Psychology of Adolescence

Geta Walelign

Email: headsetplc@[Link]

Mobile No. +251 911952236

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CHAPTER ONE: THE NATURE OF ADOLESCENCE

1.1 Historical overview of Adolescence

In early Greece, the philosophers Plato and Aristotle both commented about the nature of youth. Plato
said that reasoning first develops in adolescence, and Aristotle argued that self-determination (the ability
to choose) is the hallmark of maturity. In the Middle Ages, knowledge about adolescence moved a step
backward: children were viewed as miniature adults. French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau
provided a more enlightened view of adolescence, including an emphasis on different phases of
development.

Between 1890 and 1920 (Age of Adolescence), a cadre of psychologists, urban reformers, and others
began to mold the concept of adolescence. G. Stanley Hall is the father of the scientific study of
adolescence. In 1904, he proposed the storm-and-stress view of adolescence, which has strong biological
foundations following the work of [Link]. The storm-and-stress view is Hall’s concept that
adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings. In contrast to Hall’s biological
view, Margaret Mead argued for a sociocultural interpretation of adolescence. Mead concluded that
stress in adolescence is depend on the norm of the cultures. In the inventionist view, adolescence is a
sociohistorical creation such as legislation, industrial revolution, urbanization and youth groups.

Negative stereotyping of adolescents in any historical era has been common. Joseph Adelson described
the concept of the ―adolescent generalization gap,‖ which states that generalizations are often based on
the behavior of a limited set of highly visible adolescents. For too long, adolescents have been viewed in
negative ways. Research shows that a considerable majority of adolescents around the world have
positive self-esteem. The majority of adolescents are not highly conflicted but rather are searching for an
identity.

A cohort is a group of people who are born at a similar point in history and share similar experiences as
a result. Two changes in the current generation of adolescents and emerging adults—called
Millennials— involve their increasing ethnic diversity and their connection to technology. Cohort
effects refer to characteristics attributed to a person’s year of birth, era, or generation rather than to his
or her actual chronological age.

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1.2 Meaning and Definition of Adolescence

The word adolescence is derived from the Latin adolescere, which means ―to grow into adulthood‖. In
all societies, adolescence is a time of growing up, of moving from the immaturity of childhood into the
maturity of adulthood, of preparation for the future. Adolescence can be defined as the period of
transition between childhood and adulthood that involves biological, cognitive, and socioemotional
changes. Adolescence begins at approximately 10 to 13 years of age and ends in the late teens.

1.3 Boundaries of Adolescence

The transition from childhood to adolescence is complex and multidimensional, involving change in
many different aspects of an individual’s life. Negotiating this transition successfully requires
considerable adaptation and thoughtful, sensitive support from caring adults. Another important
transition occurs from adolescence to adulthood. It has been said that adolescence begins in biology and
ends in culture.

Determining the beginning and ending of adolescence is more a matter of opinion than of absolute fact.
It all depends on the boundaries we use to define the period. Rather than argue about which boundaries
are the correct ones, it makes more sense to think of development during adolescence as involving a
series of transitions from immaturity into maturity. Some of these passages are long and some are short;
some are smooth and others are rough. And not all of them occur at the same time. Consequently, it is
quite possible—and perhaps even likely—that an individual will mature in some respects before he or
she matures in others.

Although at one time ―adolescence‖ may have been synonymous with the teenage years (from 13 to 19),
the adolescent period has lengthened considerably in the past 100 years, both because physical
maturation occurs earlier and because so many individuals delay entering into work and marriage until
their mid-20s (Steinberg, 2014), which often requiring longer periods of education or vocational training
to prepare for adult responsibilities. Even though, there was no such concept in preindustrial societies,
today adolescence has become a global phenomenon. In most parts of the world, entry into adulthood
takes longer and is less clear-cut than in the past. In other words, a complete understanding of
adolescence in contemporary society depends on being familiar with biological, social, sociological,
cultural, and historical perspectives on the period.

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The boundaries of adolescence
 Biological: in this perspective adolescence begins at puberty and ends with the attainment of
physical and sexual maturity.
 Emotional: in this perspective adolescence begins at the beginning of autonomy or
independence from parents and ends with the attainment of a self-revised personal identity and
emotional autonomy.
 Cognitive: in this perspective adolescence begins with the emergence of logical reasoning,
problem solving and decision making skills and ends after attaining adult logical reasoning and
autonomous decision making.
 Interpersonal: in this perspective adolescence begins with the shift from parents to peer
orientation and ends with increased capacity for intimacy with peers and adults.
 Social: in this perspective adolescence begins with entry into personal, family and work roles
and ends with the attainment of adult privileges and responsibilities.
 Educational: in this perspective adolescence begins with entry into secondary school and ends
with the completion of secondary or college education.
 Chronological: in this perspective adolescence begins with attainment of designated age of
adolescence (e.g., 10 years) and ends with the attainment of designated age of adulthood (e.g., 21
years).
 Legal: in this perspective adolescence begins with attainment of juvenile status and ends with the
attainment of majority status.
 Cultural: in this perspective adolescence begins entrance into period of training for ceremonial
rite of passage and ends with completion of ceremonial rite of passage.

The old view of adolescence was that it is a singular, uniform period of transition resulting in entry to
the adult world. Now, the period of adolescence divided in to three sub stages:

1. Early adolescence (12-14) – characterized by rapid physiological and physical change (due to
hormonal changes). Mental development increases rapidly. This leads to problem of adjustment.
2. Middle adolescence (15-18) – a time of adjustment to the rapid changes occurred during early
adolescence. But the rate of growth declines.
3. Late adolescence (18-21) – overlap with early adulthood. It is a time for preparation to know
norms, values of adulthood like career interests, dating, and identity exploration.

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1.4 Characteristics and Developmental tasks of adolescence

Like every important period during the life span adolescence has certain characteristics that distinguish
it from the periods that preceded it and the periods that fill follow it. These characteristics are listed
below:

1. Adolescence is an important period: as all periods in the life span are important, some are more
important than others because of their immediate effects on attitudes and behaviors, whereas others are
significant because of their long term effects. Adolescence is one of the periods when both the
immediate effects and long term effects are important. Some periods are important for their physical
effects and some for their psychological effects. These rapid and important physical developments,
especially during the early adolescent period rapid mental developments occur.

2. Adolescence is a period for searching identity: which affects his/her behaviors’ in term of
clarifications. He/she imagines where he/she belongs as he/she is neither a child nor an adult. A new set
of values and norms emerges and he/she is also confused. He/she establishes new relationships with
others; finds new friends and may break old friendship.

3. Adolescence is a period of problem age: rapid physical and physiological changes, changes in
interest and attitude and the role the social group expects them create new problem. These are especially
difficult for adolescents to cope with due to two main reasons:

 Through childhood most of their problems were meet and solved by parents or teachers, hence
most of them are inexperienced in coping with problems alone.
 Because an adolescent wants to feel that they are independent, they demand the right of coping
with their own problems by refusing the attempt on the part of the parents and teachers to help
them. The incapability of adolescence to solve the problems according to their desire and
expectation again result in frustration and anxiety.

4. Adolescence is a period of change: the rate of change in attitudes and behavior during adolescence
parallels the rate of physical change. During early adolescence, when physical changes are rapid,
changes in attitudes and behaviors are also rapid. As physical changes slow down, so does attitudinal
and behavioral changes.

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5. Adolescence is a transition period from childhood to adulthood: It is time when individuals are
making transition from childhood to adulthood. During this time the individual status is vague and there
are confusions about the roles the individual is expected to play. The adolescence during this time is
neither a child nor an adult. If an adolescent behaves like a child he/she is told to act like his/her age. If
he/she tries to act like adult he/she reproved or accused for his/her attempts to act like adult. Transition
is often refers to the process, not the end result.

6. Adolescents do not use clear verbal expression to communicate feelings such as hunger and
frustration. They can express their emotional problem by leaving the room, attacking other boys and by
refusing to speak. Emotional expressions of adolescence are greatly influenced by maturity and training.

7. Adolescence is a time of unrealism/fantasy or imagination/ -adolescents are excessively egoistic,

selfish regarding themselves as a center of a universe and the sole object of interests. It is a time of
experimentation, idealism conflict, and uncertainty.

A developmental task is a task that arises at or about a certain period in life, unsuccessful achievement
of which leads to inability to perform tasks associated with the next period or stage in life. The
adolescent cannot become a successful adult if he did not achieve his development tasks. Some of the
developmental tasks during adolescence period are:

1. Establish key aspects of identity. Forming an identity is a lifelong process, but crucial aspects of
identity are typically forged during adolescence, including developing an identity that reflects a
sense of individuality as well as connection to valued people and groups.
2. Learning to get along with friends of both sexes. To learn to look upon girls as women and boys
as men; to become an adult among adults; to learn to work with others for a common purpose,
disregarding personal feelings; to lead without dominating.
3. Becoming more self-sufficient. To develop affection for parents without dependence upon them;
to develop respect for older adults without dependence upon them.
4. Making decisions about marriage and family life. To explore attitudes toward family life and
having children; to acquire the knowledge necessary for home management and, if desired, child
rearing.
5. Preparing for a job or career. To develop career/vocational goals and ways to reach these goals;
to be able to make a living.
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 6. Acquiring a set of values and ethical system to guide behavior. To develop an outlook toward
life based on what is important.
7. Becoming socially responsible. To participate as a responsible person with friends at home, and
in the community; to develop personal moral values to guide behavior
8. Accepting one's physical body and keeping it healthy. To accept one's body; to keep it healthy
through good nutrition, exercise, disease prevention, and other health practices. An adolescent is
very much self-conscious about his/her looks.

1.5 The Science of Adolescent Development

Can a discipline that studies pubertal change, parent-adolescent relationships, or adolescent thinking be
equated with disciplines that investigate how gravity works and the molecular structure of compounds?
The answer is yes, because science is not defined by what it investigates but by how it investigates. In
taking a scientific path to study adolescent development, it is important to follow the scientific method.
This method is essentially a four-step process: (1) conceptualize a process or problem to be studied, (2)
collect research information (data), (3) analyze data, and (4) draw conclusions. In step 1, when
researchers are formulating a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses.

1.5.1 Theoretical Foundations

1. Biological theories: Theorists who have taken a biological-or more accurately a biosocial- view of
adolescence stress the hormonal and physical changes of puberty as driving forces. The most important
biosocial theorist was G. Stanley Hall (1904), considered the father of the scientific study of
adolescence.

2. Psychoanalytic theories: Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily
colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind
must be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.

 Freud stressed that adolescents’ lives are filled with tension and conflict. To reduce the tension,
he thought adolescents bury their conflicts in their unconscious mind. According to Freud, the
primary motivation for human behavior is sexual in nature; according to Erikson, it is social and
reflects a desire to affiliate with other people.

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  According to Freud, our basic personality is shaped in the first five years of life; according to
Erikson, developmental change occurs throughout the life span. During the adolescent years,
individuals explore who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. For
Erikson, crisis happened because of the interplay between the internal forces of biology and the
demand of society.

3. Cognitive Theories: Cognitive theories emphasize conscious thoughts. Three important cognitive
theories are Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory, and
information-processing theory. In Piaget’s theory development can best be understood by examining
changes in the nature of thinking or cognition.

4. Learning Theories: Learning theorists stress the context (enviroment) in which the behavior takes
place. Behaviorism essentially holds that we can study scientifically only what we can directly observe
and measure. Social learning theorists, Albert Bandura emphasizes on the process of modeling and
observational learning for adolescence behavioral development. They emphasize continuity in
development and argue that development does not occur in stage-like fashion.

5. Ecological Theory: One ecological theory that has important implications for understanding
adolescent development was created by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005). Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory holds that development reflects the influence of five environmental systems:

 The microsystem is the setting in which the adolescent lives. These contexts include the
adolescent’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the most
direct interactions with social agents take place.
 The mesosystem involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts
Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences
 The exosystem consists of links between a social setting in which the adolescent does not have
an active role and the individual’s immediate context. Ex., a husband’s or an adolescent’s
experience at home may be influenced by a mother’s experiences at work.
 The macrosystem involves the culture in which adolescents live.
 The chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life
course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorce is one transition.

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6. Sociological theory: It understands adolescents as group, rather than individual differences focus on
what they have in common. Other theories focus on mainly within an individual or within the individual
environment. This theory have been focused on relations between generations and have tended to
emphasize the difficulties young people have in making the transition from adolescence in to adulthood
,especially in industrialized society. Two themes have dominated these discussions.

 Marginality of young people- emphasizes the difference in power that exists between the adult
and the adolescent generations.
 Generation gap- conflict between young people and adults over values and attitudes.

7. An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation: Although theories are helpful guides, relying on a single theory
to explain adolescent development probably would be a mistake. This module instead takes an eclectic
theoretical orientation, which does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each
theory whatever is considered its best features.

1.5.2 Research Methods and Issues

Generally, research in adolescent development is designed to test hypotheses, which in some cases are
derived from the theories just described. Through research, theories are modified to reflect new data and
occasionally new theories arise.

A. Methods for Collecting Data: we can choose from several ways of collecting data, when we
conducted a research. Here we consider the measures most often used

1. Observation: Scientific observation requires an important set of skills (Stanovich, 2019). For
observations to be effective, they have to be systematic. We need to have some idea of what we are
looking for. We have to know whom we are observing, when and where we will observe, how we will
make the observations, and how we will record them. Where should we make our observations? We
have two choices: the laboratory and the everyday world.

 Laboratory observation is a controlled setting with many of the complex factors of the ―real
world‖ removed.
 Naturalistic observation means observing behavior in real-world settings, making no effort to
manipulate or control the situation.
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2. Survey and Interview: Sometimes the best and quickest way to get information about adolescents is
to ask them for it. A standard set of questions is used to obtain people’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs
about a specific topic.

3. Standardized test: A test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized
tests allow a person’s performance to be compared with the performance of other individuals. One
criticism of standardized tests is that they assume a person’s behavior is consistent and stable.

4. Physiological Measures: Hormone levels are increasingly used in developmental research. The body
composition of adolescents also is a focus of physiological assessment. The study of brain activity of
adolescents using neuroimaging techniques is another. Yet another dramatic change in physiological
measures is the advancement in methods to assess the actual units of hereditary information—genes—in
studies of biological influences on development.

5. Case Study: A case study is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case studies are performed mainly
by mental health professionals, when for practical or ethical reasons the unique aspects of an individua’s
life cannot be duplicated and tested in other individuals.

B. Research design: There are three main types of research designs: descriptive, correlational, and
experimental.

 Descriptive research: Research that aims to observe and record behavior.

 Correlational research: Research whose goal is to describe the strength of the relationship
between two or more events or characteristics.
 Experimental research: Research that involves an experiment, a carefully regulated procedure in
which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are
manipulated while all other factors are held constant.

C. Time Span of Research: A special concern of developmentalists is the time span of a research
investigation. Studies that focus on the relation of age to some other variable are common. Researchers
have two options:

 Cross-sectional research: A research strategy that involves studying different people of varying
ages all at one time.
 Longitudinal research: A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a
period of time, usually several years or more.

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D. Conducting Ethical Research: The code of ethics instructs psychologists to protect their
participants from mental and physical harm. The participants’ best interests need to be kept foremost in
the researcher’s mind Researchers’ ethical responsibilities include obtaining participants’ informed
consent, ensuring confidentiality, debriefing them about the purpose of the study and potential personal
consequences of participating, and avoiding unnecessary deception of participants. Researchers need to
guard against gender, cultural, and ethnic bias in research.

Summary Points

 The youth of every generation have seemed radical, unnerving, and different from adults—
different in how they look, how they behave, the music they enjoy, their hairstyles, and the
clothing they choose. It is an enormous error to confuse adolescents’ enthusiasm for trying on
new identities and indulging in occasional episodes of outrageous behavior with hostility toward
parental and societal standards. Acting out and boundary testing are time-honored ways in which
adolescents move toward accepting, rather than rejecting, parental values.
 In case you’re worried about what’s going to become of the younger generation, it’s going to
grow up and start worrying about the younger generation. —Roger Allen

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CHAPTER TWO: BIOLOGICAL TRANSITION

2.1 Puberty

Puberty drives from the Latin word pubertas, which means ―adult.‖ Technically, the term refers to the
period during which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction: that is, it denotes the series
of biological changes leading up to reproductive capability. More broadly speaking, however, puberty
encompasses all the physical changes that occur in the growing girl or boy as the individual passes from
childhood in to adulthood. The following are the five chief physical manifestations of puberty:

1. A rapid acceleration in growth, resulting in dramatic increases in both height and weight.
2. The development of primary sex characteristics, including the further development of the
gonads, or sex glands, which are the tests in males and the ovaries in females.
3. The development of secondary sex characteristics, which involves changes in the genitals and
breasts; the growth of pubic, facial, and body hair; and the further development of the sex
organs.
4. Changes in body composition- specifically, in the quantity and distribution of fat and muscle.
5. Changes in the circulatory and respiratory systems, which lead to increased strength and
tolerance for exercise.

Each of these sets of changes is the result of developments in the endocrine and central nervous systems,
many of which begin years before the signs of puberty are evident— some actually occur at conception.

The onset of puberty

The beginning of puberty is directly related to the hormonal process/endocrine systems. Endocrine
system produces, circulates and regulates the levels of hormones in the body. Endocrine systems that
have direct and most important influence on puberty are:

 Hypothalamus –controls pituitary gland

 Pituitary gland –control hormonal level in general
 Glands – gonads /tests and ovaries thyroid and adrenal cortex, which produces important
hormones.
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Hormones are highly specialized substances that are secreted by one or more endocrine glands and then
enter the bloodstream and travel throughout the body. Glands are organs that stimulate particular parts of
the body to respond in specific ways. Puberty begins when levels of hormone increase (growth hormone
and sex hormone).

Female Estrogen - produces ovum

Sex hormone Progesterone –prepares uterus wall for bearing child, produces milk etc.

Male sex Androgen-helps for primary and secondary sexual changes

Sex Hormone Testosterone –produces sperm and other primary and secondary sexual changes

NB: both estrogen and androgens are produced by both sexes and present in male and female at birth.
However, during adolescence, male produce more androgens than estrogen and females more estrogen
than androgen.

What Triggers Puberty?

 Heredity: Puberty is not an environmental accident. Programmed into the genes of every human
being is the timing for the emergence of puberty.
 Hormones: Powerful chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body
by the bloodstream.
 Weight and Body Fat: A number of studies have found that higher weight, especially obesity, is
linked to earlier pubertal development.
 Sociocultural and Environmental Factors: Recent research indicates that cultural variations and
early experiences may be related to earlier pubertal onset.

2.2 Somatic Development

The effects of the hormonal changes of puberty on the adolescent’s body are remarkable. The
simultaneous release of growth hormones, thyroid hormones, and androgens stimulates rapid
acceleration in height and weight. This dramatic increase in stature is called the adolescent growth
spurt. What is most incredible about the adolescent growth spurt is not so much the absolute gain of
height and weight that typically occurs but the speed with which the increases take place.

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  Before puberty, there are relatively few sex differences in muscle development and only slight
sex differences in body fat. In both sexes, muscular development is rapid during puberty, but
muscle tissue grows faster in boys than girls.
 In contrast, body fat increases for both sexes during puberty, but more so for females than for
males, especially during the years just before puberty.

Sequences of Physical Growth

Female
 Sex hormones increased (estrogen and progesterone)10-10 1/2)
 Uterine wall (muscles) grow vaginal lining thickens
 Breast begin to bud (11 years)
 Height spurt begins
 Pubic hair appears
 Menarche (12 - 12 ½)
 Muscle and organ grows takes peaks
 Oil, sweat and odor glands become much more active (the worst age of acne for girl is (14-19)
Boys
 Sex hormone increased
 Tests and scrotum begin to grow
 Pubic hair appears
 Penis begin to enlarge
 Height spurt
 Weight spurt
 Sperm ache –first ejaculation
 Muscle and organ growth reach their peak
 Facial hair begins
 Voice begin to deepen
 Oil, sweat odor gland much more active (16-19)

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Sexual maturation means achieving fertility and bodily changes that support the reproductive processes.
It refers to both primary and secondary and secondary sexual change.

 Primary sexual characteristics are organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and
mature during adolescence. In female it includes; ovaries, fallopian tube uterus, and vagina; in
the male it includes, the testes, penis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland. Enlargement
which is directly involved in reproduction.
 Secondary sex characteristics are physiological signs of sexual maturation that do not directly
involve the sex organs: for example, the breasts of females and the broad shoulders of males that
do not involve the sex organs. Others secondary sex characteristics are: Deeping of voice,
appearance of hair around face, muscular development, appearance of hair in sex organs, which
do not directly involved in reproduction.

Signs of sexual Maturity: sperm production and menstruation

 In males, the principal sign of sexual maturity is the production of sperm. A boy may wake up to
find a wet spot or a hardened, dried spot on the sheets –the result of nocturnal emissions, an
involuntary ejaculation of semen commonly referred to as a wet dreams. Most adolescent boys
have these emissions, sometimes in connection with an erotic dream.
 The principal sign of sexual maturity in girls is menstruation, a monthly shedding of tissue from
the lining of the womb ―sweet secret‖. The first menstruation, called menarche, occurs fairly late
in the sequence of female development and indicates that ovulation is occurring. The normal
timing of menarche can vary from ages 10-16 ½.
 Researchers have found that male pubertal characteristics develop in this order: increased penis
and testicle size; appearance of straight pubic hair; minor voice change; first ejaculation
(spermarche—this usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream); appearance of kinky
pubic hair; onset of maximum growth; growth of hair in armpits; more detectable voice changes;
and growth of facial hair.
 On average, breast development occurs first, followed by the appearance of pubic hair. Later,
hair appears in the armpits. As these changes occur, the female grows in height, and her hips
become wider than her shoulders. Her first menstruation (menarche) occurs rather late in the
pubertal cycle.

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2.3 The Timing and Tempo of Puberty

Time – the age at which puberty occurs. The average age for boys is 13.5 for girls 12.5.

Tempo- the rate at which puberty change completed or it is the interval between first sign of puberty
and complete physical maturation. Adolescents are said to be fast maturing if they complete puberty
before two years and slow maturing if it takes more than 3/4 years to complete the transition.

NB: there is no relationship between the age at which puberty begins and the rate at which pubertal
development process.

Factors for variations in the timing and tempo of puberty

 Sex
 Genes /hereditary
 Intelligence- brighter children attempt their puberty earlier than slow
 Weather condition- children from temperate zone matured earlier than those from tropical and
arctic zone.
 Socioeconomic status –adolescents from upper and middle class matured early than from low
middle class. Urban area children mature earlier than rural areas.
 Body build- individual who are short, stocky or obese children tend to experience puberty earlier
than those with taller, thinner body build.
 Health condition – most of the time chronic illness during childhood as well as adolescence
associated with delayed puberty.
 Nutrition- if an individual well feed during prenatal, childhood adolescence periods, the
individual will mature at right time or early time.
 Stress, and excessive exercise –also retard puberty.

Secular trend: The tendency, over the past two centuries, for individuals to be larger in stature and to
reach puberty earlier, primarily because of improvements in health and nutrition.

Variations in the pace of development lead to complex outcomes. In some respects, those who mature
early tend to have an advantage in that they are seen – and treated – as more adult-like. Therefore,
advantage and disadvantages of early maturity on boys and girls are listed here below:

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Disadvantages of early maturing boys

 In terms of behavior they are tend to be more involved in problem or deviant activities including
minor delinquency and problem with school authorities, parents and teachers.
 More involved in substance use because boys who are more physically mature develop
friendship with elders’ peers and these friendships lead them into activities that are problematic
for younger boys.

Advantages of early maturing boys

 More likely to become leaders of peer group

 Have more early and frequency social contact
 Greater popularity and self-confidence

Disadvantages of early maturing girls

 The beginning of menarche may become distressing, especially if they have not discussed it with
any one, as a result they prefer that their changes not be noticed or commented on.
 Because their earlier involvement in activities such as dating there may be higher levels of
psychosomatic distress.
 May be Exposed for premarital sex and dating
 Involvement in deviant activities
 They become shapeless

Advantages of early maturing girls

 They become more sociable, responsible and cooperative

 Enjoy the attention they get from boys and their girlfriends.
 Have ample time to prepare enough

In sum, early maturation often has more favorable outcomes in adolescence for boys, especially in early
adolescence. However, late maturation may be more favorable for boys, especially in terms of identity
and career development. Research increasingly has found that early-maturing girls are vulnerable to a
number of problems.

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2.4 The Psychological and Social Impact of Puberty

Puberty can affect the adolescent’s behavior and psychological functioning in a number of ways.

 First, the biological changes of puberty can have a direct effect on behavior. For example,
increases in testosterone at puberty are directly linked to an increase in sex drive and sexual
activity among adolescent boys.
 Second, the biological changes of puberty may change the adolescent’s self-image, which, in
turn, may affect how he or she behaves. Ex., a boy who has recently gone through puberty may
feel shy about his changed body and seek more privacy at home when he is dressing or bathing
he closes his door more often and his more modest about around his parents than he used to be.

The process works in the other direction as well. The adolescences physical appearance may elicit new
sort of behavior from peers, parents and others and these newly actions may prompt adolescents to
adjust his/her behavior and self-image. An adolescent girl who has recently matured physically may find
herself suddenly receiving the attention of older boys who had not previously paid her much heed. In
consequence, she will start to feel more attractive and confident.

Body Image: One psychological aspect of puberty is certain for both boys and girls: Adolescents are
preoccupied with their bodies. Preoccupation with one’s body image is strong throughout adolescence,
but it is especially acute during puberty, a time when adolescents are more dissatisfied with their bodies
than in late adolescence. Body image is the dynamic perception of one’s body how it looks, feels, and
moves. It is shaped by perception, emotions, physical sensations, and is not static, but can change in
relation to mood, physical experience, and environment. Because adolescents experience significant
physical changes in their bodies during puberty, they are likely to experience highly dynamic
perceptions of body image. Body image is influenced strongly by self-esteem and self-evaluation, more
so than by external evaluation by others. It can, however, be powerfully influenced and affected by
cultural messages and societal standards of appearance and attractiveness.

Hormones and Behavior: Are concentrations of hormones linked to adolescent behavior? However,
hormonal factors alone are not responsible for adolescent behavior. Hormonal activity is influenced by
many environmental factors, including parent-adolescent relationships. Stress, eating patterns, sexual
activity, and depression can also activate or suppress various aspects of the hormone system.

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Puberty and Moodiness: adolescents are thought to be moodier, on average, than either children or
adults. There is there little evidence that adolescents’ moodiness results exclusively from the storm and
stress of raging hormones. But the shifts in mood appear to have more to do with shifts in activities—
elated when seeing a girlfriend, bored in social studies class, happy when having lunch with friends, and
angry when assigned extra work at the fast-food restaurant—than with internal, biological changes.

Puberty and Changes in Patterns of Sleep: Delayed phase preference is a pattern of sleep
characterized by later sleep and wake times, which usually emerges during puberty. Thus, the tendency
for adolescents to stay up late is due to the interaction of biology (which delays the onset of sleepiness)
and the environment (which provides an impetus to stay up).

Puberty and Family Relationships: Research into the impact of puberty on family relationships has
found that puberty appears to increase conflict and distance between parents and children.

Pubertal Maturation and Peer Relationships: Boys and girls who are physically mature are more
likely than their less mature peers to be involved in cross-sex romantic activities, although this depends
on the social norms of the adolescent’s peer group and the prevailing expectations.

Several studies have focused specifically on adolescents’ attitudes toward and reactions to particular
events at puberty, such as girls’ reactions to menarche or breast development and boys’ reactions to their
first ejaculation. In general, most adolescents react positively to the biological changes associated with
puberty, especially those associated with the development of secondary sex characteristics.

2.5 Physical Health in Adolescence

Adolescence is a paradox as far as physical health is concerned. On the one hand, it is one of the
healthiest periods in the life span. Many of the behaviors that are linked to poor health habits and early
death in adults begin during adolescence. Still, the most virulent threat to adolescent health comes not
from disease or illness but from unhealthy behaviors (such as drug use), violence (both self-inflicted and
inflicted by others), and risky activity (such as unprotected sexual intercourse or reckless driving).

For promoting adolescent health, changes in the context in which adolescents live (such as the
accessibility of handguns or the availability of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs) must accompany
changes in adolescents’ knowledge and understanding if lasting health promotion is to be accomplished.

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Strategies for Effectively Guiding Adolescents through Puberty

Following are some effective ways to help adolescents cope with pubertal changes (McNeely &
Blanchard, 2009):

 Become familiar with accurate information about pubertal changes. Experts recommend
communicating with children about puberty as early as 8 or 9 years of age to prepare them for
the changes that are coming.
 Take young adolescents’ comments about puberty seriously and listen carefully to what
adolescents are saying so that you can help them understand it better.
 Allow adolescents to talk freely about their feelings and fears, especially what they don’t
understand about their changing bodies and the stress it is causing them.
 When adolescents are willing to talk about puberty, show an interest in what they have to say and
listen to them. Don’t jump in too fast with advice, or especially worse, tell them that their
feelings are unfounded or irrational.
 Encourage early-maturing adolescents to not spend time with older peer groups of adolescents
but rather advise them to connect with peers their own age.
 Recognize that although adolescents may seem to be physically mature, they can’t be expected to
be as cognitively and socioemotionally mature as adults.

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CHAPTER THREE: COGNITIVE TRANSITIONS

3.1 Changes in Cognition /Adolescent Cognition

Cognitive development during adolescences parallels to the physical development (bodily changes).
During early adolescences, cognitive development increases rapidly. As compare with children an
adolescent thinking is different and more advanced than that of children. Compared to children:

 Adolescents are better at thinking about what is possible, instead of limiting their thought to what is real.
 Adolescents are better at thinking about abstract things.
 Adolescents think more often about the process of thinking itself.
 Adolescents’ thinking is more often multidimensional, rather than limited to a single issue.
 Adolescents are more likely to see things as relative, rather than as absolute.

The major cognitive characteristics of adolescents are:

Thinking About Possibilities - For the child, what is possible is what is real; for the adolescent,
what is real is just a subset of what is possible.
o Deductive reasoning – is a type of logical reasoning in which one draws logically necessary
conclusions from a general set of premises, or givens.
o Hypothetical, or ―if-then,‖ thinking - In order to think hypothetically, you need to see beyond
what is directly observable and apply logical reasoning to anticipate what might be possible.
Adolescences can provide several alternatives or solutions for questions like: If no education what
will happen to you?
o Combinatorial reasoning: adolescents are able to organize and combine abstract rules to solve a
class of problems. They are able to generate, for example, a complex algebraic equation
combining the different operations of addition, multiplication, division and subtraction to solve
higher order problems.
Abstract thinking – It is thinking beyond the immediate experiences and concrete objects.
Adolescents are able to think about things that cannot be seen or known directly. Adolescence is a
stage in development when children are able to imagine what might exist. Adolescents no longer
rely intellectually on what already exists.

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 Thinking About Thinking – Metacognition (reflective thinking) often involves monitoring your
own cognitive activity during the thinking process—for example, when you consciously use a
strategy for remembering something. This leads to increased introspection and self-consciousness.
When we are introspective, we are thinking about our own emotions. When we are self-conscious,
we are thinking about how others think about us. Being able to introspect, for instance, may lead to
periods of extreme self-absorption—referred to as ―adolescent egocentrism‖ (Elkind, 1967).
Multi-dimensional ways of thinking – It means viewing things through several and different
perspectives at time.
Relativism – It is the way adolescence sees things as a relative than absolute.

3.2 Theoretical Perspectives

3.2.1 The Piagetian View

Cognitive-developmental view is a perspective on development, based on the work of Piaget, that takes
a qualitative, stage theory approach. According to piaget cognitive development proceeds through four
stages ,each stage is characterized by a particular type of thinking, earlier stage thinking being
incorporated in to new and more advanced or adaptive form of thought. Not all adolescents (or, for that
matter, all adults) develop formal-operational thinking or employ it regularly and in a variety of
situations. According to Piaget, transitions into higher stages of reasoning are most likely to occur when
the child is biologically ready for the transition and the environment demands more advanced thinking.
Piagetian theorists believe that abstract logical reasoning is the chief feature that differentiates
adolescent thinking from that of children. Development of formal operational thinking takes place in to
two steps:

A. Emergent formal operation: takes place during early adolescence (12-15) and may observe in
adulthood. In this case formal operation (abstract thinking) demonstrates in some situation but
not in others, or sometimes abstract and sometimes concrete.
B. Consolidated formal operation: takes place in middle and late adolescence where formal
operational thinking becomes more strengthened and integrated in to the individuals’ general
approach to reasoning.

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3.2.2 The Information-Processing View

Information processing is influenced by both the capacity and the speed of processing. Most
information-processing psychologists argue that an increase in capacity improves processing of
information. Studies of changes in specific components of information processing have focused on five
areas in which improvement occurs during adolescence: attention, memory, processing speed,
organization, and metacognition. All of these skills improve as individuals move from childhood
through adolescence, mainly during the first half of the adolescent decade.

Increased memory span – adolescents are able to retain a greater amount of information in the
short –term memory. Attention span also increases remarkably.
Increased memory strategy – adolescents are able to use more memory strategies to aid learning
and remembering. For example: the use of rehearsal, chunking, clustering and elaboration
strategies improves remarkably during adolescences.
Reminiscence bump – is the fact that experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more
than experiences from other stages of life.

3.2.3 The Psychometric/Intelligence View

The psychometric/ intelligence view does emphasize the importance of individual differences in
intelligence; many advocates of this view favor the use of intelligence tests. Intelligence is the ability to
solve problems and to adapt to and learn from everyday experiences; not everyone agrees on what
constitutes intelligence.

The Binet Tests – In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a
method of identifying children who were unable to learn in school. Binet developed the concept of
mental age (MA), an individual’s level of mental development relative to others. Not much later, in
1912, William Stern created the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ), a person’s mental age divided by
chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. That is: IQ = MA/CA × 100.

The Wechsler Scales – In 1939, David Wechsler introduced the first of his scales, designed for use with
adults. Not only do the Wechsler scales provide an overall IQ, but they also yield a number of additional
composite scores (for example, the Verbal Comprehension Index, the Working Memory Index, and the
Processing Speed Index), allowing the examiner to quickly see patterns of strengths and weaknesses in
different areas of the student’s intelligence.
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Using Intelligence Tests – Psychological tests are tools. Like all tools, their effectiveness depends on
the knowledge, skill, and integrity of the user. Here are some cautions:

 Avoid stereotyping and expectations: An IQ test should always be considered a measure of

current performance. It is not a measure of fixed potential. Maturational changes and enriched
environmental experiences can advance an adolescent’s intelligence.
 Know that IQ is not a sole indicator of competence: A high IQ is not the ultimate human value.

Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner have proposed influential theories that describe specific types of
intelligence. The concept of emotional intelligence also has been proposed as a type of intelligence that
differs from what is measured by traditional intelligence tests.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - Robert J. Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence,
which states that intelligence comes in three forms: (1) analytical intelligence, which refers to the
ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast; (2) creative intelligence, which consists of the
ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine; and (3) practical intelligence, which involves
the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice.

3.3 Social Cognition - Adolescent Egocentrism

Social cognition refers to the way individuals conceptualize and reason about their social worlds—the
people they watch and interact with, their relationships with those people, the groups they participate in,
and the way they reason about themselves and others.

Adolescent egocentrism is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents, which is reflected in their

belief that others are as interested in them as they are in themselves, and in their sense of personal
uniqueness and invulnerability. Adolescent egocentrism results in two distinct problems in thinking:

o Imaginary audience – The belief, often brought on by the heightened self-consciousness of early
adolescence, that everyone is watching and evaluating one’s behavior.
o Personal fable – An adolescent’s belief that he or she is unique and therefore not subject to the
rules that govern other people’s behavior. Adolescents’ sense of personal uniqueness makes them
feel that no one can understand how they really feel.

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CHAPTER FOUR: PSYCHOSOCIAL TRANSITIONS

4.1 Overview of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial development refers to how a person’s individual needs (psycho) mesh with the needs or
demands of society (social). Psychosocial development, according to Erik Erikson, personality
development as a process influenced by social and cultural factors throughout the lifespan. The social
transitions have important consequences for the young person’s psychosocial development. What events
in your life told you—and others around you—that you were no longer a child and had finally become
an adolescent? And what signaled, or will signal, that you are an adult? Turning 18? Turning 21?
Getting your first full-time job? Getting your driver’s license? Graduating from college? Getting your
first apartment? Getting married? Each of these social transitions is not just an event. Each is also a
source of information—to the person and those in his or her life—about the person’s stage of
development.

Social redefinition is the process through which an individual’s position or status is redefined by society.
Changes in social definition at adolescence typically involve a two-sided modification in the
individual’s status. On the one hand, the adolescent is given certain privileges and rights that are
typically reserved for the society’s adult members. On the other hand, this increased power and freedom
generally are accompanied by increased expectations for self-management, personal responsibility, and
social participation. For example, once an adolescent is designated as an adult, she or he is also subject
to a new set of laws.

Social redefinition during adolescence is not a single event but, like puberty or cognitive maturation, a
series of events that often occur over a relatively long time. Although the presence of social redefinition
in a general sense is a universal feature of adolescent development, there is also considerable diversity in
the nature of the transition. In some culture there is initiation ceremony, which is the formal induction
of a young person into adulthood. Social redefinition usually entails the real or symbolic separation of
young persons from their parents. Changes in social definition often bring with them changes in
relationships with others and affect sexual development. Age of majority is the designated age at which
an individual is recognized as an adult. Statutory rape is sex between two individuals, even when it is
consensual, when at least one of the persons is below the legal age of consent; in the United States, the
specific age of consent varies from state to state.
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4.2 Identity Development

Meaning of identity and identity as an adolescent issue

Identity refers to our sense of who we are as individuals and as members of social groups. Our identities
are not simply our own creation: identities grow in response to both internal and external factors. To
some extent, each of us chooses an identity, but identities are also formed by environmental forces out
of our control. Identity is dynamic and complex, and changes over time. A positive self-identity is
correlated with positive self-esteem. All identities are not equally valued by society. Some adolescents
may especially need reinforcement to help them construct a positive sense of self.

The question, ―who am I?‖ is especially pertinent during adolescence. The combination of physical,
cognitive, and social changes that occur during that time, plus the serious life choices to be faced
(occupation, life partner) spur what Erikson (1968) famously called an identity crisis. Erikson
acknowledged that identity issues could arise throughout the life course, but saw identity formation as
the critical ―developmental task‖ of adolescence. For example, undergoing the physical changes of
puberty may prompt fluctuations in one’s self-esteem and self-conceptions. Another adolescents become
much more able to imagine their possible selves—the various alternative identities that they may adopt,
heightened self-consciousness characteristic of early adolescence. Facing various decisions about their
place in society does more than provoke adolescents to ask questions about who they are and where they
are headed.

Theoretical perspectives on adolescents’ identity development

I. Erikson Theory of Identity

Erikson described adolescent identity exploration as a crisis of identity versus identity diffusion: ―from
among all possible imaginable relations, the adolescent must make a series of ever narrowing selections
of personal, occupational, sexual, and biological commitments‖ (Erikson, 1968). The person does not
seem to know who she or he is. Erikson argued that achieving a solid identity requires a period of
psychosocial moratorium –a time when the adolescent is relieved from the obligations and
responsibilities of adulthood that might restrict his/her pursuit of self-discovery. Adolescents who
prematurely assume adult responsibilities, most often as parents or full time workers, have a harder time
achieving their own identity.
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The core concept of Erikson’s theory is the acquisition of an ego –identity crisis is the most essential
characteristic of adolescence. Although a person’s identity is established in ways that differ from culture
to culture, the accomplishment of this developmental task has a common element in all cultures. In order
to acquire a strong and healthy ego-identity the child must receive consistent and meaningful recognition
of this achievements and accomplishments. He believed that the key to resolving the crisis of identity
versus identity diffusion lies in the adolescent’s interactions with others.

Adolescence is described by Erikson as the period during which the individual must establish a sense of
personal identity and avoid the dangers of role diffusion and identity confusion. The implication is that
the individual has to make an assessment of his or assets and liabilities and how they want to use them.
Adolescents must answer questions for themselves about where they came from, who they are, and what
they will become. Identity, or a sense of sameness and continuity, must be searched for. Identity is not
given to the individual by society, nor does it appear as a maturational phenomenon; it must be acquired
through sustained individual efforts. Unwillingness to work on one’s own identity formation carries with
it the danger of the role diffusion, which may result in alienation and a lasting sense of isolation and
confusion.

If the adolescent fails in his search for an identity, he will experience self-doubt, role diffusion, and role
confusion; and the adolescent may indulge in self-destructive one sided preoccupation or activity.
Identity diffusion is the incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self characteristic of not having
resolved the crisis of identity. Such an adolescent may continue to be morbidly preoccupied with what
others think of them, or may withdraw and no longer care about themselves and others. This leads to ego
diffusion, personality confusion and can be found in the delinquent and in psychotic personality
disorganization. Once the personal identity is established, then the adolescent can move on to find
intimacy or isolation in interpersonal relationships.

II. The four statuses of identity

James Marcia defines identity as ―an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities,
beliefs and individual history.‖ According to Marcia, the criteria for the attainment of a mature identity
are based on two essential variables: crisis and commitment. ―Crisis refers to times during adolescence
when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing among alternative occupations and
beliefs.‖ ―Commitment refers to the degree of personal investment the individual expresses in an
occupation or belief‖ (Marcia, 1967).
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Marcia interviewed students’ ages 18-22 years about their occupational choices, religious and political
beliefs, and values-all central aspects of identity. He classified students into four categories of identity
status based on :1) whether they had gone through an ―identity crisis‖ as described by Erikson, and 2)
the degree to which they were now committed to an occupational choice and to a set of values and
beliefs. The four status of identity as described by Marcia are:

A. Identity diffused or identity confusion/no commitment, no crisis/. Individuals who had not yet
experienced an identity crisis, nor made any commitment to a vocation or set of beliefs. It is the status
of adolescents who have not made a commitment to a particular identity. A youth who has not yet
considered college or job prospects, for example, could be said to be in the "identity diffusion" status
with respect to his professional identity (although in other dimensions his self-identity may be strong).
This status may not be resolved unless some experience forces a crisis.

B. Identity foreclosure/commitment without crisis/. Individuals who have not experienced crisis, but
has made commitments, however, these commitments are not the result of his own searching and
exploring, but they are handed to him, ready –made, by others, frequently his parents. It involves
committing to an identity prematurely without exploration or choice. This might occur, for example,
when traditions are compulsory or parents are insistent on a particular identity, "foreclosing" conscious
choice by the adolescent.

C. Identity moratorium /crisis with no commitment/. They are exploring and actively searching for
alternatives, and struggling to find their identity; but have not yet made any commitment or have only
developed very temporary kinds of commitment. It is a stage of active exploration coupled with low
commitment to a particular identity. This is an interesting, exciting, and potentially dangerous time for
an adolescent that often leads to conflict with parents or other authority figures. Adolescents need to be
free to explore their identities, but also need guidance and support to proceed safely through this status.

D. Identity achievement/crisis leading to commitment/. An individual who have experienced crisis but
have resolved them on their own terms, and as a result of the resolution of the crisis had made a
personal commitment to an occupation, a religious belief, a personal value system; and, has resolved
their attitude toward sexuality. It is said to occur when the adolescent, having had the opportunity to
closely explore an identity, chooses that identity with a high degree of commitment. Most adolescents
seem to progress toward a status of identity achieved. Identity achievement is rarest among early
adolescents. It is more frequent among older high school students, college students and young adults.

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4.3 Autonomy development

Meaning of autonomy

Becoming an autonomous person—a self-governing person—is one of the fundamental developmental

tasks of adolescence. Although we often use the words autonomy and independence interchangeably,
in the study of adolescence, they mean slightly different things. Independence refers to individuals’
capacity to behave on their own. The growth of independence is surely a part of becoming autonomous
during adolescence, but autonomy has emotional and cognitive as well as behavioral components. But
the growth of autonomy during adolescence is frequently misunderstood. Autonomy is often confused
with rebellion, and becoming an independent person is often equated with breaking away from the
family.

If establishing and maintaining a healthy sense of autonomy is a lifelong concern, why has it attracted
so much attention among scholars interested in adolescence? The transition of biological, cognitive,
and social changes of adolescence leads to development of autonomy. Adolescents’ autonomy may be
stimulated by their emerging interest in sexual relationships and concerns over dating and intimate
friendships. In addition, changes in stature and physical appearance at puberty may provoke changes in
how much autonomy the young person is granted by parents and teachers. The cognitive changes of
adolescence also play an important role in perspective taking and the development of a system of
values based on one’s own sense of right and wrong. Becoming involved in new roles and taking on
new responsibilities, such as having a job or a driver’s license, place the adolescent in situations that
require and stimulate the development of independent decision making.

The Development of Emotional Autonomy

Emotional autonomy is the establishment of more adult like and less childish close relationships with
family members and peers. By the end of adolescence, people are far less emotionally dependent on
their parents than they were as children. We can see this in several ways. First, older adolescents do
not generally rush to their parents when they are upset, worried, or in need of assistance. Second, they
do not see their parents as all-knowing or all-powerful. Third, they often have a great deal of emotional
energy wrapped up in relationships outside the family; they may feel more attached to a boyfriend or
girlfriend than to their parents. And finally, older adolescents are able to see and interact with their
parents as people—not just as their parents.

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The Development of Behavioral Autonomy

Broadly speaking, behavioral autonomy refers to the capacity for independent decision making.
Researchers who have studied behavioral autonomy have looked at changes in decision making
abilities and in susceptibility to the influence of others. As adolescents come to spend more time
outside the family, the opinions and advice of others—not only peers but adults as well—become more
important. A variety of situations arise in which adolescents may feel that their parents’ advice may be
less valid than the opinions of others. Adolescents might seek the advice of friends, rather than their
parents, about how to dress. They may turn to a teacher or guidance counselor for advice about what
courses to take in school. Or they might talk something over with more than one person.

The Development of Cognitive Autonomy

The development of cognitive autonomy entails changes in the adolescent’s beliefs, opinions, and
values. It has been studied mainly by looking at how adolescents think about moral, political, and
religious issues. Three trends in the development of cognitive autonomy are especially noteworthy.
First, adolescents become increasingly abstract in the way they think about moral, political, and
religious issues. Second, during adolescence, beliefs become increasingly rooted in general principles.
Finally, beliefs become increasingly founded in the young person’s own values, not merely in a system
of values passed on by parents or other authority figures. Much of the growth in cognitive autonomy
can be traced to the cognitive changes characteristic of the period.

4.4 Intimacy as an Adolescent Issue

One of the most remarkable things about adolescence is the way close relationships change during
these years. Adolescents’ relationships are closer, more personal, more involved, and more emotionally
charged than children’s. During adolescence, in short, relationships become more intimate. We need to
draw a distinction between intimacy and sexuality. The concept of intimacy—at least as it is used in
the study of adolescence—does not have a sexual or physical connotation. Rather, an intimate
relationship is an emotional attachment between two people that is characterized by concern for each
other’s well-being; a willingness to disclose private, and occasionally sensitive, topics; and a sharing of
common interests and activities. Adolescence is also an important time for changes in what individuals
look for in friends, in their capacity to be intimate with friends of both sexes, and in the way they
express closeness to others.

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Although the development of intimacy during adolescence is almost always studied in relation to
friendships and romantic relationships with peers, adolescents’ intimate relationships aren’t limited to
other teenagers. Parents often have intimate relationships with their adolescent children, especially
when the children have reached a sufficient level of maturity. Siblings, even with many years between
them, are often close confidants. Sometimes, young people form intimate relationships with adults who
are not in their immediate family.

Children’s friendships are activity oriented; they are built around games and shared activities. To a
child, a friend is someone who likes to do the same things he or she does. But teenagers’ close
friendships are more likely to have a strong emotional foundation; they are built on the sorts of bonds
that form between people who care about and know and understand each other in a special way.
Another reason for the importance of intimacy during adolescence concerns the changing nature of the
adolescent’s social world—during early adolescence, the increasing importance of peers in general,
and during middle and late adolescence, the increasing importance of other-sex peers in particular.

Several theorists point to significant links between the development of intimacy during adolescence
and the biological, cognitive, and social changes of the period. Naturally, changes in sexual impulses at
puberty provoke interest in sex, which leads to the development of romantic relationships. Compared
to children, adolescents have more sophisticated conceptions of social relationships and better
communication skills. These developments permit adolescents to establish and maintain relationships
with greater empathy, self-disclosure, and sensitivity. The changes in the adolescent’s social roles have
a potential affecting the development of intimacy.

Sullivan’s Theory of Interpersonal Development

Sullivan’s theory, like Erikson emphasizes social aspect of growth. He suggested that psychosocial
development, particularly intimacy best understood when looked at interpersonal terms. He maintained
that different interpersonal needs emerged at different stage of life span /infancy to adolescence/ that
leads to feelings of security (when the needs are satisfied and anxieties when needs are frustrated). In
Sullivan’s view, the security that is derived from having satisfying relationships with others is the glue
that holds one’s sense of self together. Self-esteem and identity are gradually built up through
interpersonal relationship.

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Interpersonal needs associated with different developmental eras: Sullivan’s theory

Developmental stages Interpersonal needs

Infancy(0-2) Need for contact and kindness /attention/ from the mother

Early childhood (3-7) Needs for peers play age mate and acceptance by the group of peers

Preadolescence (8-12) Needs for intimacy with the same sex peers

Early adolescence Needs for sexual contact and intimacy with peers of opposite sex

Late adolescence Needs for integration into adulthood role

Sullivan viewed psychosocial development or intimacy as accumulative effect. The frustration and
satisfaction experienced during early periods affect our later relationships and developing sense of
identity. Capacity for intimacy developed first before adolescence and in the context of the same sex, not
opposite sex relationships. The quality of individuals’ same-sex friendships is predictive of the quality
of their later romantic relationships. The major challenges for adolescents is making the transition from
non-sexual, intimate the same sex friendship of preadolescence to sexual intimate, opposite sex
friendship.

Erikson’s View of Intimacy

Adolescents and young adults revolve around two psychological crisis; identity and intimacy. He
reasons that adolescents must establish a sense of identity before they are capable of real intimacy,
without real sense of identity; people are afraid, and unwilling to make serious commitment to others.
They fear that they will lose their identity in the relationship.

Both Erikson and Sullivan agreed that psychological development is cumulative effect i.e. psycho
social development of adolescence depends up on the degree of development of early stages. However,
they are disagreed on the sequence of the development of intimacy and identity. Sullivan believed that
intimacy developed during preadolescence and contributes for the development of sense of identity
which comes later. However, Erikson believed that identity is the precondition for establishment of
intimacy. Intimacy without identity is psedointimacy. What is the fact? Which comes first? Experts
agreed that the development of intimacy and identity go hand to hand throughout adolescence, with the
change in the realm of intimacy affect changes in the identity and vice versa.

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Attachment in Adolescence

In writings on infant development, an attachment is defined as a strong and enduring emotional bond.
Virtually all infants form attachment relationships with their mother (and most do so with their father
and other caregivers as well), but not all infants have attachment relationships of the same quality.
Psychologists differentiate among four types of infant attachment: secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-
resistant, and disorganized.

Attachment theory has given rise to two different, but related, questions about adolescent development.
First, is there a link between the quality of attachment formed in infancy and mental health or behavior
in adolescence? And, second, can the same three-category framework used to characterize interpersonal
relationships in infancy—secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant— be used to characterize
interpersonal relationships in adolescence?

Many theorists believe infant attachment predict adolescent and adult intimacy, for two reasons. First,
some theorists have argued that the initial attachment relationship forms the basis for the model of
interpersonal relationships we employ throughout life (Bowlby, 1969). This internal working model
determines to a large measure whether people feel trusting or apprehensive in relationships with others
and whether they see themselves as worthy of others’ affection. An internal working model is a set of
beliefs and expectations people draw on in forming close rel0ationships with others—whether they go
into relationships expecting acceptance or anticipating rejection. A second reason is that interpersonal
development is cumulative: What happens during infancy affects what happens in early childhood,
which affects what happens in middle childhood, and so on.

4.5 Sexuality as an Adolescent Issue

Like other aspects of psychosocial development, sexuality is not an entirely new issue that surfaces for
the first time during adolescence but it is the most important time in the life cycle. Perhaps most obvious
is the link between adolescent sexuality and puberty. The substantial increase in the sex drive that takes
place in early adolescence is the result of hormonal changes. One of the chief tasks of adolescence is to
figure out how to deal with sexual desires and how to incorporate sex successfully and appropriately into
social relationships which is a cognitive task. Adolescence is a turning point in the development of
sexuality because it marks the onset of deliberate sexually motivated behavior that is recognized, both
by an adolescent and by others, as primarily and explicitly sexual in nature.

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Psychological and Social Characteristics of Sexually Active Adolescents

Given the field’s historical focus on problematic aspects of adolescent sexuality, such as precocious sex
(having sex at too young an age), promiscuous sex (having sex with too many partners), unwanted sex
(having sex against one’s will), or unsafe sex (having sex that can result in pregnancy or a sexually
transmitted disease), most of the research conducted into the sexual behavior of adolescents has focused
on sexual intercourse. But sexually experienced adolescents—involves activities other than sexual
intercourse, such as kissing and touching parts of each other’s body (broadly referred to as ―noncoital
activity,‖ or, to use a more familiar term, ―fooling around‖).

Most adolescents’ first experience with sex falls into the category of autoerotic behavior—sexual
behavior that is experienced alone. By the time most adolescents reach high school, they have made the
transition from autoerotic behavior to sexual activity that involves another person. By about 18, 80%
have had either vaginal or oral sex; nearly all of those who hadn’t by 18 have done so before the end of
their 20s. Adolescents engage into a certain extent consistent progression of sexual behaviors.

Numerous studies show that sexual activity during adolescence is decidedly not associated with
psychological disturbance. Thus, both the belief that only ―troubled‖ adolescents have sex and the belief
that sexual activity during adolescence leads to later psychological disturbance are incorrect. It is
important, however, to distinguish between predictors of being sexually active and predictors of
engaging in risky sex. Early sexual activity (having intercourse before age 16) is associated with a more
general attitudinal and behavioral profile that includes more permissive attitudes toward sex,
experimentation with drugs and alcohol, minor delinquency, low levels of religious involvement, lower
interest in academic achievement, and a stronger orientation toward independence.

Sexual Socialization in Restrictive, Semi-restrictive, and Permissive Societies

Sexual socialization is the process through which adolescents are exposed to and educated about
sexuality. Ruth Benedict observed that anxiety over sex is absent in many traditional cultures - unlike
U.S. Margaret Mead's studies of adolescence in Samoa and New Guinea also depicted calm sexual
development where sexual experimentation is treated casually, it does not cause anxiety. Ford and Beach
(1951) catalogued sexual socialization in over 200 societies.

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In restrictive societies, sexual socialization or transition into sexual activity is discontinuous - children
do not engage in sex - formal rite of passage. Sexual socialization in semirestrictive societies is more
attitudes toward premarital sexual activity are formally prohibited by not enforced. Children are
punished for sexual activity, masturbation, laws against viewing sex on TV. America is semirestrictive
in allowing adolescents to be alone together, and premarital sex is not publicly punished. Sexual
socialization in permissive societies, children engage in sex, open discussion and practice.

4.6 Achievement as an adolescent issue

Development in the realm of achievement neither begins nor ends during adolescence. Achievement
during the adolescent years, though, merits special attention for several reasons. First, the fact that
adolescence is a time of preparation for adult work roles raises questions about the nature of the
preparation young people receive and the processes through which they sort themselves (or are sorted)
into the jobs that may influence the remainder of their lives. Second, although differences in school
performance and achievement are apparent as early as the 1st grade, not until adolescence do individuals
begin to fully appreciate the implications of these differences for immediate and future success. Third,
the educational and occupational decisions made during adolescence are more numerous, and the
consequences of such decisions more serious, than the decisions made during childhood. Moreover, it is
during adolescence that most individuals decide whether they want to go to college or enter a full-time
job directly from high school.

Although the biological changes of puberty are less obvious influences on achievement, they may
nevertheless affect the development of achievement in important ways. To the extent that puberty
changes what’s important for maintaining status in the peer group and increases adolescents’ interest in
risky behavior (like experimenting with drugs), which may conflict or interfere with what’s expected of
them in school. In addition, puberty intensifies differences between males and females. The intellectual
changes of the period obviously are important influences on achievement. The prominence of
achievement-related issues during adolescence is related to the advent of more sophisticated forms of
thinking. The main reason that many achievement-related issues take on new significance during
adolescence involves the social transition of the period. In virtually all societies, adolescence is the age
when important educational and occupational decisions are made, and society has structured its
educational and work institutions around this.

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The Importance of Noncognitive Factors

Noncognitive factors have a lot influences on achievement that do not have to do with intellectual
ability, such as determination, perseverance, and grit. It turns out that noncognitive factors, such as how
motivated someone is to achieve, or what the person believes about the causes of successes and failure,
are far more important than had been thought.

Achievement Motivation

Individuals differ in the extent to which they strive for success, and this differential striving—which can
be measured independently of ability—helps to account for different degrees of actual achievement.

Delay of gratification- The capacity to wait longer to get a larger, better, or more valuable reward
instead of a smaller, less attractive, or less valuable one that is available immediately.
Fear of failure, which often creates feelings of anxiety during tests or in other evaluative
situations, can interfere with successful performance. When the achievement situation involves
an easy task, and when a little anxiety helps to focus attention (if, for example, the task is
boring), a moderate amount of anxiety may improve performance by increasing one’s
concentration. But the anxiety generated by a strong fear of failure interferes with successful
performance.
Self-handicapping - Deliberately behaving in ways that will likely interfere with doing well, in
order to have an excuse for failing.
Mastery motivation - Motivation to succeed based on the pleasure one will experience from
mastering a task.
Performance motivation - Motivation to succeed based on the rewards one will receive for
successful performance.

Beliefs about Success and Failure

How we behave in achievement situations is also influenced by our beliefs about our abilities and our
chances for success and failure.

Stereotype threat - The harmful effect that exposure to stereotypes about ethnic or sex
differences in ability has on student performance.

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Self-efficacy - The sense that an individual has some control over his or her life.
Attributions for success and failure - How students interpret their successes and failures is also
important.
o Achievement attributions - The beliefs an individual holds about the causes of her or his
successes and failures.
o Learned helplessness - The acquired belief that an individual is not able to influence
events through his or her own efforts or actions.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONTEXTS OF ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Family

Adolescence marks a rapid change in one’s role within a family. Young children tend to assert
themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early
adolescence, when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. When children go through
puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent-child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond.
Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew (rejecting time respect), acceptable
clothing, and the adolescents’ right to privacy, which adolescents may have previously viewed as
issues over which their parents had complete authority. Parent adolescents’ disagreement also
increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that
may be in opposition to parent’s values.

Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements. While parents
never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for
children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is
doing on social media cites in a challenging subject. Fear from parents for most parents is the
increasing amount of predators on social media cites. Many parents have very little knowledge of
social networking cites in the first place and these stories give nothing but bad impressions. Although
conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor
issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values
as their parents.

Impact of parenting styles and divorce on adolescents’ behavior

Family and parenting styles both have an enormous impact on adolescent development. Parents that
demonstrate affection , tolerance ,trust , acceptance, encouragement , and who listen to and have an
open communication with their teen, increase the chances of having their teen develop with higher
self-esteem and better social skills. Teens strive for a sense of belonging and connectedness with their
family and the need for structure and guidance for positive development.

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The four primary parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved
(detached). Studies suggest that authoritative parenting is the most effective and constructive
parenting style. These parents are open-minded and understanding, offer autonomy, self-reliance, and
trust for their teen, but also set limits and guidelines. As a result, these teens frequently exhibit higher
self-confidence and self-esteem, develop better social skills, and have positive parent/teen relations.

Authoritarian parents, on the other hand, are considered cold and controlling. They devise all the rules
and decisions at home and are very strict and reserved with the child. As a result, many of these teens
grow up feeling that they are not trusted, not good enough, may develop low self-esteem, fearful,
dependent, possible rage and resentment toward authority, and feelings of a lack of self-worth. Another
parenting style exhibits permissiveness. These parents give in to a child’s demands and do everything
to please the child. The parents do not have much control offer much guidance or structure to their
child, so the child often grows up being demanding, needy, and seeking to be pampered. The child can
also become more self-centered and less empathetic.

The fourth primary parenting style involves detachment /uninvolved/ where the parent or guardian
does not take any (or limited) role in the adolescent’s development. The parent is often absent or does
not care what the teen does. In essence, the teen makes his/her own rules and develops independent of
parent guidance or control. The possible consequence of this parenting style is a teen that may become
involved with delinquency, and use drugs and alcohol. The detachment of parents from their teen sets
up a scenario of the teen getting in to trouble, developing poor social skills, and poor parenting skills
one day.

As for divorce and the potential effect on a teen, the short term effects are difficult for both males and
females. However, after 2 or 3 years, teens have less resentment, aggression, guilt, and denial than they
had when the parents initially got divorced. There does not seem to be any major negative impacts on
long term divorce for teens. Many grow up leading productive, happy lives and are very successful.
However, there is increased chance that children of divorced parents will themselves one day get
divorced. The divorced parents should be on speaking terms and be present in the teen’s life in order
to lessen the impact of divorce. The quality of the relationships the young person has with the
important adults in her or his life matters more than the number of parents presents in the home. The
process of going through a divorce, not the resulting family structure, that matters most for
adolescents’ mental health.
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The importance of family in adolescence

Family helps adolescents to:

 Adjust the psychosocial problems

 Minimize/avoid adolescent’s problem
 Teach goal setting strategies
 Develop their emotional independency
 Develop healthy partnership
 Adjust their future life

Sex differences in family relationships

Do daughters and sons have different sorts of relationships with their mothers and fathers? Several
studies have offered a tentative answer to this question, and it is a surprising one. In general,
differences between the family relations of sons and those of daughters are minimal. Although there
are occasional exceptions to the rule, sons and daughters report similar amounts of conflicts, similar
type of rules (and disagreements about those rules), and similar patterns of activity. Observational
studies of interactions between parents and adolescents indicate that sons and daughters interact with
their parents in remarkably similar ways.

Does sex differences in the family are absent? Not entirely. These studies also indicate that the sex of
the adolescent’s parent may be a more important influence on family relationships than the sex of the
adolescent. Recent reviews of studies adolescent parent relations indicate that teenagers –males and
females alike-relate very differently to their mothers than to fathers. Adolescents tend to be closer to
their mothers, to spend more time alone with their mothers, and to feel more comfortable talking to
their mothers about problems and other emotional matters. Fathers are more likely to be perceived as
relatively distant authority figures, who may be consulted for ―objective ―information(such as help
with homework) but who are rarely sought for support or guidance (such as help for problems with a
boyfriend or girlfriend). Interestingly, adolescents also fight more often with their mothers than with
their fathers, but this higher level of conflict does not appear to jeopardize the closeness of the mother-
adolescent relationship. It seems safe to say that relationships between adolescents and their mothers
are more emotionally intense in general and that this intensity has both positive and negative
manifestations.
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One of the most interesting findings to emerge from these studies concerns the father-daughter
relationship, in particular. Most researchers have found that this relationship is especially distant,
although the reasons are not certain. Some theorists have speculated that unconscious taboos against
incent make it difficult for fathers and daughters to remain close after puberty, whereas others have
suggested that the general emotional inexpressiveness of fathers put daughters off more sons. However
it seems clear that this relationship is the flattest, emotionally speaking, in the family. Whether and in
what ways this affects the daughter’s development is not known.

Why should mothers and fathers have such different sorts of relationships with their adolescent
children? One explanation concerns differences in the socialization of men and women. For example,
women in western cultures are socialized to be more emotionally expressive than men, and this may
give those talents and capabilities that permit them to form closer relationships with their children.
Growing up in a household in which mothers are emotionally accessible and fathers are emotionally
distant only furthers this tendency, for this provides role models for adolescents to imitate. A
somewhat different explanation concerns differences in the maternal and paternal roles. The mother’s
role in this culture traditionally has included more of an expressive, or emotionally, component,
whereas the father’s role may be more ―instrumental. Moreover, until relatively recently, patterns of
work and family life were so different for mothers and fathers that it may have been difficult for
fathers-whatever their socialization-to form close relationships with their children. Mothers may be
closer than fathers simply because they spend more time with their children as their children develop,
and time together may foster and strengthen emotional bonds.

Whatever the explanation, however, the consistency with which studies of parents and adolescents
uncover different pattern of relations for mothers and fathers is striking –especially in light of changes
that have taken place in sex roles in contemporary society. Although researchers cannot be sure of the
origins of these differences, they are fairly confident that the differences exist, even in today’s families.
In discussing the parent –adolescent relationship, clearly we need to pay attention to sex differences-
not necessarily the differences between sons and daughters, however, but the differences between
mothers and fathers. Although adolescents spend about twice as much time with their mothers as with
their fathers, time spent with fathers—perhaps because it is a relative rarity—is more predictive of
adolescents’ social competence and feelings of self-worth.

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5.2 Peer group

Peers are individuals who are about the same age or maturity level. Peers provide a means of social
comparison and a source of information beyond the family. Contexts and individual difference factors
influence peer relations. Good peer relations may be necessary for normal social development. The
inability to ―plug in‖ to a social network is associated with a number of problems. Peer relations can be
negative or positive. Sullivan stressed that peer relations provide the context for learning the
symmetrical reciprocity mode of relationships. Healthy family relations usually promote healthy peer
relations. The pressure to conform to peers is strong during adolescence, especially around the eighth
and ninth grades.

Peer groups are very essential to social development and also to development as a bigger picture. As
children begin to gain bonds with various people and create friendships with them, it will later on help
them when they are adolescents. Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of
development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers and a decrease in adult
supervision. Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than childhood and
tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics. It is also common for
adolescents to use friends as coping devices in different situations. Adolescents use their peers as
coping devices with social stresses. Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills
such as empathy, sharing, and leadership.

Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and
performance. But they can also have negative influences. Like encouraging experimentation with
drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure. Susceptibility to peer pressure
increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter. Popular children are
frequently nominated as a best friend and are rarely disliked by their peers. Average children receive
an average number of both positive and negative nominations from their peers. Neglected children are
infrequently nominated as a best friend but are not disliked by their peers. Rejected children are
infrequently nominated as a best friend and are disliked by their peers. Controversial children are
frequently nominated both as a best friend and as being disliked by peers. Social knowledge and social
information-processing skills are associated with improved peer relations. Self-regulation of emotion is
associated with positive peer relations.

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Cliques and crowds

Cliques and crowds are more important roles in the lives of adolescents than children. Cliques are
small groups that range from 2-12 individuals and average about 5-6 individuals. The clique members
are usually of the same sex and about the same age. Cliques can form because adolescents engage in
similar activities, such as being in a club or on a sport team. Some cliques also form because of
friendship. Several adolescents may form a clique because they have spent time with each other and
enjoy each other’s company.

Crowds are a large group structure than cliques. Adolescents are usually members of a crowd based on
reputation may or may not spent much time together. Crowds are less personal than cliques. Many
crowds are defined by the activities adolescents engage in/such as ―jokes‖ who are good at sports or
―druggies‖ who take drugs.

5.3 Schools

Characteristics of Good Schools

First and foremost, good schools emphasize intellectual activities (Ravitch, 2000). They create this
atmosphere in different ways, depending on the nature and size of the student body, but in these good
schools, a common purpose—quality education—is valued and shared by students, teachers,
administrators, and parents. Learning is more important to students than athletics or extracurricular
activities, and seeing that students learn is more important to teachers and administrators than seeing
that they graduate. All students are expected to learn, and all students are taught by teachers who use
proven instructional methods.

Second, good schools have teachers who are committed to their students and who are given freedom
and autonomy by administrators in the way that they express this commitment in the classroom. Third,
good schools are well integrated into the communities they serve. Active attempts are made to involve
parents in education, which is an important influence on student achievement and a deterrent against
dropping out. Fourth, good schools are composed of good classrooms, where students are active
participants in the process of education, not passive recipients of lecture material. Finally, good
schools for adolescents are staffed by teachers who are well-qualified and who have received specific
training in teaching adolescents.

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The Effects of School on Adolescent Development

Whatever the shortcomings of schools, staying in school is preferable to dropping out, not only in
terms of future earnings but in terms of intellectual development as well. Many school dropouts have
educational deficiencies that limit their economic and social wellbeing for much of their adult lives.
Dropping out of school is associated with demographic, family-related, peer-related, school-related,
economic, and personal factors. In general, though, schooling affects adolescents’ achievement scores
more than their performance on tests of cognitive skills, such as memory, suggesting that the impact of
school may be primarily through students’ acquisition of new information, rather than improved
information processing abilities

It is also important to recognize that despite adults’ intentions and objectives, students do not view
school solely in terms of its academic agenda. Adults may evaluate schools in terms of their
contribution to adolescents’ cognitive and career development, but for the typical adolescent, school is
a primary setting for socializing. Students’ happiness in school is most influenced by their
relationships with their peers. When we ask about the consequences of leaving school early, then, we
must take into account the impact this may have on the individual’s social, as well as cognitive,
development.

Studies also show that students’ experiences within a school can vary widely according to their track,
their peer group, and their extracurricular activities. The structure of a school—its size, its tracking
policy, its curricula—provides different intellectual and psychosocial opportunities for students who
occupy different places within that structure. The best answer to the question ―How do schools affect
adolescent development?‖ is another question: ―Which schools, which adolescents, and in what ways?‖

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CHAPTER SIX: DEVELOPMENTAL AND PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS OF
ADOLESCENTS

6.1 Hazards of Adolescence

6.1.1 Physical hazards

Physical hazards refer to physical impaired /disable because of different issues. Example: chronic
illness /diabetes, cancer, war car accident etc/. Although puberty is undoubtedly the most important
biological development of adolescent decade, concerns about the physical health and well-being of
young people are far broader than those involving reproductive maturation. In the past two decades,
the field of adolescent health care has grown rapidly, as health educators and health –care practitioners
have come to better understand that the health care needs of young people differ from those of children
and adults in important respects.

Adolescence is a paradox as far as physical health is concerned. on the hand , adolescence is one of the
healthiest periods in the life span, characterized by a relatively low incidence of disabling or chronic
illness (Example: asthma, cancer), fewer short-term hospital stays, and fewer days in which individuals
stay home sick in bed. Today, in contrast to 50 years ago, the most important physical health problems
in adolescence have psychosocial rather than natural causes. This new morbidity and mortality of
adolescence is caused by such preventable phenomena as automobile accidents, violence, substance
abuse, and unprotected sex. New approaches to adolescent health care, emphasizing prevention and
health promotion instead of treatment, are being studied. Among the most important innovations are
school based health centers.

6.1.2 Psychosocial hazards

Psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, counselors and other experts on the development and
treatment of psychosocial problems during adolescence typically distinguish among three broad
categories of problems. These are: substance abuse, internalizing disorders and externalizing disorders.

Substance abuse is the maladaptive use of drugs, including legal drugs such as alcohol and
nicotine: illegal drugs such marijuana; cocaine etc.

45
 Internalizing disorders are those in which the young person’s problems are turned inward and
manifested in emotional and cognitive distress such as depression, anxiety, suicide and attempt
to suicides, phobia, and other related problems.
Externalizing disorders are those in which the young person’s are turned outward and are
manifested in behavior problems/ act out/. The most common externalizing problems during
adolescence are delinquency, antisocial aggression, truancy, and others. Some adolescents also
have problems that do not fit neatly into one of these three categories, such as academic
problems/ low motivation, poor attention/ or peer problems/ low popularity, poor social and
personal skills.

6.2 Adolescence problems and health substance use and abuse

Substance abuse is a major health threat. Legal and illegal substances available to adolescents include
tobacco, caffeine, alcohol, glue, paint vapors, and pills. In one survey, 30% of the adolescents reported
using illicit drugs, such as amphetamine and cocaine. The spread of AIDS infections by use of dirty
needles increases the seriousness of this health threat.

6.2.1 Eating problems and disorders

Although a variety of nutritional and behavioral factors can lead to weight gains during adolescence,
gaining weight can sometimes result directly from the physical changes of puberty. Not only does the
ratio of body fat to muscle increase markedly during puberty, but the body’s basal metabolism rate also
drops about 15 percent. The basal metabolism rate is the minimal amount of energy one uses when
resting. A person’s weight is partly dependent on this rate.

Because adolescence is a time of dramatic change in physical appearance, the young person’s overall
self-image is very much tied to his or her body image. Deviation from the ideal physique can lead to loss
of self-esteem and other problems in the adolescent’s self-image. In light of the tremendous emphasize
to learn than the normal weight gain and change in body composition that accompanies puberty leads
many adolescents, especially girls, to become extremely concerned about their weight. Eating disorders
have increased dramatically among adolescents, particularly females. Two eating disorders that may
appear in adolescence are:

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Anorexia nervosa - is an eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through
starvation. It is a serious disorder that can lead to death. Is a voluntary weight loss of at least 25% of
body weight; the extreme thinness may lead to other health problems such as cessation of menstruation.
The main characteristics are:

Weighting less than 85% of what is considered normal for age and height
Having an intense fear of gaining weight. The fear does not decrease with weight loss.
Having a distorted image of body shape. Even when they are extremely thin, anorexics see
themselves as too fat. They never think they are thin enough, especially in the abdomen,
buttocks, and thighs. They usually weigh themselves frequently, often take their body
measurements, and gaze critically at themselves in mirrors

Bulimia nervosa: although anorexics control their eating by restricting it, most bulimics cannot. It is
an eating disorder characterized by binges, purges with laxatives, and self-induced vomiting. Some
people have altering pattern of the two problems. A prolonged period of either eating disorder can result
in serious health problems. Boys may not show the symptoms of anorexia or bulimia to the extent that
girls do, but many boys are overly concerned about their body and weight nevertheless.

6.2.2 Cause of death in adolescence

The major causes of death are:

Unintentional injuries/car accident, STIs

motor bike/ Accidents
Suicide Substance use/drug, cigarette, etc/
Homicide (murder, killing, shooting)

Suicides and attempted suicides

Suicides and attempted suicides have increased among adolescents at alarming rates in recent decades.
Research findings suggest that the suicidal adolescent has usually had, since child-hood, a history of
stress and personal problems. Attempts to resolve the problems, including running away from home
and increasing social isolation, may sudden an attempted suicide. Early professional help is often
needed to prevent withdrawal and acting out of problems.

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6.3 Juvenile delinquency and other antisocial behavior

Juvenile delinquency refers to a broad range of behaviors, from socially unacceptable behavior / such
as acting out in school and community/to status offenses/ such as running away/ to criminal acts/ such
as burglary /. For legal purposes, index offenses are criminal acts, whether they are committed by
juvenile and adults. They include such acts as robbery, aggravated assault, rape, and homicide. On the
other hand, status offense are performed by youths under a specified age, these are juvenile offense
that are not as serious as index offenses. These offenses include such acts as drinking under age,
truancy, sexual promiscuity etc. Although social scientists disagree about the cause and treatments of
adolescence antisocial behavior like juvenile delinquency, crime, aggression, and other conduct
problems. Antisocial behavior is an intentional infliction of some form of harm on others. It is behavior
that has injurious consequences.

6.4 HIV/AIDS and other STIs

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) - there are a number of infections that can be spread during
sexual activity. Infections can be spread through sexual intercourse, anal sex, oral sex, and using
fingers, other body parts, or sex toys that have come in contact with another person’s genitals or body
fluids. These diseases are called sexually transmitted infections, or STIs (often called sexually
transmitted diseases or STDs). Common places STIS can occur are the genital organs, anus, and throat.
Research has shown that young people are at an increased risk of developing STIs. The reasons for this
are not completely understood. However, the younger you are when you start having sex, the more
likely it is that you will get STI. Also, having one STI can make it easier to acquire other STIs at the
same time. The most common STI are HIV/AIDS, human papillomavirus (HPV), Gonorrhea and
Chlamydia, Herpes simplex virus, hepatitis B virus, syphilis and Trichomonas (―trich‖).

HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. AIDS is a serious, incurable disease of the immune system. Until
recently, everyone who developed AIDS died. Although new treatments are now helping many people
with HIV infection live longer, there is still no cure for this serious dieses or vaccine to prevent it.
Many people still die each year from AIDS.

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6.5 Prevention of adolescence problems

The major problems of adolescence are drug abuse, juvenile delinquency, sexual problems, antisocial
problems, suicide and attempts to suicide and other school related problems. The adolescents most at
risk have more than one of these problems. Researchers are increasingly finding that problem
behaviors in adolescence are interrelated. For example, heavy substance abuse is related to early sexual
activity, lower grades, dropping out of school, and delinquency. the most common preventions of
adolescence problems are cognitive interventions, catharsis; punishment/ it is applied situational/,
systematic desensitization , assertive and social skill training, community wide multiagency
collaborative approach, and early identification and intervention.

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