College Board AP® Calculus Your notes
BC
Continuity
Contents
Continuity
Removable Discontinuities
Non-removable Discontinuities
Intermediate Value Theorem
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Continuity
Your notes
Continuity at a point
What does continuous mean in the context of
functions?
An informal way to think about what continuous means for functions is that 'a function is
continuous anywhere you can draw its graph without lifting your pencil off the paper'
For the purposes of calculus, however, we need to work with a more formal definition!
What is the definition for a function to be continuous at
a point?
A function f is continuous at the point x = c if
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f c exists,
( )
lim f x exists,
( )
Your notes
x →c
and lim f ( x ) =f ( c )
x →c
That is
The function must have a well-defined finite value at x =c
The function must have a well-defined finite limit at x = c
This means that the one-sided limits must be equal at x =c
The value of the limit and the value of the function must be equal at x =c
Consider the functions f , g and h defined by
1
f x
( ) =x
x
gx( ) =x
x, x ≠ 0
⎧
= 1, x = 0
⎪
hx( )
⎪
⎨
⎪
⎪
⎩
For function f
1
is not defined, so f 0 does not exist
0
( )
f becomes unbounded as x approaches zero from the left and right, so lim f x ( )
x →0
doesn't exist
For either of those reasons, f is not continuous at x =0
For function g
lim g x ( ) = lim g x ( ) = 1 , so lim g x = 1
( )
x →0− x →0+ x →0
0
But is not defined, so g 0 doesn't exist
0
( )
Therefore g is not continuous at x =0
For function h
h0( ) =1
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so the function has a well-defined finite value at x =0
lim h x ( ) =
lim h x 0 , so lim h x 0 ( ) = ( ) = Your notes
x →0− x →0+ x →0
so the function has a well-defined finite limit at x =0
But lim h ( x ) ≠h 0
( )
x →0
Therefore h is not continuous at x =0
How does continuity work for a piecewise-defined
function?
The definition of continuity at a point also applies to piecewise-defined functions
In practical terms this means that
At a boundary to a partition of the function's domain
A piecewise-defined function will be continuous if the following are all equal:
The value of the expression defining the function to the left of the
boundary
The value of the expression defining the function to the right of the
boundary
The value of the function at the boundary
This is not an alternative definition of continuity!
It is merely a 'side-effect' of the definition given above
See the worked example for an example of this
How does continuity work for combinations of
functions?
You can use the following continuity theorem for combinations of functions:
If functions f and g are continuous at a point x = a , then the following functions
are also continuous at x a : =
f +g
f −g
f ·g
f
g
(so long as g a ( ) ≠ 0)
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Worked Example
x +3 Your notes
(a) Explain why the function f defined by f ( x ) = x − 1 is not continuous at x = 1 .
Answer:
The main problem here is that f is not defined when x =1
1+3 4
f 1
( ) = 1 − 1 = 0 which is not defined
Alternatively, you could show that the limits from the left and right are unbounded at
=
x 1 , which also makes the function discontinuous at that point
f 1 does not exist, so f is not continuous at x = 1
( )
x + 4, x < 0
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
= 2, x = 0
⎪
⎪
(b) Explain why the function g defined by g ( x )
⎨
⎪ is not
x − 2 2, x > 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( )
=0.
⎩
continuous at x
Answer:
First look at the left and right limits at x =0
lim g x = 0 + 4 = 4
( ) ( )
x →0−
lim g x ( ) = (( 0 ) −2 2=4 )
x →0+
Those are equal, so the limit exists
lim g x ( ) =4
x →0
Now look at the value of the function at x =0
g 0 =2 ( )
So both the value of the function and the value of its limit are well-defined at x =0
The problem is that those two values are not equal
lim g x ( ) ≠ g 0 , therefore g is not continuous at x = 0
( )
x →0
Continuity over an interval
What does it mean for a function to be continuous over
an interval?
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A function is continuous over an interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval
x Your notes
For example, we have seen that g ( x ) = x is not continuous at x = 0
But it is continuous over any interval that doesn't include 0
What does it mean for a function to be continuous?
A function is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point in its domain
1
For example, we have seen that f ( x ) = x is not continuous at x = 0
Therefore the function f is not continuous over all the real numbers
1
However if we define the function j as jx( ) = x , x ≠0
We have removed the discontinuity from its domain
Therefore j is a continuous function
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Removable Discontinuities
Your notes
Removable discontinuity
What is a removable discontinuity?
A removable discontinuity is a discontinuity in a function that can be 'removed'
This is done in order to make the function continuous over an interval containing the
discontinuity
Recall that a function f is continuous at the point x = c if
f c exists,
( )
lim f x exists,
( )
x →c
and lim f ( x ) =f ( c )
x →c
A removable discontinuity is a 'hole' in the function
It is a point where:
lim f x exists
( )
x →c
but f ( c doesn't exist
)
Graphs of functions with removable discontinuity 'holes'
x
For example, g ( x ) = x is not continuous at x = 0 because g 0 ( ) doesn't exist
However the discontinuity at x = 0 is removable because lim g x = 1
( )
x →c
I.e. the limit does exist at the point of discontinuity
Removing discontinuities
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How can I remove a removable discontinuity?
To remove a removable discontinuity the function needs to be redefined Your notes
This is done by defining f ( c to be equal to lim f x at the point of discontinuity
) ( )
x →c
The function then 'ticks all the boxes' to be continuous at that point
⎧
⎪
x
, x ≠0
⎪
⎪
=
⎪
For example, if we instead define the function g by g ( x )
⎪
⎨
⎪
x
1, x = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
Then g becomes continuous over all the real numbers, including x =0
We have removed the removable discontinuity!
Worked Example
x 2 + 3x
Let f be the function defined by f ( x ) = x
.
(a) Explain why f is not continuous at x = 0.
Answer:
f 0 is not defined, so the function can't be continuous at x = 0
( )
0 2 +3 0 0
= = 0 which is not defined
( ) ( )
f 0
0
( )
( )
f 0 does not exist, therefore f is not continuous at x = 0
( )
(b) Explain how the discontinuity at x = 0 can be removed.
Answer:
First find the limit at x =0
This can be done by factorising and simplifying
x 2 + 3x x x +3
= =x +3
( )
x x
( +3=3
0 )
lim f x = 3 ( )
x →0
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The limit exists, therefore the discontinuity at x = 1 is removable
Redefine the function so that f 0 ( ) = lim f ( x )
Your notes
x →0
The discontinuity can be removed by redefining the function f as
x 2 + 3x
⎧
⎪
, x ≠0
⎪
⎪
=
⎪
f x
( )
⎪
⎨
⎪
x
3, x = 0
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
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Non-removable Discontinuities
Your notes
Jump discontinuity
What is a jump discontinuity?
A jump continuity occurs at a point where the value of a function makes a sudden 'leap'
between two values
Graph of a function with a jump discontinuity at x=a
Where there is a jump discontinuity
The limit from the left and the limit from the right both exist
But they are not equal
A jump discontinuity is not a removable discontinuity
x 3 − x 2 − 2x , x < 1
⎧
⎪
=
⎪
For example, consider the function f defined by f x ⎪
8 − x 2 − 3x , x ≥ 1
⎨
( )
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
lim f x ( ) = −2
x →1−
lim f x ( ) =4
x →1+
So f has a jump discontinuity at x =1
Essential discontinuity
A function has an essential (or infinite) discontinuity at a point where
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the limit from the left or the limit from the right (or both)
do not exist Your notes
or are infinite
A common example is where the graph of a function has a vertical asymptote
Graphs of functions with essential discontinuities
An essential discontinuity is not a removable discontinuity
x − 3, x ≤ 5
⎧
⎪
⎪
⎪
=
⎪
⎪
For example, consider the function f defined by f x 1
4− , x >5
⎨
( )
⎪
x −5
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩
lim f x ( ) = 2 (and f 5 = 2 as well)
( )
x →5−
But lim f x ( ) =−∞
x →5+
Because the right-hand limit is infinite, f has an essential discontinuity at x =5
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Intermediate Value Theorem
Your notes
Intermediate value theorem
What is the intermediate value theorem?
The intermediate value theorem says that:
If f is a continuous function on the closed interval ⎢⎣ a
⎡
,b ⎤
⎥
⎦
and if d is a number between f ( a and f b
) ( )
then there is at least one number c between a and b such that f ( c ) =d
In practical terms this means that
If a function continuous on an interval ⎢⎣ a
⎡
,b ⎤
⎥
⎦
starts with value f ( a and ends with
)
value f b ( )
Then somewhere between a and b the function takes on every value between f ( a )
and f b
( )
This seems really obvious if you think about the 'a function whose graph I can sketch
without taking my pencil off the paper' way of describing continuity
But it is an incredibly important result in mathematics
Examiner Tips and Tricks
On the exam it's important to justify any use of the intermediate value theorem.
Often this means explaining how you know the function in question is continuous
Remember that if a function is differentiable, then it is continuous
And if a function is twice-differentiable then both the function and its
derivative are continuous
Worked Example
A social sciences researcher is using a function m to model the total mass of all the
garden gnomes appearing on lawns in a particular neighborhood at time t . The
function m is twice-differentiable, with m t measured in kilograms and t measured
( )
in days.
The table below gives selected values of m ' ( t , the rate of change of the mass, over
)
the time interval 0 t 12. ≤≤
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t 0 3 7 10 12
(days) Your notes
m' t
( )
2.6 4.8 12.2 0.7 -1.3
(kilograms per day)
Is there a time t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 3, for which m ' t = 4 ? Justify your answer.
( )
Answer:
This is a job for the intermediate value theorem, but first you have to justify why m ' ( t )
is continuous
m is twice-differentiable, which means m and m ' are both continuous
m t is twice-differentiable, which means m ' t is differentiable, which means
( ) ( )
m ' t is continuous
( )
m' 0( ) = 2.6 < 4 < 4.8 = m' 3 ( )
Therefore by the intermediate value theorem there is a time t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 3 , for which
m' t( ) =4
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