FLUIDIZATION ENGINEERING

Kunii & Levenspiel — 2nd Edition

COMPLETE EXAM STUDY GUIDE

Chapters 1, 3, and 4 — Every Concept, Every Formula

Chapter Title Key Topics

Chapter 1 Introduction to Fluidization Regimes, bed types, liquidlike behavior,
applications
Chapter 3 Fluidization & Mapping of Regimes Particle characterization, umf, Geldart
classification, terminal velocity, regime mapping
Chapter 4 Distributors, Gas Jets, Pumping Distributor types, jet penetration, pressure drop,
Power distributor design, power calculation
CHAPTER 1 — Introduction to Fluidization Engineering
This chapter introduces the phenomenon of fluidization, the types of fluidized beds encountered in
practice, the liquidlike properties of fluidized systems, and the advantages and disadvantages of using
fluidized beds in industrial operations. From an exam perspective, you must understand every type of
fluidization regime and be able to identify them from descriptions or diagrams.

1.1 The Phenomenon of Fluidization

Fluidization is the operation by which solid particles are transformed into a fluid-like state through
suspension in a gas or liquid. This is achieved by passing a fluid upward through a bed of solid
particles.

Progressive Stages with Increasing Gas Velocity

As the upward gas velocity is progressively increased, the following stages occur in sequence:
1. FIXED BED: At low flow rates, the fluid percolates through void spaces between stationary
particles. The particles do not move.
2. EXPANDED BED: Particles begin to move apart slightly; a few vibrate in restricted regions. Still
essentially fixed.
3. MINIMUM FLUIDIZATION (Incipient Fluidization): The drag force on particles just equals the
weight of the particles. The pressure drop across any section equals the weight of fluid +
particles in that section. This critical velocity is called umf.
4. SMOOTH / PARTICULATE FLUIDIZATION: In liquid-solid systems (or special gas-solid
systems), increasing velocity above umf gives progressive, smooth expansion. No large-scale
instabilities. Also called homogeneous or particulately fluidized beds.
5. BUBBLING / AGGREGATIVE FLUIDIZATION: In gas-solid systems, large instabilities with
bubbling and channeling appear. The bed does not expand much beyond its umf volume. Called
aggregative, heterogeneous, or bubbling fluidized beds.
6. SLUGGING (Axial): When gas bubbles grow to the vessel diameter in a deep, narrow bed. For
fine particles, they flow smoothly down the walls around the rising void. Called axial slugging.
7. SLUGGING (Flat): For coarse particles, the portion of bed above the bubble is pushed upward
as by a piston. Particles rain down from the slug. This is flat slugging and causes unstable
oscillatory motion.
8. TURBULENT FLUIDIZATION: At higher gas velocities with fine particles, the terminal velocity of
solids is exceeded. The upper bed surface disappears, entrainment is appreciable. Violent
motion of solid clusters and voids of various sizes and shapes.
9. LEAN-PHASE / PNEUMATIC TRANSPORT: Further velocity increase carries solids with the
gas. Dispersed, dilute-phase fluidized bed with pneumatic transport of solids.

✔ EXAM TIP: Know the Regime Sequence!

Exams commonly ask you to identify the fluidization regime given velocity or other conditions.
Always memorize: Fixed → Expanded → Min. Fluidization → Smooth (liquid) / Bubbling (gas) →
Slugging → Turbulent → Pneumatic Transport.
1.2 Types of Fluidized Beds

Dense-Phase vs. Lean-Phase

Dense-phase fluidized beds: Beds with a clearly defined upper surface (interface). Includes fixed beds,
bubbling beds, turbulent beds.
Lean-phase fluidized beds: No defined upper surface. Includes fast fluidized beds and pneumatic
transport.

Circulating Fluidized Beds (CFB)

In turbulent and lean-phase fluidization, large amounts of particles are entrained. For steady-state
operation, cyclones must collect entrained particles and return them to the bed. This recirculation
system is called a Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB). Two configurations exist:
• Turbulent fluidized bed with internal cyclones (moderate entrainment) — also called a fluid bed
• Fast fluidized bed with external cyclones (large entrainment) — the cyclone collector is outside
the bed

Spouted Beds
A different mode of contacting, where a high-velocity gas spout punches through the bed of solids
(usually coarser, uniformly sized), transporting particles to the top. Solids then move downward slowly
around the spout and through gently upward-percolating gas. Used for materials like grains, coffee
beans, ores.

1.3 Liquidlike Behavior of Fluidized Beds

A dense-phase gas fluidized bed looks like a boiling liquid and exhibits many liquid-like properties. Key
behaviors include:
• A large light object immersed in the bed floats up and pops to the surface when released
• If the vessel is tilted, the bed surface remains horizontal — just like a liquid
• The difference in pressure between any two points equals the weight of fluid + particles
between those points (hydrostatic analog)
• Solids flow like a liquid from a hole in the vessel wall
• A lower-density solid immersed in the bed will float; a denser solid will sink
• Heat transfer is rapid, similar to a liquid
This liquidlike behavior allows continuous automatically controlled operation with easy handling of
solids, and is one of the primary advantages of fluidized beds.

1.4 Solids Circulation Between Beds

The liquid-like pressure behavior enables circulation of solids between two fluidized beds using U-tube
connectors. Gas injected into the U-tube provides the pressure differential that drives solids flow. This
circulation is controlled by varying the frictional resistance (via slide valves or changing the density of
the flowing mixture in connecting pipes). This principle is critically important for processes like Fluid
Catalytic Cracking (FCC) where catalyst must be continuously circulated between a reactor and a
regenerator.

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fluidized Beds

Advantages
10. Smooth, liquidlike particle flow allows continuous, automatically controlled operations with easy
solids handling
11. Rapid mixing of solids creates close-to-isothermal conditions — simple and reliable temperature
control
12. Well-mixed solids = large thermal flywheel that resists rapid temperature changes, giving safety
margins for exothermic reactions
13. Circulation of solids between two beds allows removal or addition of very large quantities of heat
14. Suitable for large-scale industrial operations
15. High heat and mass transfer rates between gas and particles
16. High heat transfer between bed and immersed objects — compact heat exchangers

Disadvantages
17. Difficult-to-describe gas flow (large deviations from plug flow) → inefficient gas-solid contacting,
especially for high conversion or selectivity
18. Rapid mixing of solids → non-uniform residence time for solids — undesirable for reactions
requiring specific solid treatment times
19. Gas bubbles short-circuit the bed, bypassing contact with solids
20. Erosion of pipes and vessels from particle abrasion can be serious
21. Sintering of fine particles at high temperatures may require lowering of operating temperature

1.6 Comparison of Reactor Types for Gas-Solid Operations

Levenspiel summarizes in Table 1 how fluidized beds compare to fixed beds, moving beds, and other
reactors. For exams, the key comparisons are:
Aspect Fixed Bed Moving Bed Bubbling/ Fast Fluidized
Turbulent FB Bed
Temperature Large gradients, Gradients can be Nearly isothermal Gradients in flow
distribution hard to control controlled throughout direction
Catalytic Only for For large Excellent — rapid Suitable for rapid
reactions slow/non- granular, rapid deactivation OK reactions
deactivating deactivation
catalyst
Gas-solid Unsuited for Fair — no fines Wide range of Suitable for rapid
reactions continuous ops solids, excellent reactions
Scale-up Temperature Large-scale Large-scale at Attrition is serious
limits size possible uniform temp concern
1.7 Book Organization and Scope
Chapter 1 notes that the book focuses primarily on gas-solid fluidization, since most important industrial
applications involve gas-solid systems. Liquid-solid fluidization is treated comparatively. The book
follows this structure: Introduction (Ch.1) → Industrial Applications (Ch.2) → Fluidization regimes and
mapping (Ch.3) → Distributor zone (Ch.4) → Bubbles in dense beds (Ch.5) → Bubbling beds (Ch.6) →
Lean zone/freeboard (Ch.7) → High-velocity/fast fluidization (Ch.8) → Mixing (Ch.9) → Other topics
(Ch.10+) → Kinetics and reactor applications (Ch.12-18).
CHAPTER 3 — Fluidization and Mapping of Regimes
This chapter is the mathematical heart of fluidization fundamentals. It covers particle characterization,
the Ergun equation for fixed beds, the condition for minimum fluidization and its velocity umf, the
Geldart classification of particles, terminal velocity of particles, and a general flow regime map. Every
formula in this chapter is exam-critical.

3.1 Characterization of Particles

Equivalent Spherical Diameter (dsph)

For non-spherical particles, we define an equivalent spherical diameter as the diameter of a sphere
having the same volume as the particle:
Eq.(1) dsph = diameter of sphere having the same volume
as the particle

Sphericity (φs)
Sphericity is a one-parameter measure of non-sphericity, defined as:
Eq.(2) φs = (surface area of a sphere of same volume) /
(surface area of the particle)
Important values: φs = 1.0 for a perfect sphere. For all other shapes, 0 < φs < 1. Common values to
remember:
Particle Type Sphericity φs
Sphere 1.00
Cube 0.81
Cylinder (h=d) 0.87
Round sand 0.86
Sharp sand 0.66-0.67
Coal (anthracite) 0.63
Broken solids 0.63
Mica flakes 0.28

Effective Diameter (deff)

For pressure drop calculations in beds of non-spherical particles, we replace the actual particle with an
equivalent sphere such that both beds have the same total surface area and fractional voidage:
Eq.(3) deff = φs × dsph
Specific Surface Area
Surface area of particles per unit volume of the bed:
Eq.(4a) a = 6 / (φs × dsph) [m²/m³ of particle]

Eq.(4b) S = 6(1-εm) / (φs × dsph) [m²/m³ of bed]

How to Find φs Experimentally

For irregular particles, it is difficult to determine φs geometrically. The recommended experimental
method is: (1) Measure bed voidage εm carefully, (2) Measure frictional pressure drop at several flow
velocities, (3) Insert dp, εm, and Δpfr data into the Ergun equation and extract the φs value that best fits
the data. This φs can then be used to predict pressure drops in beds of this solid at any size or size
distribution.

Particle Size Distribution — Mean Diameter

For a mixture of particle sizes, the mean diameter relevant for pressure drop calculations is the surface-
volume mean diameter (Sauter mean diameter):
Eq.(14/15) dp_mean = 1 / Σ(xi / dpi) where xi = weight
fraction of size interval i
This mean is also written as: dp = 1 / Σ(xi/dpi). Note: this is the surface-weighted mean, not the
arithmetic average. Larger particles contribute less to the surface, so this mean is smaller than the
arithmetic mean.

3.2 Fixed Beds — The Ergun Equation

The frictional pressure drop through a fixed bed of length L and single particle size dp is given by the
Ergun equation:
Eq.(6) — Ergun Δpfr/L = 150μu₀(1-εm)²/(φs×dp)²εm³ +
1.75ρg×u₀²(1-εm)/(φs×dp)εm³
Where: μ = fluid viscosity, u₀ = superficial fluid velocity, εm = bed void fraction, ρg = gas density, φs =
particle sphericity, dp = particle diameter.

✔ EXAM TIP: Two Terms in Ergun

The first term dominates at low Re (viscous/Kozeny-Carman regime). The second term
dominates at high Re (inertial/Burke-Plummer regime). Both terms are important at intermediate
Re. The equation is accurate within ±25% for randomly packed beds.

The measured pressure drop (for upflow of gas) is:

Eq.(7) Δpmeasured = Δpfr + ρg×g×L (for liquid upflow,
add buoyancy term)
For gas flow, the gravitational term is usually negligible, so: Δp ≈ Δpfr
3.3 Minimum Fluidization Velocity (umf) — THE MOST IMPORTANT FORMULA

Onset of Fluidization Condition

Fluidization begins when the drag force from upward-moving gas just equals the weight of particles.
Mathematically, this means the pressure drop across the bed equals the weight of particles per unit
cross-sectional area:
Eq.(16c) Δpb × At = W = At × Lm × (1-εmf) × (ρs - ρg) × g

Eq.(17) Δpb/L = (1-εmf)(ρs - ρg)g

General Equation for umf

Combining Eq.(17) with the Ergun equation (Eq.6) gives a quadratic in umf (Reynolds number at
minimum fluidization):
Eq.(18) 1.75(dp×umf×ρg/μ)²/(εmf³×φs) + 150(1-εmf)
(dp×umf×ρg/μ)/(εmf³×φs²) = dp³×ρg(ρs-ρg)g/μ²

Eq.(19) 1.75×Remf²/(εmf³×φs) + 150(1-εmf)×Remf/(εmf³×φs²)

= Ar

Archimedes Number (Ar)

The Archimedes (or Galileo) number is a dimensionless group that characterizes the buoyancy-to-
viscosity ratio:
Eq.(20) Ar = dp³ × ρg × (ρs - ρg) × g / μ²
Think of Ar as the ratio of buoyancy forces to viscous forces. A large Ar means large particles and/or
large density difference — these tend to have high umf.

Simplified Equations for umf

For very small particles (Remf < 20) — viscous regime, first Ergun term neglected:
Eq.(21) — Small umf = dp² × (ρs-ρg) × g × εmf³ × φs² / (150μ ×
Particles (1-εmf))

For very large particles (Remf > 1000) — inertial regime, second Ergun term neglected:
Eq.(22) — Large umf = [dp × (ρs-ρg) × g × εmf³ × φs / (1.75 ×
Particles ρg)]^0.5

Practical Formulas When εmf and φs Are Unknown

When εmf and φs are not available (which is common in practice), use the simplified correlations based
on the Wen-Yu or Chitester form. These rewrite Eq.(19) as:
 Eq.(23) K₁ × Remf² + K₂ × Remf = Ar
where the constants K₁ and K₂ absorb the voidage and sphericity information. For fine particles (Wen
& Yu, 1966):
Eq.(26) — Wen & Yu Remf = [(33.7)² + 0.0408 × Ar]^0.5 - 33.7
(Fine Particles)

For coarse particles (Chitester et al., 1984, valid up to 64 bar):

Eq.(25b) — Chitester Remf = [(28.7)² + 0.0494 × Ar]^0.5 - 28.7
(Coarse Particles)

✔ EXAM TIP: How to Use These Formulas

Step 1: Calculate Ar using Eq.(20). Step 2: Select Wen-Yu (fine) or Chitester (coarse). Step 3:
Solve for Remf. Step 4: Convert back to velocity: umf = Remf × μ / (ρg × dp). These give
predictions within ±34% standard deviation — acceptable for engineering design.

⚠ Voidage at Minimum Fluidization (εmf)

εmf is a property of the specific bed packing, NOT a universal constant. It should always be
measured experimentally. If unavailable, use Table 3 from the book. Typical values: Sharp sand
(φs=0.67): εmf ≈ 0.50-0.60; Round sand (φs=0.86): εmf ≈ 0.42-0.56; Mixed round sand: εmf ≈
0.41-0.42. Finer particles and less spherical particles tend to have higher εmf.

3.4 Pressure Drop vs. Velocity Diagram (Δp vs. u₀)

This diagram is one of the most frequently tested topics. Key features:
22. In the fixed bed regime: Δp increases with u₀ approximately as predicted by Ergun Eq.(6). Often
reaches a maximum, Δpmax, slightly above the bed weight/area.
23. At umf: The fixed bed 'unlocks' — voidage increases from εm to εmf, causing a drop in Δp to the
static weight of the bed (Eq.17). The umf is defined as the intersection of the fixed-bed Δp line
(at voidage εmf) with the horizontal W/At line (Point A for uniform particles).
24. Above umf: Δp remains practically constant at W/At, regardless of gas flow, because the gas-
solid dense phase deforms easily like a liquid.
25. On decreasing u₀: The fluidized particles settle to a loose fixed bed at voidage εmf. Further
gentle tapping brings voidage back to the stable εm.
26. For wide size distributions: Smaller particles fluidize first (partial fluidization). Δp gradually
approaches W/At. umf is defined by convention as the intersection of the fixed-bed Δp line with
the W/At line (Point B).

✔ EXAM TIP: Hysteresis

For uniformly sized particles, there is hysteresis: the fixed bed maximum Δpmax on the way up is
slightly above W/At, but on the way down the bed settles at εmf (looser) giving a slightly lower
Δp. For wide particle distributions, hysteresis is negligible unless large particles (dp > 1 mm) are
present.
3.5 Transition to Bubbling — Minimum Bubbling Velocity (umb)
In liquid-solid systems, fluidization is always smooth (particulate) above umf — no bubbling. For gas-
solid systems with large particles (Geldart B, D), bubbles appear immediately at umf, so umb = umf.
For gas-solid beds with small, light particles (Geldart A), there is a regime of smooth particulate
fluidization above umf before bubbling begins. Bubbles first appear at velocity umb > umf.
Geldart and Abrahamsen's correlation for umb (in SI units):
Eq.(27) umb/umf = 2.3 × ρg^0.06 × μ^0.347 × exp(0.716 ×
P45μm) / (dp^0.8 × (ρs - ρg)^0.06 × dp^0.06)
where P45μm = weight fraction of particles smaller than 45 μm. Fine particles (high P45μm) have a
larger particulate fluidization range (higher umb/umf ratio). Adding fine particles acts as a lubricant and
extends the smooth fluidization range.

3.6 The Geldart Classification of Particles — EXAM CRITICAL

Geldart (1973) classified particles into four groups based on their fluidization behavior, using a plot of
particle density (ρs) vs. mean particle diameter (dp) for air fluidization at ambient conditions. This is one
of the most exam-tested topics in fluidization.

Group Name Typical dp Typical ρs Behavior at Low u > Key Features

umf
C Cohesive / < 30 μm Any Cannot fluidize Interparticle
Very Fine normally — forms forces > gas drag.
Powders plugs in small beds, Face powder,
channels in large flour, starch. Can
beds be processed by
mixing into
Geldart B beds.
A Aeratable 30-100 μm < 1.4 g/cm³ Smooth/ FCC catalyst is
(approx) homogeneous the classic
expansion above umf; example. Bubbles
bubbles only above split and
umb > umf coalesce; max
bubble size < 10
cm. Gas
percolates
through emulsion.
Fines act as
lubricant.
B Sand-like 100-800 μm 1.4-4 g/cm³ Bubbles form Most common
immediately at umf industrial solids.
(umb = umf) Vigorous
bubbling. Bubble
size grows
linearly with
height and excess
velocity (u₀-umf).
Majority of gas-
solid reactions
run in this regime.
 D Spoutable / > 1 mm or High Erratic; large Difficult to fluidize.
Large Dense dense exploding bubbles, Bubbles rise
severe channeling, or slower than gas
spouting through emulsion.
Best operated in
shallow beds or
spouted beds.
Drying grains,
roasting coffee,
gasifying coals.

✔ EXAM TIP: Geldart Chart Boundaries

The boundary between A and B groups is given approximately by: dp = 101 × ρg^0.425 / (ρs -
ρg)^0.425 (Eq.39 in book, extended form for non-ambient conditions). For air at ambient
conditions, A-B boundary is at roughly 100 μm for ρs ≈ 2500 kg/m³. Always check BOTH dp and
ρs when classifying.

3.7 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Fluidization

Effect of Increasing Pressure

• umf increases slightly (1-4%) with pressure increase
• εmf decreases with pressure increase — negligible for fine particles (dp < 100 μm) but
significant (up to 40%) for large particles (dp ≈ 360 μm)
• umb/umf for coarse alumina increases up to 30% with pressure — more room for particulate
fluidization
• Eqs. (18) or (19) can predict umf reasonably well at elevated pressures when correct εmf is
used

Effect of Increasing Temperature

• εmf increases with temperature for fine particles (up to 8% at 500°C) — coarse particles:
unaffected
• umf can be predicted by Eqs.(18)-(22) with the correct (temperature-corrected) εmf and fluid
viscosity
• Higher temperature → higher gas viscosity μ → affects umf via Ergun equation

Sintering and Agglomeration at High Temperature

A serious problem at high temperature: sintering of particles causes defluidization. When particles
begin to sinter, umf increases dramatically. The Initial Sintering Temperature can be measured with a
dilatometer: heat a compressed sample and note when thermal expansion stops (sintering onset). For
industrial materials containing impurities (coal ash, metal ores), low-melting eutectics can form, causing
unexpectedly early sintering.
3.8 Terminal Velocity of Particles (ut) — Carryover Criterion
The terminal free-fall velocity ut is the velocity at which drag force equals particle weight in the absence
of a bed. This determines when particles are carried out of a fluidized bed.

General Formula (Haider & Levenspiel)

Using dimensionless particle diameter d* and dimensionless velocity u*:
Eq.(31) d* = dp × [ρg(ρs-ρg)g/μ²]^(1/3) = (Ar)^(1/3)

Eq.(32) u* = ut × [ρg²/(μ(ρs-ρg)g)]^(1/3) = Ret /

(Ar)^(1/3)

Eq.(33) — Non- u* = [18/(d*)² + (2.335 - 1.744φs)/(d*)^0.5]^(-1)

spherical (0.5 ≤ φs ≤ 1)

Eq.(34) — Spherical u* = [18/(d*)² + 0.591/(d*)^0.5]^(-1) (φs =

1)

✔ EXAM TIP: Design Range for Non-Entraining Operation

To avoid carryover, operate the fluidized bed with: umf < u₀ < ut. Use the mean dp for
calculating umf but use the SMALLEST particle size present in appreciable quantities when
calculating ut. Key ratio for engineering design: ut/umf ≈ 78 for fine particles (d* < 1), and ut/umf
≈ 9.2 for large particles (d* > 100).

3.9 High-Velocity Regimes: Turbulent and Fast Fluidization

Turbulent Fluidization (Fine Particles)

As gas velocity increases beyond umf, bubbling becomes increasingly vigorous. Pressure fluctuations
(measured just above distributor) peak at velocity uc, then decrease sharply, leveling off at velocity uk
(onset of turbulent fluidization). In turbulent regime: no distinct bubbles; clusters and strands of particles
move about violently; bed voidage is large; bed surface is indistinct; cyclones needed to maintain bed
inventory. Turbulent fluidization for fine catalyst typically occurs at uk/ut = 8-13.

Churning Fluidization (Large Particles)

For Geldart D solids at higher velocities: large exploding bubbles, gross circulation, severe channeling.
Transition to turbulent flow occurs at lower relative velocity (uk/ut = 0.5-0.6 for 650 μm beads). Called
churning fluidization to distinguish from turbulent.

Pneumatic Transport
At very high gas velocities with continuous solid feed: all solids carried upward as separate dispersed
particles. Slip velocity = u₀ - us (relative velocity between gas and solid). Transition from pneumatic
transport to denser regimes occurs at the choking condition.

Fast Fluidization
When solid feed rate exceeds the choking condition: denser region at bottom (5-15% solids), gradually
blending into leaner region higher up (1-5% solids). Characterized by clusters and strands that break
and reform rapidly, extensive back-mixing of solids, slip velocity much greater than ut.
3.10 The General Flow Regime Map (Grace Chart)
Grace (1986) developed a comprehensive flow regime diagram using dimensionless coordinates d*
and u*. This is the definitive map for the entire range of gas-solid contacting — from percolating packed
beds to lean pneumatic transport. Exam questions often ask you to:
27. Given dp, ρs, ρg, μ and u₀ — calculate d* and u* then identify the regime from the map
28. Predict whether a given system will exhibit bubbling, turbulent, or fast fluidization
29. Identify where on the map the Geldart A, B, C, D boundaries fall

Key boundary relationships from the Grace map:

• A-B boundary (Eq.39): d* = 101 — a vertical line in the d*-u* diagram
• Minimum fluidization: appears as a curve at low u* values
• Terminal velocity: appears as a curve at high u* values
• Spouting is characteristic of Geldart D solids at velocities even below umf
• Fast fluidization requires very fine particles and very high gas velocities (up to 1000 × umf)

✔ EXAM TIP: Working with the Grace Map

Always calculate d* first (it depends only on particle/fluid properties, not velocity). Then calculate
u* at the given velocity. Plot (d*, u*) on the map to identify the regime. For multiple velocities, d*
stays fixed while u* changes linearly with velocity.
CHAPTER 4 — The Dense Bed: Distributors, Gas Jets, and
Pumping Power
Chapter 4 covers everything that happens at the bottom of a dense fluidized bed: how gas is introduced
(distributor design), what happens when gas jets enter the bed, and how much power is needed to
keep the bed fluidized. This chapter has important design formulas that are highly testable.

4.1 Distributor Types

The distributor (also called the gas grid or gas plate) is the perforated or porous structure at the bottom
of the fluidized bed through which gas is introduced. Its design is critical for uniform gas distribution and
good fluidization.

Ideal / Porous Plate Distributors

Small laboratory beds often use ceramic or sintered metal porous plates. These provide perfectly
uniform gas distribution and are ideal for research. However, for industrial use they have drawbacks:
• Very high pressure drop → increased pumping power
• Low mechanical strength — impractical for large scale
• High cost and susceptibility to thermal stresses
• Gradual clogging by fine particles

Perforated Plates (Multiorifice Plates)

Most widely used in industry. Simple, cheap, easy to fabricate. Several design variations:
• Sandwiched perforated plates with metal screen — prevents solids from falling through when
gas is off
• Staggered perforated plates — no screen needed
• Dished / curved plates — better resists heavy loads and thermal stress; compensates for
channeling tendency at the center
• Grate bars — 2D version of perforated plates, limited use
Orifice diameters range from 1-2 mm in lab beds to up to 50 mm in large FCC units.

Tuyeres and Caps

Used under severe conditions (high temperature, reactive environments). Advantages: prevent solids
from falling through and can handle high-temperature materials. Designs:
• Multiple porous plate tuyere [Fig. 2a]: good distribution above each filter, but particles settle
between tuyeres
• Upward-pointing tuyeres [Fig. 2b]: frequently used; at low flows, bubbles detach in orderly
succession; at high velocities, bubbles coalesce into horizontal jets, giving better mixing than
perforated plates
• Tuyere with inlet orifice [Fig. 3a]: each tuyere has high-resistance orifice at gas inlet ensuring
equal flow through all tuyeres; controls jet velocity independently
 • Cap-type tuyere [Fig. 3b]: no inlet orifice; orifices around the cap create the pressure drop;
simpler but jet velocity depends on gas flow rate; can cause particle attrition

⚠ Key Tuyere Design Choice

If you NEED to control jet velocity (e.g., friable particles), use tuyeres with inlet orifices [Fig. 3a].
If jet velocity is not critical, use cap-type tuyeres [Fig. 3b]. Tuyeres are much more expensive
than perforated plates due to complex construction.

Pipe Grids and Spargers

When bed internals (heat exchanger tubes) are present, they break up bubbles and prevent gulf-
streaming, improving fluidization quality enough that a simple sparger (pipe grid) suffices as the
distributor. Downward-pointing nozzles prevent clogging when gas flow is stopped. Used in processes
like Sohio acrylonitrile process.

4.2 Gas Entry Region — Behavior Above Different Distributors

Above a Porous Plate

Immediately above the plate: a highly expanded gas-solid dispersion forms. This is unstable and a few
mm above the plate divides into many tiny bubbles plus an emulsion phase. Bubbles grow rapidly by
coalescence as they rise.

Above a Single Orifice (Davidson-Schuler)

When extra gas is injected at volumetric flow rate Vor through a single orifice into a bed at umf, the
volume of each bubble that detaches is:
Eq.(1) — Bubble Vb = 1.138 × Vor^(6/5) [m³]
Volume at Single
Orifice

Important finding by Nguyen and Leung: only a fraction K = 0.53 of the orifice gas actually enters the
bubble; the rest enters the emulsion. At 10 cm above plate: K = 0.36 (only 36% of gas in visible
bubbles). At 25 cm: K = 0.79. This means fresh gas initially disperses broadly into the emulsion before
consolidating into bubbles.

Above a Perforated Plate

Jets form at each orifice. Particles settle on flat surfaces between orifices — forming dead zones. Dead
zones shrink with: (1) increasing gas velocity, (2) increasing particle size, (3) increasing orifice size, (4)
decreasing orifice spacing. At high enough orifice velocity, dead zones can be completely eliminated.

4.3 Gas Jets in Fluidized Beds

High-velocity gas jets from orifices (up to 180 m/s in experiments, 30-40 m/s in commercial distributors)
are critically important for several reasons:
 • Erosion: high jet velocity entrains solids, causing intense sandblasting action and rapid erosion
of nearby surfaces. Bed internals must be kept a safe distance from the distributor.
• Knowing jet penetration length helps design nozzles for large gas feed
• Attrition of friable solids occurs primarily at jets — controlling jet length helps manage particle
size distribution
• In fast reactions (combustion, gasification, granulation, coating), product quality depends on
what happens at the entry zone

Jet Penetration Length Lj — Yates et al. Correlation

Eq.(2) — Jet Length Lj/dor = f(u₀/g×dp, ρg×uor/μ, ρs/ρg, L/dor)
In practice, the correlation from Yates et al. for upward jets is:
Lj depends strongly on: orifice diameter, orifice velocity, background gas flow, and operating pressure.
Higher pressure and higher orifice velocity give longer jets. Background flow at or near umf gives
maximum jet length. Disagreement between different studies can be factor of 100 — always choose the
correlation for conditions closest to your application.

✔ EXAM TIP: Jet Length for Design

For the same total orifice area and gas velocity: SMALL holes → shorter jets + larger pressure
drop. LARGE holes → longer jets + smaller pressure drop. Use small holes to keep jet length
short and protect internals, but be aware of the higher pressure drop penalty.

4.4 Pressure Drop Requirements Across Distributors

The distributor must have sufficient pressure drop to ensure equal gas flow across the entire bed cross-
section. Too little pressure drop leads to channeling and uneven fluidization. Too much pressure drop
wastes energy.

Early Rule of Thumb (Zuiderweg)

Eq.(3) — Rule of Δpd = (0.2 to 0.4) × Δpb
Thumb

where Δpb = bed pressure drop = (1-εmf)(ρs-ρg)g×Lmf (Eq.3.17)

Hiby's Criterion for Stable Operation

Eq.(5a) — Hiby (u₀/umf Δpd / Δpb ≥ 0.15
= 1-2)

Eq.(5b) — Hiby (u₀/umf Δpd / Δpb ≥ 0.015

> 2)

Siegel's Channeling Criterion

 Eq.(6) — Siegel Δpd / Δpb ≥ 0.14

Shi and Fan Full-Fluidization Criterion

Eq.(7) (Δpd + Δpb)|u₀ = (Δpd + Δpb)|umf
With the requirement at umf: Δpd/Δpb ≥ 0.14 for porous plates, ≥ 0.07 for perforated plates.

Mori and Moriyama Analysis

Eq.(9) Δpd/Δpb ≥ (Lf/Lmf) × [1-(u₀/umf)^n] (n=1
porous, n=2 perforated)
For high u₀ (u₀/umf > 10 for porous, > 3 for perforated), this reduces to Δpd/Δpb ≈ (Lf/Lmf) which, for
typical bubbling beds (Lf/Lmf = 1.2-1.4), gives Δpd/Δpb ≈ 0.2-0.4, confirming the original rule of thumb.

Pressure drop and velocity relationship:

Eq.(4a) Δpd ∝ u₀ for porous plates

Eq.(4b) Δpd ∝ u₀² for perforated plates and tuyere

distributors

⚠ Operating Range Warning

Δpd varies strongly with u₀ (Eq.4), while Δpb is nearly independent of u₀. If a distributor is
designed for u₀ = 2umf but operated at u₀ = 20umf, the distributor Δpd becomes enormously
excessive (21.5× the bed Δp for porous plates!). Conversely, designing for high u₀ then
operating near umf gives negligible Δpd and uneven fluidization. Porous plates have better
turndown ratio because Δpd varies linearly (not squared) with u₀.

Design Summary Recommendations

30. For u₀ close to umf: choose Δpd/Δpb ≥ 0.15
31. Required Δpd/Δpb decreases as u₀/umf increases
32. Δpd/Δpb is roughly independent of bed height
33. For same conditions, (Δpd/Δpb)porous plate > (Δpd/Δpb)orifice plate
34. Original rule of thumb Δpd = (0.2-0.4)Δpb is reasonable upper bound for smooth operations

4.5 Design of Gas Distributors — Step-by-Step Procedure

For perforated plates and most tuyere distributors, the design procedure uses orifice theory:

Step 1: Determine Required Δpd

Calculate bed pressure drop using Eq.(3.17), then apply Eq.(3): Δpd = 0.3 × Δpb (or use the more
detailed criteria from Section 4.4).
 Δpb formula (Ch.3, Δpb = (1-εmf)(ρs-ρg) × g × Lmf
Eq.17)

Step 2: Determine Orifice Discharge Coefficient (Cdor)

Calculate the vessel Reynolds number Ret = dt × u₀ × ρg / μ, then use:
Ret 100 300 500 1000 2000 >3000
Cdor 0.68 0.70 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.60

Step 3: Calculate Orifice Velocity

Eq.(12) — Orifice uor = Cdor × √(2 × Δpd / ρg)
Velocity

The ratio u₀/uor gives the fraction of open area in the plate. Ensure this is less than 10% to maintain
good distribution.

Step 4: Determine Orifice Diameter and Number

Eq.(13) — Orifice u₀ = Nor × (π/4) × dor² × uor
Sizing

Choose Nor (orifices per unit area) and calculate dor, or vice versa. Trade-off: small orifices are prone
to clogging; large orifices cause uneven distribution. Typically choose dor = 2-4 mm for industrial beds.

For Tuyeres With Multiple Holes [Fig. 2b]

Eq.(14) — Tuyere Nor = (tuyeres/area) × (holes/tuyere)
Holes

Stirring Factor α — Agitation by Distributor Jets

For fine solids beds, the distributor should also stir the bed. The stirring factor α is:
Eq.(15) — Stirring α = (ρg × uor² / 2g) / Δpb = (kinetic energy of
Factor jets) / (bed resistance)
If α > 1: jets punch through the bed — severe gas bypassing, attrition, erosion. Undesirable.
If α << 1: jets do not stir the bed — bubbles rising in the bed must do all the mixing.
For typical 1-m bed of cracking catalyst: Δpb ≈ 6000 Pa. With uor = 30-60 m/s: α ≈ 0.09-0.36. At 60
m/s: reasonable stirring; at 30 m/s: minimal stirring.
4.6 Power Consumption (Pumping Power)
Power consumption is a significant operating cost and must be estimated early in design. Gas must be
compressed from atmospheric pressure (or suction pressure p₁) to the bed inlet pressure (p₂ = p₃ +
Δpb + Δpd), where p₃ is the gas exit pressure.

Overall Pressure Balance

Eq.(16) p₂ - p₁ = Δpb + Δpd + Δp(cyclones and other
losses)

Ideal (Adiabatic Reversible) Shaft Work

Eq.(18a) Ws,ideal = [γ/(γ-1)] × p₁ × v₁ × [(p₂/p₁)^((γ-
1)/γ) - 1] [J/kg]

Eq.(18b) Ws,ideal = [γ/(γ-1)] × p₁ × v̇ ×

[(p₂/p₁)^((γ-1)/γ) - 1] [W]
where v̇ = volumetric flow rate [m³/s] at inlet conditions, γ = Cp/Cv = ratio of specific heats. Values of γ:
1.67 for monatomic gas (He, Ar), 1.40 for diatomic gas (air, N₂, O₂, H₂), 1.33 for triatomic gas (CO₂,
SO₂, H₂O vapor).

Actual (Real) Shaft Work

Eq.(20) — Actual Ws,actual = Ws,ideal / η
Power

where η = compressor efficiency. Typical values:

• Turboblower: η = 0.55-0.75
• Roots blower: η = 0.6-0.8
• Axial blower or 2-stage reciprocating compressor: η = 0.8-0.9

Temperature Rise After Compression

Adiabatic compression raises gas temperature. The ideal outlet temperature:
Eq.(19) — Ideal Outlet T₂ = T₁ × (p₂/p₁)^((γ-1)/γ)
Temperature

For a real (less than 100% efficient) compressor, the actual outlet temperature is higher:
Eq.(21) — Actual T₂,actual = T₁ + (T₂,ideal - T₁) / η
Outlet Temperature

✔ EXAM TIP: Power Calculation Procedure

Step 1: Calculate p₃ (gas exit pressure). Step 2: Add Δpb to get pressure after bed (p₃+Δpb).
Step 3: Add Δpd to get distributor inlet pressure p₂. Step 4: v̇ at inlet conditions = (mass flow
 rate) × R × T₁ / (MW × p₁) [ideal gas]. Step 5: Apply Eq.(18b) for ideal power, divide by η for
actual power.

4.7 Worked Design Examples from the Book

Example 1 Summary: Design of Perforated Plate Distributor

Parameter Given / Calculated Value
Vessel diameter dt 4m
Bed height Lmf, voidage εmf 2 m, 0.48
Solid density, gas density, viscosity 1500 kg/m³, 3.6 kg/m³, 2×10⁻⁵ kg/m·s
Inlet pressure p₀, superficial velocity u₀ 3 bar, 0.4 m/s
Max allowable jet velocity 40 m/s
Calculated Δpb (Eq.3.17) 15,251 Pa
Chosen Δpd = 0.3Δpb 4,575 Pa
Ret (>>3000), Cdor 288,000; Cdor = 0.60
Calculated uor (Eq.12) 30.2 m/s (< 40 m/s ✓)
Fraction open area u₀/uor 1.32% (< 10% ✓)
Final design dor = 2 mm, Nor = 4200/m² (one orifice per 1.54
cm square)

Example 2 Summary: Design of Tuyere Distributor

Parameter Value
Minimum tuyere pitch/spacing 0.1 m (10 cm)
Resulting tuyere density Nor 100 tuyeres/m²
Inlet orifice diameter per tuyere 13 mm
Max allowable hole velocity 30 m/s
Number of holes per tuyere 6 (chosen)
Hole diameter dh 5.3 mm
Final design Tuyeres on 10 cm square pitch, 6 holes of 5.3
mm each, no inlet orifice needed (holes provide
sufficient Δpd)

Example 3 Summary: Power for Fluidized Coal Combustor

Case Description Result
(a) Δpd = 3 kPa = 0.3Δpb (good design) Ws,actual = 455 kW
 (b) Δpd = 10 kPa = Δpb (excessive) Ws,actual = 651 kW (43% more power!)
(c) 50% air bypassed to freeboard, Δpd = 3 kPa Ws,actual = 259 kW (43% savings vs
case a)
Lesson: Excessive distributor pressure drop significantly increases power consumption. Clever gas
distribution (bypassing air to freeboard for combustion) can save substantial energy.
MASTER FORMULA REFERENCE SHEET
All key formulas in one place for quick exam revision.

Chapter 3 Formulas
Sphericity φs = (surface of equal-volume sphere) / (surface
of particle)

Effective diameter deff = φs × dsph

Mean diameter (mixed dp = 1 / Σ(xi/dpi) [Sauter mean]

sizes)

Ergun equation Δpfr/L = 150μu₀(1-ε)²/[(φs×dp)²ε³] + 1.75ρgu₀²(1-

ε)/[(φs×dp)ε³]

Bed pressure drop at Δpb/L = (1-εmf)(ρs-ρg)g

umf

Archimedes number Ar = dp³ρg(ρs-ρg)g / μ²

umf — full quadratic 1.75Remf²/(εmf³φs) + 150(1-εmf)Remf/(εmf³φs²) =

(Eq.19) Ar

umf — small particles umf = dp²(ρs-ρg)g×εmf³×φs² / [150μ(1-εmf)] [Rep

(Eq.21) < 20]

umf — large particles umf = [dp(ρs-ρg)g×εmf³×φs / (1.75ρg)]^0.5 [Rep >

(Eq.22) 1000]

umf — Wen & Yu (fine, Remf = [(33.7)² + 0.0408Ar]^0.5 - 33.7

no εmf/φs)

umf — Chitester Remf = [(28.7)² + 0.0494Ar]^0.5 - 28.7

(coarse, up to 64 bar)

Dimensionless particle d* = dp × [ρg(ρs-ρg)g/μ²]^(1/3) = Ar^(1/3)

size

Dimensionless u* = u × [ρg²/(μ(ρs-ρg)g)]^(1/3)
velocity

Terminal velocity u* = [18/(d*)² + 0.591/(d*)^0.5]^(-1)

(spherical)

Terminal velocity (non- u* = [18/(d*)² + (2.335-1.744φs)/(d*)^0.5]^(-1)

spherical)

ut/umf ratio (fine ≈ 78 for d* < 1

particles)

ut/umf ratio (large ≈ 9.2 for d* > 100

particles)
Chapter 4 Formulas
Bed pressure drop Δpb = (1-εmf)(ρs-ρg)g×Lmf

Distributor Δpd = (0.2 to 0.4) × Δpb

requirement (rule of
thumb)

Hiby criterion (u₀/umf Δpd/Δpb ≥ 0.15

= 1-2)

Hiby criterion (u₀/umf Δpd/Δpb ≥ 0.015

> 2)

Orifice velocity uor = Cdor × √(2Δpd / ρg)

Orifice sizing u₀ = Nor × (π/4) × dor² × uor

Stirring factor α = ρg × uor² / (2g × Δpb)

Single orifice bubble Vb = 1.138 × Vor^(6/5)

volume

Compression pressure p₂ - p₁ = Δpb + Δpd + (losses)

balance

Ideal compression Ws,ideal = [γ/(γ-1)] × p₁ × v̇ ×

power [(p₂/p₁)^((γ-1)/γ) - 1]

Actual compression Ws,actual = Ws,ideal / η

power

Outlet temperature T₂ = T₁ × (p₂/p₁)^((γ-1)/γ)

(ideal)

Outlet temperature T₂,actual = T₁ + (T₂,ideal - T₁) / η

(actual)

Quick Exam Strategy Summary

Here is a prioritized checklist of what to master for the exam:
Priorit Topic What to Know
y
★★★ umf Calculation Equations 18/19/21/22/25/26 — know when to use each, be
★★ able to calculate from scratch
★★★ Archimedes Number Ar = dp³ρg(ρs-ρg)g/μ² — always step 1 in umf calculation
★★
★★★ Geldart Classification Groups A, B, C, D — properties, behavior, chart boundaries,
★★ FCC = Group A
★★★ Distributor Design Eqs. 3, 12, 13 — calculate Δpd, uor, Nor, dor from given data
★★
★★★ Compressor Power Eqs. 18, 20 — calculate power from pressure ratio and flow
★★ rate
★★★ Terminal Velocity Eqs. 31-34 — d* → u* → ut; know when Eq.33 vs 34
★
★★★ Ergun Equation Eq. 6 — two-term expression; know which term dominates at
★ low/high Re
★★★ Regime Map Be able to calculate d* and u*, then identify regime from
★ Grace chart
★★★ Δp vs. u₀ Diagram Fixed bed → umf → bubbling; how hysteresis looks, what Δp
equals
★★★ Pressure/Temp Effects How pressure and temperature affect εmf, umf, umb
★★★ Jet Penetration Qualitative understanding + Eq.2 concept; small holes =
short jets
★★ Sphericity & deff Eqs. 2, 3, Table 1 values; mean diameter formula
★★ Stirring Factor α Eq.15, when α > 1 is bad, role in distributor selection

✔ EXAM TIP: Final Exam Advice

Always start by calculating Ar (Archimedes number) — it appears in nearly every problem. Keep
track of units carefully (especially mixed SI vs. CGS). For reactor problems: start from Δpb →
Δpd → p₂ → power. Always check whether Remf < 20 (use Eq.21) or Remf > 1000 (use Eq.22)
after calculating umf to verify which equation was appropriate.

End of Study Guide — Good Luck on Your Exam!