INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING AND TOLERANCING

1.1 Introduction to manufacturing

Manufacturing is defined as processing or making (a product) from raw materials, especially as
a large-scale operation using machinery. In a modern context, this definition can be expanded
further to: the making of products from raw materials using various processes, equipment,
operations and manpower according to a detailed plan. During processing, the raw material
undergoes changes to allow it to become a part of a product or products. Once processed, it should
have worth in the market or a value. Therefore, manufacturing is ‘adding value’ to the material
In general terms, based on the above definition, a manufacturing system can be defined as: a
system in which raw materials are processed from one form into another, known as a product,
gaining a higher or added value in the process and thus creating wealth in the form of a profit.

Basic model of manufacturing process adding value.

Inputs and outputs of a manufacturing system
The main output of the manufacturing system is obviously the product or manufactured goods.
These can be classified as either consumer products or producer products. Consumer products are
those that are sold to the general public. However, producer products are those which are
manufactured for other organizations to use in the manufacture of their products, which in turn
could be either of the above categories of product. Therefore, in some instances, the output of one
manufacturing system is the input of another.
Inputs and outputs of a manufacturing system.
Common characteristics of a manufacturing system
Regardless of the nature of the manufacturing organization or the product being manufactured, all
manufacturing systems have a number of common characteristics, which are;
1. All systems will have specific business objectives to meet in the most cost-effective manner.
2. All systems consist of an integrated set of sub-systems, usually based on functions, which have
to be linked according to the material processing.
3. All systems must have some means of controlling the sub-systems and the overall system.
4. To operate properly, all systems need a flow of information and a decision-making process.
All of the above must be incorporated into the manufacturing system to allow stable operation in
the rapidly changing global market in which most organizations compete. Each organization has
its own unique manufacturing system, developed to support its specific objectives and deal with
its own unique problems.
Reasons why manufacturing is so important to a country and its economy
In today’s world, 90 percent of what people use in their day-to-day activities comes from
manufacturing companies. The manufacturing industry plays a big role in boosting a country’s
economy. Here are some of the reasons why manufacturing is important to a country as well as its
economy.

1. Creation of job Opportunities: Establishment of manufacturing companies is not only for the
production of goods but also for employment purposes. Even though machines have been
introduced due to the latest technology, laborers are still needed to handle other important things
that machines can’t handle

2. Adds value to the economy of a country: The main drivers for economic development are the
technology improvement of the manufacturing machinery. There can be no growth in a country’s
economy if they are not using modern technology in the machinery industry. Most manufacturing
machines are used to make new gadgets which also end up being used to make other machines.
3. Manufacturing industries help to support other companies: Every production and
manufacturing company depends on another company for raw materials. If there is a machinery
breakdown in one company, production may be discontinued and losses may occur. To avoid this,
it is good to have a backup plan, either by buying new machinery or material. It is good to have
breakdown prevention measures or repair and maintenance leads.

4. Manufacturing companies promote trading in a country: According to the World Trade

Organization, a country cannot trade more than 20% of its services because they have to trade 80%
of their goods. This means that all countries participating in trade activities must have several
manufacturing companies. After all, the economy will be very poor if countries were only trading
services.

5. Most Services depend on manufactured goods: Most services depend on the act of using
manufactured goods. The wholesale and retail, which make up more than 10% of the economy,
involve selling and buying of manufactured goods.

6. Helps in generating a countries revenue through taxes: Both the manufacturers and the
employees have to pay taxes, thus generating more revenue for the country. The taxes go to the
government who then use it to develop the country through infrastructure. The money is used to
provide facilities like hospitals, schools, better roads, and also social programs.

1.2 Classification of manufacturing processes

For production of products, materials are needed. It is therefore important to know the
characteristics of the available engineering materials. Raw materials used manufacturing of
products, tools, machines and equipment in factories or industries are extracted from ores.
The ores are suitably converted the metal into a molten form by reducing or refining processes
in foundries. This molten metal is poured into moulds for providing commercial castings,
called ingots. Such ingots are then processed in rolling mills to obtain market form of
material supply in form of bloom, billets, slabs and rods. These forms of material supply are
further subjected to various manufacturing processes for getting usable metal products of
different shapes and sizes in various manufacturing shops. All these processes used in
manufacturing concern for changing the ingots into usable products may be classified into six
major groups as primary shaping processes, secondary machining processes, metal forming
processes, joining processes, surface finishing processes and processes effecting change in
properties.

(a) Primary Shaping Processes

Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous material. Some
processes produce finish products or articles into its usual form whereas others do not, and require
further working to finish component to the desired shape and size. (1) Casting, (2) Powder
metallurgy, (3) Plastic technology, (4) Gas cutting, (5) Bending and (6) Forging.
 (b) Secondary or Machining Processes
As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes. These
components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine shops,
to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus, the
jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products received through primary
shaping processes. Some of the common secondary or machining processes are;

(1) Turning, (2) Threading, (3) Knurling, (4) Milling, (5) Drilling, (6) Boring, (7) Planning, (8)
Shaping, (9) Slotting, (10) Sawing, (11) Broaching, (12) Hobbing, (13) Grinding, (14) Gear
cutting, (15) Thread cutting and (16) Unconventional machining processes namely machining with
Numerical Control (NC) machines tools or Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines tools
using ECM, LBM, AJM, USM setups etc.

(c) Metal Forming Processes

Forming processes encompasses a wide variety of techniques, which make use of suitable
force, pressure or stresses, like compression, tension and shear or their combination to cause a
permanent deformation of the raw material to impart required shape. These processes are also
known as mechanical working processes and are mainly classified into two major categories
i.e, hot working processes and cold working processes. Some of the important metal forming
processes are:

Hot working Processes

(1) Forging, (2) Rolling, (3) Hot spinning, (4) Extrusion, (5) Hot drawing and (6) Hot spinning.

Cold working processes

(1) Cold forging, (2) Cold rolling, (3) Cold heading, (4) Cold drawing, (5) Wire drawing, (6)
Stretch forming, (7) Sheet metal working processes such as piercing, punching, lancing, notching,
coining, squeezing, deep drawing, bending etc.

(d) Joining Processes

Many products observed in day-to-day life, are commonly made by putting many parts together
may be in subassembly. These processes are used for assembling metal parts and in general
fabrication work. Such requirements usually occur when several pieces are to be joined together
to fabricate a desired structure of products. Some of the important and common joining processes
are: (1) Welding (plastic or fusion), (2) Brazing, (3) Soldering, (4) Riveting, (5) Screwing, (6)
Press fitting, (7) Sintering, (8) Adhesive bonding, (9) Shrink fitting, (10) Explosive welding, (11)
Diffusion welding, (12) Keys and cotters joints, (13) Coupling and (14) Nut and bolt joints.

(e) Surface Finishing Processes

Surface finishing processes are utilized for imparting intended surface finish on the surface of a
job. By imparting a surface finishing process, dimension of part is not changed functionally; either
a very negligible amount of material is removed from the certain material is added to the surface
of the job. Some of the commonly used surface finishing processes are: (1) Honing, (2) Lapping,
(3) Super finishing, (4) Belt grinding, (5) Polishing, (6) Tumbling, (7) Organic finishes, (8)
Sanding, (9) deburring, (10) Electroplating, (11) Buffing, (12) Metal spraying, (13) Painting, (14)
Inorganic coating, (15) Anodizing, (16) Sheradising, (17) Parkerizing, (18) Galvanizing, (19)
Plastic coating, (20) Metallic coating, (21)Anodizing and (22) Sand blasting.

(f) Processes Effecting Change in Properties

Processes effecting change in properties are generally employed to provide certain specific
properties to the metal work pieces for making them suitable for particular operations or use.
Some important material properties like hardening, softening and grain refinement are needed
to jobs and hence are imparted by heat treatment. Heat treatments affect the physical
properties and also make a marked change in the internal structure of the metal. Similarly
the metal forming processes effect on the physical properties of work pieces Similarly shot
peening process, imparts fatigue resistance to work pieces. A few such commonly used processes
are given as under:

(1) Annealing, (2) Normalising, (3) Hardening, (4) Case hardening, (5) Flame hardening,
(6) Tempering, (7) Shot peeing, (8) Grain refining and (9) Age hardening. In addition, some allied
manufacturing activities are also required to produce the finished product such as measurement
and assembly.
1.3 Safety concepts
In all kinds of industries, each shop supervisor is generally assigned the responsibility of safety in
his shop regarding the men, machines and materials. Every supervisor in each shop ensures to the
top executives in respect of all kinds of the safety matters. He is supposed to incorporate all new
safety measures needed in the shop from time to time.

Workshop safety is the protection from the risk of harm, injury to humans or damage to machines
and tools in the workshop. Industrial safety on the other hand refer to safe management practices
that apply to the industrial sector, aimed at protection from the risk of harm, injury to humans or
damage to machines and tools as well the industry.

Objectives of Industrial Safety

The objectives of industrial safety are as follows:
1. Industrial safety is needed to check all the possible chances of accidents for preventing loss of
life and permanent disability of any industrial employee, any damage to machine and material as
it leads to the loss to the whole establishment.
2. It is needed to eliminate accidents causing work stoppage and production loss.
3. It is needed to prevent accidents in industry by reducing any hazard to minimum.
4. It is needed to reduce workman’s compensation, insurance rate and all the cost of accidents.
5. It is required to educate all members regarding the safety principles to avoid accidents in
industry.
6. It is needed to achieve better morale of the industrial employees.
7. It is required to have better human relations within the industry.
8. It is needed to increase production means to a higher standard of living.
The following steps may be taken to effectively and efficiently eliminate an unsafe working
environment:
(1) Elimination, if possible, of the causes of accidents.
(2) If it is not possible to eliminate the cause of accidents, make arrangements to shield the
hazardous place by guards, enclosures or similar arrangements

Accidents and their types

The accidents are the mishaps leading injury to man, machines or tools and equipment and may
cause injury and result either death or temporary disablement or permanent disablement
of the industrial employees. There are various types of common accidents needing due attention
to prevent them which are as follows:

1. Near Accident: An accident with no damage or injury is called near accident.

2. Trivial: An accident with very less damage is called trivial.

3. Minor Accident: It is an accident with damage and injury more than trivial.

4. Serious Accident: An accident with heavy damage and lot of injury is called serious accident.

5. Fatal: It is an accident with very heavy damage. There may be loss of lives also.
Effect of Accidents
The adverse effects of the accident are given as under—

(A) Effect on the owner of factory

(i) Direct cost of an accident

1. Cost of the compensation paid to the workers.

2. Cost of the money paid for treatment.

3. Cost of the monetary value of damaged tools, equipments and materials.

(ii) Indirect cost of an accident

1. Cost of the lost time of injured worker.

2. Cost of the time lost by other employees.

3. Cost of the delays in production.

4. Cost of the time lost by supervisors, safety engineers etc.

5. Cost of the lowered production due to substitute worker.

(B) Effect on worker

1. The industrial workers may get temporary or permanent disability.

2. If the industrial worker dies, his family loses the earner and the compensation never equals to
his earnings.

3. Accident also affects the morale of the employees working in the manufacturing environment.

(C) Effect on society

Work connected with injuries put a considerable burden on society also as given as under:

1. Cost of accidents is included in the products, so the society has to pay more prices for the
industrial products.

2. If some industrial workers do not come under compensation act, the need for help from society
is much greater.

3. Loss of production hours may cause fewer products in market. So, more prices if demand is
more than production.

Causes of accidents
The accidents may take place due to human causes, environmental causes and mechanical causes.
These causes are discussed as under.

Human Causes

1. Accidents may occur while working on unsafe or dangerous equipment or machineries

possessing rotating, reciprocating and moving parts.

2. Accidents occur while operating machines without knowledge, without safety precautions,
without authority, without safety devices.

3. Accidents generally occur while operating or working at unsafe speed.

4. Accidents may occur while working for long duration of work, shift duty etc.

5. Accidents commonly occur during use of improper tools.

6. Accidents may occur while working with mental worries, ignorance, carelessness, nervousness,
dreaming etc.

7. Accidents occur because of not using personal protective devices.

Environmental Causes

1. Accidents may occur during working at improper temperature and humidity causes fatigue to
the workers so chances of accidents increase with workers having fatigue.

2. The presence of dust fumes and smoke in the working area may causes accidents.

3. Poor housekeeping, congestion, blocked exits, bad plant layout etc. may cause accidents.

4. Accidents occur due to inadequate illumination.

5. Improper ventilation in the plant may also leads to industrial accidents.

Mechanical Causes

1. Continued use of old, poor maintained or unsafe equipment may result in accidents.

2. Accidents commonly occur due to use of unguarded or improper guarded machines or

equipments.

3. Unsafe processes, unsafe design and unsafe construction of building structure may lead to
accidents in the plant.

4. Accidents occur due to improper material handling system and improper plant layout.

5. Accidents may occur due to not using of safety devices such as helmets, goggles, gloves, masks
etc.

However, the other general causes of accidents in workshops are listed under:

1. Because of ignorance to work with 6. Improper method to work.

equipment, hand tools, cutting tools and
machine tools. 7. Due to use of improper tools.

2. Operating machine and equipment without 8. Because of lack of discipline.

knowledge.
9. Uninterested in work.
3. Extra curiosity to work without knowing.
10. Due to carelessness.
4. Due to poor working conditions.
11. Due to over confidence.
5. Because of speedy work.
12. Bad working environment. 14. Dangerous materials with which to work.

13. Because of excessive over times duty by 15. Lack of cleanliness.

industrial workers.
16. Due to poor planning.

Common sources of accidents

A large number of revolving, rotating, reciprocating and moving parts of machinery can be said as
the sources of danger and require guarding for protection against accidents. Extensive studies
reveal that some characteristic groups of dangerous parts are acting as common
sources of accidents in workshops. Many such major sources are as under.
1. Revolving parts, viz. pulley, flywheels, worms, worm wheel, fan, gears, gear trains, gear wheels
etc.
2. Projecting fasteners of revolving parts; like bolts, screws, nuts, key heads, cotters and pins etc.
3. Intermittent feed mechanisms, viz., tool feed of planer; table feed of a shaper, ram feed of power
presses and similar other applications.
4. Revolving shafts, spindles, bars, mandrels, chucks, followers and tools like drills, taps, reamers,
milling cutters, and boring tool etc.
5. Rotating worms and spirals enclosed in casings, such as in conveyors and revolving cutting tool,
like milling cutters, circular saw blade, saw band, circular shears and grinding wheels, etc.
6. Reciprocating tools and dies of power presses, spring hammer, drop hammers, and reciprocating
presses, reciprocating knives and saw blade such bow saw, shearing and perforating machines and
the cutting and trimming machine and power hacksaws etc.
7. Moving parts of various machines, like those of printing machines, paper-cutters and trimmers,
etc.
8. Revolving drums and cylinders without casing, such as concrete and other mixers, tumblers and
tumbling barrels, etc.
9. High speed rotating cages such as in hydro-extractors.
10. Revolving weights, such as in hydraulic accumulator or in slotting machines for counter-
balance.
11. Nips between meshing racks and pinions of machine parts
12. Nips between reciprocating parts and fixed components, such as between shaper table and the
fixture mounted on it or a planer table and table reversing stops, etc.
13. Nips between crank handles for machine controls and fixed parts.
14. Projecting nips between various links and mechanisms, like cranks, connecting rods, piston
rods, rotating wheels and discs, etc.
15. Projecting sharp edge or nips of belt and chain drives; via belt, pulleys, chains sprockets and
belt fasteners, spiked cylinders etc.
16. Nips between revolving control handles and fixed parts traverse gear handles of lathes, millers,
etc.
17. Moving balance weights and dead weight, hydraulic accumulators, counter-balance weight on
large slotting machines, etc.
18. Revolving drums and cylinders uncased, tumblers in the foundry, mixers, varnish mixers etc.
19. Nips between fixed and moving parts such as buckets or hoppers of conveyors against tipping
bars, stops or parts of the framework.
20. Nips between revolving wheels or cylinders and pans or tables, sand mixers, crushing and
incorporating mills, mortar mills, leather carrying machines, etc.
21. Cutting edges of endless band cutting machines, wood working, and log cutting metal find
stone-cutting band saws, cloth-cutting band knives, etc.
22. Nips between gears and racks strips, roller drives, presses, planning machine drives,
etc.

Common safety methods

The common methods of safety are as follows:
1. Safety by construction or design. 7. Safety by using distance guards.
2. Safety by position. 8. Safety by workplace layout and proper
working conditions.
3. Safety by using fixed guards.
9. Safety by proper material handling.
4. Safety by using interlock guards.
10. Safety by using personal protective
5. Safety by using automatic guards.
devices.
6. Safety by using trip guards.
Types of safety
The fo1lowing general types of safety are considered in the workshop
1. Safety of self. 2. Safety of job. 3. Safety of machines tools.

General Safety Precautions while Working in a Workshop

1. One should not leave the machine ON even after the power is OFF and until it has stopped
running completely. Someone else may not notice that the machine is still in motion and be injured.
2. Operator should not talk to other industrial persons when he is operating a machine.
3. One should not oil, clean, adjust or repair any machine while it is running. Stop the machine
and lock the power switch in the OFF position.
4. One should not operate any machine unless authorized to do so by the authorize person in the
shop.
5. Always check that work and cutting tools on any machine are clamped securely before starting.
6. The floor should be kept clean and clear of metal chips or curls and waste pieces. Put them in
the container provided for such things. Scraps and chips or curls may cut through a shoe and injure
the foot.
7. Defective guards must be replaced or repaired immediately.
8. One should not operate any machinery when the supervisor or instructor is not in the shop.
9. All set screws should be of flush or recessed type. Projecting set screws are very dangerous
because they catch on sleeves or clothing.
10. One should not try to stop the machine with hands or body.
11. Only trained operator should operate machine or switches as far as possible.
12. Always take help for handling long or heavy pieces of material.
13. Always follow safe lifting practices
14. No one should run in the shop at work time.
15. Always keep your body and clothes away from moving machine parts. Get first aid
immediately for any injury.
16. Never talk to anyone while operating the machine, nor allow anyone to come near you or the
machine.
17. Stop the machine before making measurements or adjustments.
18. Operator should concentrate on the work and must not talk unnecessarily while operating the
machines.
19. Never wear necktie, loose sweater, wristwatch, bangles, rings, and loose-fitting clothing while
working in workshop.
20. Always wear overcoat or apron.
21. Stop machines before attempting to clean it.
22. Make sure that all guards are in their place before starting to operate a machine.
23. Do not attempt to operate a machine until you have received operating instructions.
24. Be thoroughly familiar with the ‘stop’ button and any emergency stop buttons provided on the
machines.
25. Remove burrs, chips and other unwanted materials as soon as possible. They can
cause serious cuts.
26. Do not leave loose rags on machines.
27. Wash your hands thoroughly after working to remove oils, abrasive particles, cutting fluid, etc.
28. Report all injuries to the foreman, howsoever small. Cuts and burns should be treated
immediately.
29. Keep the work area clean.
30. Keep your mind on the job, be alert, and be ready for any emergency.
31. Always work in proper lighting.
32. On should not lean against the machines.
1.4 Reverse engineering
Reverse engineering is the process of analysing an existing object, breaking it down to its core
components and measuring its critical dimensions to understand its function and methodology. In
the industry of mechanical engineering this then allows the design to be recreated to a matching,
or improved, specification.

The purpose of reverse engineering is to facilitate the maintenance work by improving the
understandability of a system and to produce the necessary documents for a legacy system.

Reverse Engineering Goals:

Cope with Complexity. Synthesize higher abstraction.

Recover lost information. Facilitate Reuse.
Detect side effects.

It’s sometimes abbreviated to ‘RE’ and the actual process is carried out by a design
engineer. Rather than the product being designed and manufactured from scratch, reverse
engineering allows us to understand the original design intent instead. The object or product can
be a mechanical part, a product that’s purchased and used daily by consumers or even a sculpture.

1. Why use reverse engineering?

Reverse engineering is used in lots of different industries because the requirement can often be to
either better the product, duplicate it or learn from the design for future use and manufacturing. It
can be used in industries including automotive, consumer products, chemicals, electronics and
mechanical designs. Here are some of its wider uses: Improving a product Data recovery or broken
IT infrastructure Converting paper drawings of design into digital 3D data In the case of improving
 a product, it means the process allows us to make it more easily, quicker or more effective for its
original use. Whether that’s to re-design a car, improve gaming software and everything in
between.

2. How does reverse engineering work?

Reverse engineering services happen using particular equipment, such as a 3D scanning machine
or traditional measurement tools, by a product design consultancy.

Scan your product – the 3D scanner measures thousands of points over an object surface to
capture its form. In simpler examples the object can just be measured using callipers, gauges and
micrometers.

Convert this data – the 3D scanner’s software turns this data into information that gets
represented by a CAD program. More traditionally, new CAD is created but using the newly
obtained dimensions.

Adjust the design however is desired – an engineer can make adjustments to the CAD model at
this stage. This provides a platform to improve functionality and reliability as required before
saving it in a suitable format to be manufactured.

Create your improved product – when your universal digital 3D file is available, you can then
reproduce it using manufacturing methods such as 3D printing, CNC and injection moulding.

3. Where does CAD come in as part of 3D scanning and RE? 3D scanning means we can use
computer aided design (CAD) to maintain the design intent of an object. The whole process allows
us to create a 3D model and a 2D drawing of any physical object.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using reverse engineering?

Advantages

i. Cost effective
[Link] products without starting from scratch every time
[Link] product improvement and adjustments
[Link] legacy parts. If you have a machine that’s made up of components that are now old or
broken, RE means you can take that apart, identify how it was designed, and then fix and update
it.
[Link] Equipment Manufacturer Complications (OEM), If the original manufacturer is for some
reason no longer in business, or they don’t have the design measurements any more, you don’t
have to worry. RE means you’re not limited because the process enables you to manufacture
replacement components.
 [Link] product improvements. If you have a successful product, you can use RE to take things
back to basics, scrutinise the design and enhance the effectiveness of the product. Alternatively, if
you have a product that’s desperate for a redesign, you can do this too, through RE.
[Link] product inspiration or competition analysis. You can use RE to spark ideas for new products.
Conduct analysis of your competitor’s products to think innovatively to brainstorm to compete
with them.
[Link] archiving, Once an object has been reverse engineered, the CAD data can then be stored
digitally and backups made accordingly. Then, should that object be damaged, or any museums or
companies need to duplicate or remake the product, this can happen.

Disadvantages

(i) Not every component can be 3D scanned

(ii) Some extremely small objects can be more difficult to re-create or if the design is overly
complex. Alternatively, if it has missing pieces or it’s majorly cracked, this won’t allow the
3D machine to give a completely accurate scan of the whole product.

What are the types of reverse engineering?

There are different types of RE because the process can break an object down, right its core. But
they can include system level analysis, circuit extraction and product teardown. Product teardown
is where an engineer strips the object to its components level to understand not just the overall
function but also fine details like the tolerance requirements.
Question: Discuss the various types of reverse engineering and produce a write up.