Risk Free
Rate
σp= standard deviation of portfolio return
24 (Σ(Xi-x)3)/S3
Sample Skewness (Sk) =
s =sample standard deviation

( Σ(Xi-x)4)/S4
25 Sample Skewness (Sk) =

26 Excess Kurtosis= Sample Kurtosis - 3

 PROBABILITY CONCEPTS

27 Multiplication Rule Of Probability,

P(AB)=P(A/B)*P(B)
28 Addition Rule Of Probability,
P(A or B)= P(A)+P(B)-
P(AB)
29 Total Probability Rule (Used to determine unconditional probability of an event)
P(A)=P(A/B1)P(B1)+P(A/B2)P(B2)+………+P(A/BN)P(BN)
30 Expected value of random variable= weighted average of possible outcomes,
Weights = probabilities that the outcome will occur
31 Covariance
Cov(Ri, Rj)= E{[Ri-E(Ri)][(Rj-E(Rj)]}
Cov(Ri, Rj)= Corr(Ri, Rj) σ(Ri)σ(Rj)
32 Correlation Cofficient
(Cov(Ri,Rj))
Corr(Ri,Rj)=
(σ(Ri)σ(Rj))

33 Weight of asset in portfolio,

w= market value of investment in asset i/market value of the portfolio

34 Portfolio Expected Value

E(Rp)=w1E(R1) + w2E(R2)+…… wnE(Rn)
35 Variance of 2 Asset Portfolio

36 Variance of 3 asset Portfolio

37 Bayes Formula,
Updated Probability=( Probability of new information for a given event / unconditional
probability of new event )*(prior probability of event)

38 Factorial
n! = n*(n-1)*(n-2)*(n-3)……
*1 0!=1
39 Labelling,
n! / (n1!)*(n2!)*…. ( nn!)
40 Combination,
n Cr=n! /(n-r)!r!
41 Permutation,
n! /(n-r)!
COMMON PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

42 To standardize a normal variable,

(Observation - Population Mean)
z=
(Standard Deviation)
43 Roy’s safety first criteria, ([E(Rp)-Rl])
SFR= (σ p)
**Choose the portfolio with largest SFR
44 Continuously compounded rate of return,
Rcc=ln(1+HPR)

SAMPLING AND ESTIMATION

45 Standard Error of sample Mean,
σx= σ/6n
σ= Standard deviation of population
n=Size of the sample
46 t-distribution to construct a confidence interval,
When variance is unknown,
x=tα/2*s/6n

When variance is known,

x=tα/2*σ/6n
x= Point estimate of population mean
tα/2=The t-reliability factor
s/6n=Standard error of sample mean

SAMPLING AND ESTIMATION

47 (Sample Mean - Hypothesized Mean)

Test Statistic=
(Standard Error of Sample Mean)

48 t-statistic
When population variance is unknown,
(x-μ)
Tn-1=
(s/√n)
When population variance is known,
(x-μ)
Tn-1=
(σ/√n)
49 (n-1)s2
Chi-square test: X2=
σ2
50 F-distribution test,
F=s12/s22
TECHNICAL ANALYSIS

51 Arms Index or Short Term Trading Index,

(Number of advancing Issues / Number of declining issues)
TRIN=
(Volume of advancing issues / Volume of declining issues)
 DEMAND AND SUPPLY ANALYSIS: INTRODUCTION

52 Demand FUNCTION for good X,

Qdx=f(Px,I,Py,….)
Px=Price of good X, I=Some MEASURE of average income per year,
Py=Prices of related goods
53 Price Elasticity of Demand= %CHANGE IN QUANTITY Demanded/
%Change in Price

54 Cross Price Elasticity= %OQUANTITY Demanded/%OPrice Of Related Goods

O=change

55 Income ELASTICITY=%OQUANTITY Demanded/%O in

Income O=change
DEMAND AND SUPPLY ANALYSIS: THE FIRM

56 Accounting profit=total revenue-total accounting costs

57 Economic profit=accounting profit-implicit opportunity costs Or

Economic profit=total revenue-total economic costs

58 Normal profit,
Economic profit=accounting profit-normal profit=0
Normal profit is the accounting profit that makes economic profit equal to zero

59 Marginal Cost,
MC=change in total cost/change in output

AGGREGATE OUTPUT, PRICES AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

60 Nominal GDP=ΣPi,tQi,t
Pi,t= Price of good i in year t. Qi,t=Quantity of good I produced in year t
61 GDP deflator= (nominal GDP/value of year t output at year t)*100

62 Per Capita Real GDP= GDP/population

63 GDP by expenditure approach,
GDP= C+I+G+(X-M)
C=CONSUMPTION spending, I=BUSINESS investment, G=Government PURchases,
X=Exports,
M=Imports
64 GDP by Income Approach,
GDP=national income+ capital consumption allowance+ statistical discrepancy
65 National Income= compensation of employees (wages and benefits)
+ corporate and government enterprise profits before taxes
+Interest Income
+Unincorporated business net income (business owner’s income)
+rent
+indirect business taxes-subsidies
66 Personal Income= national Income
+transfer payments to households
-indirect business taxes
-corporate income taxes
-undistributed corporate profits
67 Personal disposable income=personal income-personal taxes
68 Quantity Theory Of Money,
MV=PY
M=Money Supply,
V=Velocity of money in transactions,
P=Price level
Y=Real GDP
69 Recessionary Gap or Output Gap=Real GDP-Full Employment GDP
70 Potential GDP=aggregate hours worked*labour productivity
In terms of economic growth,
Growth in potential GDP=growth in labour force+ growth in labour productivity
71 Production Function,
Y=A*f(L,K)
Y=Aggregate economic output,
L=Size of labour force,
K=Amount of capital available,
A=Total factor productivity
UNDERSTANDING BUSINESS CYCLES
72 CPI= (Cost of basket at current prices/cost of basket at base period prices)*100
73 Total amount of money that can be created, Money
created= new deposit/reserve requirement
74 Money Multiplier=1/Reserve Requirement
75 Fisher Effect,
Rnom=Rreal+E(I)+RP
Rnom=Nominal interest rate,
Rreal=Real Interest rate
RP=Risk premium for uncertainty
76 Neutral Interest Rate= Real trend rate of economic growth + inflation target
77 Fiscal Multiplier= 1/[1-MPC(1-t)]
78 Relation between trade deficit, saving and domestic investment,
Exports-imports= private savings+ government savings+ domestic investment

CURRENCY EXCHANGE RATES

79 Real Exchange Rate = Nominal Exchange Rate(d/f)*(CPI foreign)/(CPI domestic)

80 Interest Rate Parity,

foward = (1+interest rate (domestic)

spot (1+interest rate (foreign)

FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS: AN INTRODUCTION

81 Accounting Equation, (Balance Sheet)

Assets= liabilities + equity
Assets=liabilities+ contributed capital+ ending retained earnings
Assets=liabilities+ contributed capital+ beginning retained earnings+ revenue-expense
-dividends

82 Income statement equation,

Net income=revenues-expenses

83 (cost-residual value)
Straight line depreciation expense=
(useful life)

84 Accelerated depreciation- double declining balance method

DDB depreciation= 2 (cost-accumulated depreciation)

useful life

85 Basic EPS=
(net income-preferred dividends)
(weighted average number of common shares outstanding)

86 (Adjusted income for common shareholders)

Diluted EPS=
(weighted average common and potential common shares outstanding)
Diluted EPS=
([Net income-preferred dividends]+[convertible preferred dividends]
+[convertible debt interest](1-tax rate))
([Weighted average shares]+[shares from conversion of converted preferred shares]
+[shares from conversion of debt]+[shares issuable from stock options])

UNDERSTANDING CASHFLOW STATEMENTS

87 Free Cash flow to firm,

FCFF= NI+ NCC+ Interest(1-Tax Rate) –FC Inv-WC
Inv FCFF=CFO+ Interest(1-Tax Rate)-FC Inv
NI= Net income
NCC= Non cash charges
FC Inv= Fixed capital investment
WC Inv= Working Capital Investment

88 Free cash flow to equity,

FCFE=CFO-FC Inv + net
borrowing
Net borrowing= debt issued- debt repaid
89 Performance Ratio:
Cash flow to revenue= CFO/Net Revenue
CFO= Cash flow from operations
90 Performance Ratio:
Cash return on asset ratio= CFO/Average total assets
91 Performance Ratio:
Cash return on equity ratio=CFO/Average total equity
92 Performance Ratio:
Cash to income ratio: CFO/Operating Income
93 (CFO-Preferred Dividends)
Cash flow per share=
(Weighted Average Number Of Common Shares)
94 Coverage Ratio:
CFO
Debt coverage=
(Total Debt)
95 Coverage Ratio:
(CFO+interest paid+taxes paid)
Interest coverage ratio:
(interest paid)
If interest paid is classified as a financing activity under ifrs, no interest adjustment is necessary

96 CFO
Reinvestment Ratio=
(Cash paid for long term assets)
CFCFO
97 Debt payment Ratio=
(Cash long term debt repayment)
98 CFO
Dividend Payment Ratio=
(Dividends paid)
CFO
99 Investing and Financing Ratio=
(Cash outflow from investing and financing activities)
FINANCIAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

ACTIVITY RATIOS:
100 Receivables Turnover=net annual sales /average receivables
365
101 Days of sales outstanding=
(Receivables turnover)
102 (Cost of goods sold)
Inventory Turnover=
(Average inventory)
365
103 Days of inventory in hand=
(Inventory turnover)
 Purchases
104 Payables turnover=
(Average trade payables)
105 365
Number of days of payables=
(Payable turnover)
106 (Revenue )
Total asset turnover=
(Average total assets)
107 Revenue
Fixed asset turnover=
(Average net fixed assets)
108 Revenue
Working capital turnover=
(Average working capital)
LIQUIDITY RATIOS

109 (Current Assets)

Current Ratios=
(Current Liabilities)

110 (Cash+Marketable Securities+Receivables)

Quick Ratio=
(Current Liabilities)
111 (Cash+Marketable Securities)
Cash Ratio=
(Current Liabilities)
112 (Cash+Marketable Securities+Receivables)
Defensive Interval=
(Average Daily Expenditures)
113 Cash Conversion Cycle= (Days sales outstanding)+(days on inventory on hand)-(number
of days of payables)

SOLVENCY RATIOS

114 Debt to equity ratio= (Total debt)

(Total Shareholders Equity)
115 Debt To Capital= (Total debt)
(Total Debt+Total Shareholders Equity)
116 Debt To Assets= (Total Debt)
(Total Assets)

117 Financial Leverage= (Average Total Assets)

(Average Total Equity)

118 Interest Coverage Ratio= (Earnings Before Interest and taxes)

(Interest payments)

119 Fixed Charge Coverage= (Earnings Before Interest & Taxes+Lease Payments)
(Interest payments+Lease payments)
 PROFITABILITY RATIOS

120 (Net Income)

Net profit margin=
Revenue
Net income= earnings after taxes but before dividends
121 Gross Profit Margin= (Gross profit)
Revenue
Gross profit= Net Sales- COGS

122 (Operating Income (EBIT))

Operating profit margin=
Revenue

123 EBT
Pretax margin=
Revenue
124 (Net Income)
Return on assets (ROA)=
(Average Total Assets)
125 (Operating Income)
Operating return on assets=
(Average Total Assets)
126 EBIT
Return on Total Capital=
(Average Total Capital)
127 (Net Income)
Return On Equity=
(Average Total Equity)
Or
(Net Income) Revenue
Return On Equity= *
Revenue Equity
= Net Profit Margin * Equity Turnover

Return On Equity By Du Pont Equation,

(Net Income) (Sales ) (Assets)
Return On Equity= * Assets * Equity
Sales
=Net Profit Margin*Asset Turnover*Leverage Ratio

ROE By Extended Dupont Equation,

ROE= (Net Income) * EBT * EBIT * Revenue * (Total Assets )

EBT EBIT Revenue (Total Assets) (Total Equity)
=Tax Burden *Interest Burden*EBIT Margin*Asset turnover*financial
leverage
128 (Net Income-Preferred Dividends)
Return on common equity=
(Average Common Equity)

129 Sustainable growth rate=

RR*ROE RR= Retention
rate
=1-dividend payout
130 (Standard deviation of operating income)
Coefficient of variation sales=
(Mean sales)
131 (Standard deviation of operating income)
CV Operating Income=
(mean operating income)
132 (Standard deviation of net income)
CV Net Income=
(Mean net income)
INVENTORIES

133 COGS= beginning inventory + purchases - ending inventory

LONG LIVED ASSETS

134 Depreciation methods,

i) straight line and ii) ddb covered earlier. Ii)
units of production depreciation=
(Original cost-salvage value)
(life in output units) * Output units in the period

INCOME TAXES

135 (Income tax expense)

Effective tax rate=
(Pretax income)

136 Income tax expense= taxes payable + ODTL-ODTA

DTL= Deferred tax liability
DTA= Deferred tax asset
CAPITAL BUDGETING

137 (PV Of future cash flows)

Profitability Index (PI)=
CF0
NPV
=1+
CF0
COST OF CAPITAL

138 WACC= (wd)[kd(1-t)]+(wps)(kps)+(wcc)(Kcc)

Wd= percentage of debt in capital structure.
Wps=percentage of preferred stock in the capital structure.
Wcc=percentage of common stock in the capital structure

139 After tax cost of debt= kd(1-t)

140 Cost of preferred stock (kps)
Kps= Dps/p
141 Capital asset pricing model
(CAPM) Kce=RFR+β[E(Rm)-
RFR]
Kce=Cost of equity capital
RFR= Risk free rate
E(Rm)= Expected return on market.

142 Dividend discount model,

D1
Po=
(k-g)
D1= Next year dividend.
K=Required rate of return on common equity.
g = Firm’s expected constant growth rate.

143 Bond yield plus risk premium approach,

Kce=bond yield + risk premium

144 Asset Beta,

ΒProject=βequity (1+(1-t) D )
E
D/E= Comparable company’s debt to equity ratio

145 Project Beta,

ΒProject=βAsset (1+(1-t) D )
E

146 Revised CAPM using country risk

premium, Kce=Rf+β[E(Rm)-RFR+CRP
CRP= Country risk premium

147 (Annualised standard deviation of equity index of developing country)

CRP=
(Annualised standard deviation of sovereign bond
Market in terms of the developed market currency)
Sovereign yield spread= difference between the yields of government bonds in in the
developing country and treasury bonds of similar maturities

148 Break Point (any time the cost of one of the components of the company’s WACC changes.)
(Amount Of Capital at which the components cost of capital changes)
Break Points=
(weight of the he component in the capital structure)
 MEASURES OF LEVERAGE

149 Degree of operating leverage,

(Percentage change in
DOL=
EBIT)
(Percentage change in sales)
DOL for a particular level of units,
Q(P-V) (S-TVC)
DOL= =
(Q(P-V)-F) (S-TVC-F)
Q= Quantity of units sold
P=Price per unit
V= Variable cost per unit
F= Fixed costs
S= Sales
TVC=Total variable costs
150 Degree of financial leverage,
(Percentage change in
DFL=
EPS) (Percentage change in
EBIT)
DFL for particular level of operating units,
EBIT
DFL=
(EBIT-Interest)
151 Degree Of Total Leverage
DTL=DOL+DFL
(% change in EBIT) (% change in EPS) (% change in EPS)
DTL= * =
(% change in Sales) (% change in EBIT) (% Change in Sales)

Q(P-V) (S-TVC) (Q(P-

DTL= =
V)-F-I) (S-TVC-F-
I)
152 Breakeven Quantity Of Sales,
(Fixed operating costs+Fixed financing costs)
QBE=
(Price-Variable cost per unit)

DIVIDENDS AND SHARE REPURCHASE BASICS

153 (Total earnings-After tax cost of funds)

Eps after buyback=
(Shares outstanding after buyback)
WORKING CAPITAL MANAGEMENT

154 (%discount)
Cost of trade credit=(1+ 365/days past discount -1
(1-%discount)
 PORTFOLIO RISK AND RETURN: PART II

155 Expected return when one asset is invested in risky asset and one asset in risk free asset
E(Rp)= WAE(RA)+wBE(RB)
WB=1-WB
156 Capital market line equation,
(E(Rm)-Rf)
E(Rp )= Rf+ σp
(σ m)
157 Total Risk= systematic risk + unsystematic risk
158 General form of multifactor model,
E(Ri)-Rf=βil*E(Factor 1) + βi2*E(factor 2)+… ..... Βik*E(Factor k)
159 Equation of SML,
(E(Rm)-RFR)
E(Ri)=RFR+ (Cov i,mkt)
(Variance of Market)
160 (Std Dev of m) – (Rm-Rf)
M Square= (Rp-Rf)
(Std Dev of p)
161 (Rp-Rf)
Treynor Measure=
βp
162 Jenson’s Alpha= αp=Rp-[Rf+βp(Rm-Rf)]

MARKET ORGANISATION AND STRUCTURE

163 ((1-initial margin))
Margin call price= Po
((1-maintenance margin))
Po= initial purchase price

SECURITY MARKET INDICES

164 Compounded Returns,

Rp= (1+R1)(1+R2)(1+R3)……. (1+Rk)-1
K= last sub period

165 (Sum of stock prices)

Price weighted Index=
(Number of stocks in index adjusted for splits)
Market weighted Index,
166
(Current total market value of index stocks)
Current index value= *Base year index value
(Base year total market value of index stocks)

167 Equal weighting index,

New index value= Initial index value (1+Change in index)
 EQUITY VALUATION: CONCEPTS AND BASIC TOOLS

168 Dividend discount model,

One year holding period:
Dt (Year End Price)
Vo= +
((1+ke) ) ((1+ke))
Vo= Current stock value
Dt=Dividend at time t
Ke=Required rate of return

Two year holding period DDM,

D1 D2 P2
Value= + +
((1+ke) ) (1+ke)2 ((1+ke)2)

Multi-stage dividend discount model:

D1/ D2 Dn Pn
Value= + + +
(1+ke) ) (1+ke)2 ((1+ke)n ) ((1+ke)n)
(Dn+1)
Pn=
(Ke-gc)

169 Free cash to equity,

FCFE= net income+ depreciation-increase in working capital-fixed capital investment-debt

principal repayments+ new debt issues

FCFE=CFO-FC investment + net borrowing

CFO= Cash flow from operations.

Dp
170 Preferred stock value=
kp
Dp= Fixed dividend
Kp=Required rate of return

171 Enterprise Value (EV)

EV= market value of common and preferred stock + market value of debt –cash and short
term investment

172 (Market price per share)

Trailing P/E=
(EPS over previous 12 months)

173 (Market price per share)

Leading P/E=
(Forecast EPS over next 12 months)

174 (Market value of equity) (Market price per share)

P/B Ratio= =
(Book value of equity) (Book value per share)
Book value of equity= common shareholders equity = (total assets- total liabilities)-
preferred stock
175 (Market value of equity)
P/S Ratio=
(Total sales)

176 (Market value of equity)

P/CF Ratio
(Cash flow)

INTRODUCTION TO FIXED INCOME VALUATION

177 Price of annual coupon bond,

Coupon Coupon (Principal+ Coupon)
Price= + +……… +
((1+YTM)) ((1+YTM)2) ((1+YTM)n)

178 Full Price= Flat price + Accrued interest

179 (Annual cash coupon payment)

Current Yield=
(Bond price)

180 Relation between forward rates and spot rates,

(1+s2)=(1+S 1)(1+1y1y)

181 Option Value= z spread –OAS

UNDERSTANDING FIXED INCOME RISK AND RETURN

182 Modified duration,

For annual pay bond:
Modified duration= Macualay duration/ (1+YTM)

183 Approximate % change in bond price= -MODDUR*OYTM

184 Portfolio duration= W1D1 + W2D2 +……… +WnDn

W= Weight= Full price/total value
D=Duration on bond

185 Money duration= annual modified duration *full price of bond position

Money Duration per 100 units of par value= annual modified duration * full price per 100 of par
value

186 Price value of a basis point (PVBP)= Average of decrease in value of bond when YTM increases
and increase in value of bond when YTM decreases
187 Approximate Convexity= V_-V+ -2Vo / (CURVE)2Vo

188 % change in Bond Price (when duration and convexity are given)

%Bond VALUE= -DURATION (spread)+1⁄2convexity (Ospread)2

189 Duration Gap= Macaulay duration-Investment horizon

190 Return impact (%change in bond price)

For small spread changes,

RETURN impact = -Modified DURATION *OSpread

For larger spread changes,

RETURN impact= -Modified DURATION *OSpread + 1⁄2convexity (Ospread)2

191 Yield spread = liquidity premium + credit spread

192 Payment to the long at settlement,

days
(floating-forward)
360
(notional principal)
days
1+[(floating)
360
Days= number of days in the loan term

193 Intrinsic value of call option,

C= max [O,S-X]
C= Intrinsic Value of Call option S=
Spot price
X= Strike price

194 Intrinsic value of a put option,

P=max[O,X-S]
P=intrinsic value of put

195 Option value= intrinsic value+ time value

196 Put-call parity:

C+X/(1+RFR)t =S+P
C= Call
P=Put
S=Stock
X=Present VALME

197 Put call parity with assets cashflows,

C+X/(1+RFR)t =(So –PVcf) +P
198 Plain vanilla interest rate swap,
((Number of days) notional principal
(Net fixed rate payment)t = (Swap rate- LIBORt-1)
360)*