J11 ING Introductory Geology

Lecture 1
The Earth , and its bulk properties
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 1 and 2)

Learning Outcomes:
1) Understand that the Earth is internally zoned
2) Know the internal structure of the Earth and the key compositional and
mechanical differences that distinguish its internal zones
3) Understand the term geothermal gradient
4) Appreciate the environmental importance of geothermal gradients and other
properties of the Earth

So what is the Earth one of nine planets orbiting the sun and one of the four terrestrial
planets closest to the sun.

Mercury – Venus – Earth - Mars

These planets formed at higher temperatures than the outer planets and are therefore
formed from heavier elements. These elements were able to condense at higher
temperatures and so formed closer to the sun.

So what elements make up the earth (by weight)

Bulk Crust
iron 35% 6%
oxygen 30% 46%
silicon 15% 28%
magnesium 13% 4%
nickel 2.4% < 1%
sulphur 1.9% < 1%
calcium 1.1% 2.4%
aluminium 1.1% 8%
others 1.0% 1%

Initially the earth was homogeneous. Meteorites are thought to be fragments of the
homogeneous early matter in solar system.

Heat was generated within the earth by radiation faster than it could be lost by conduction
Melting and diffentiation takes place. Light compounds form on surface, dense
compounds sink to core. Resulting in:

The Zoned Earth

Two means of classification
1) Density-composition
2) Rock strength , mechanical properties, result from variations in P and T

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J11 ING Introductory Geology

How do we know the structure of the Earth? By monitoring the transmission of vibrations
which are dependent on composition, density and mechanical properties.

Density Composition Zones

Low density crust is underlayen by higher density mantle which is underlayen by higher
density core.
Thickness Density (gcm-3)
continental 30-70 km 2.9
oceanic 8 km 3.5
Mantle 2850 km 3.8 - 5.7
Core 3520 km 10.0-13.0

Mechanical zones
Lithosphere 100-200 km Cool strong ridgid rocks including uppermost part of mantle
and crust. Two types oceanic and continental. Continental lithosphere is 200km thick.
Oceanic lithosphere is 100km thick.

Asthenosphere (upper mantle) 70-350km weak rock close to melting T

Mesosphere (Lower Mantle) 350-2900km solid

Outer core 2900-4980km - liquid iron, very fluid, source of magnetism, modelled in
similar way to atmosphere.

Inner core 4980-6370km - mainly metallic iron and some nickel

The most important environmental aspect of this are the properties of the lithosphere and
crust as these determine such things as the maximum strength of an earthquake and the
surface properties of the Earth.

Temperature Gradients
Temperature increases with depth. The rate of increase is known as the Geothermal
Gradient – Geothermal gradients vary from 5-75°C/km

Temperature at base of
oceanic lithosphere 1300°C average geothermal gradient 13 °C/km
continental lithosphere 1350°C average geothermal gradient 6.7 °C/km

Pressure Gradients
Lithostatic Pressure - pressure due to weight of overlying water column
Approximate. crustal pressure gradient = 1 kbar or 100 MPa per 3.5km
(assuming an average density of 2.85g/cm3)

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J11ING Introductory Geology

Minerals

(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 3)

Learning Outcomes

1) Know the definition of a mineral

2) Know the main physical properties used to identify minerals
3) Be able to apply your knowledge of mineral properties to identify the main
rock forming minerals

Minerals

A mineral is a natural crystalline solid with definite chemical composition and crystal
structure

Rocks are made from minerals Several thousand minerals are known but fortunately
most are uncommon Only about 12 minerals form most rocks, but remember
uncommon minerals are very important e.g. diamonds.

Most of us envisage a mineral as a beautiful regular form. his only happens when
mineral has the space to grow and a constant supply of the appropriate elements.
Most minerals particularly when constituents of rocks do not have this perfect form
although they do still have the same regular structure and composition as a well
formed crystal.
J11ING Introductory Geology

Techniques use to study minerals

Hand sample deduce based on macroscopic properties
Thin section (beyond the scope of this course but you should be aware of the potential)
Advanced techniques – e.g. X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy

Macroscopic properties
Colour and Streak
The colour of a mineral is determined by examining a fresh surface in reflected light
(preferrably daylight). It may be diagnostic but can can cause confusion as trace elements
can greatly affect the colour of a mineral

Cleavage, parting and fracture

Hardness - resistance to abrasion

Mohs scale of hardness
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Potassium feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond

Hardness of common objects

Fingernail 2.5
Copper coin 3.5
Knife blade 5-5.5
Glass plate 5.5
Steel File 6.5

Lustre - appearance of fresh mineral surface in reflected light

Metallic - like polished metal
Sub-metallic - less brilliant
dull
vitreous - like broken glass
resinous - oily sheen
silky - like strands of fibres parallel to surface
earthy
pearly
J11ING Introductory Geology

Crystal Form or Habit

Platy Dendritic
Bladed Granular
Acicular Lammelar
Prismatic Reniform
Fibrous Columnar
Botryoidal Tabular
Mammillated Tuberose

Same mineral may have different habits depending on environment of formation

e.g. veins vs massive rock

Specific Gravity

Transparency

Tenacity
brittle- shatters easily
flexible - can be bent but will not return to orginal position once pressure is
released
elastic - can be bent and returns to original position once pressure is released
malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets
sectile - can be cut by a knife
ductile - can be drawn into thin wires

Special Properties
Reaction with acid
Taste
Magnetism
Odour
Double refraction
Feel
Radioactivity
Fluoresence
 Rock forming Minerals

(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 3)

Learning Outcomes

1) Understand how the main types of rocks are linked in the rock cycle
2) Know the names and properties of the common rock forming minerals
3) Be able to apply your knowledge of mineral properties to identify the main
rock forming minerals

Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. There are three types of rock.

Rock Types

Igneous - a rock formed by the solidification of magma (magma - molten

rock)

Sedimentary - a rock formed by the accumulation and cementation of

mineral grains transported by wind, water or ice to the site of deposition or
by chemical precipitation at the depositional site

Metamorphic - a rock whose original mineralogy, texture or composition

has been changed due to the effects of pressure and temperature in the
Earth's interior.

The Rock Cycle

These rocks are related to each other via the rock cycle. In essence igneous rocks
are weathered on the earths surface and turned into sediment. The sediment is
deposited in oceans and turned into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are
buried deep within the crust were they are changed by pressure and temperature
to metamorphic rocks and ultimately melted to form igneous rocks again.

Common Minerals
The most common minerals in the Earth’s crust can be divided into the following
groups

Silicates the most common minerals, contain SiO44-

Carbonates common in sedimentary rocks, contain CO32-

Oxides found in low concentrations in most rocks, contain O2-

Sulphates found in some sedimentary rocks, a common weathering

product in dry climates, contain SO42-

Sulphides found in low concentrations in most rocks, contain S2-

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 A Guide to the Rock Forming Minerals
Olivine
Structure Island silicate.
Composition (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4 . Most olivines are magnesium rich.
Colour green to yellowish green (due to Fe2+)
Lustre vitreous
Form Usually poorly formed in granular masses.
Hardness 6.5 -7
Fracture conchoidal
Cleavage None
Density 3.3 - 4.2 g cm-3
Occurrence: One of the first minerals to crystallise from silica poor magma. Very common
constituent of silica-poor igneous rocks. Has been used as a gem. Alters to serpentine
Mg6(Si4010)2(OH) on exposure to water at moderate temperatures. Weathers rapidly.

Garnet
Structure Island silicate.
Composition
grossular Ca2Al2Si3O12
pyrope Mg2Al2Si3O12
almandine Fe2Al2Si3O12
Several other less common types of garnet exist containing Mn, Fe3+ and Cr as major cations
Colour various shades of red tending to black.
Lustre vitreous
Form often occurs as well formed regular (dodecahedral) crystals and
also in granular masses.
Hardness very hard. 6.5 - 7.5
Fracture conchoidal
Cleavage None
Density Pyrope - 3.6 g cm-3
Almandine - 4.3 g cm-3
Grossular - 3.6 g cm-3
Occurrence: Pyrope is found in mantle derived rocks and in high pressure metamorphic rocks.
Almandine typically occurs in regionally metamorphosed schists. Grossular occurs in contact and
regionally metamorphosed limestones. Relatively resistant to weathering.

Pyroxenes
General characteristics
Structure Single chain silicates,
Composition X2Y2O6.
X can be Ca, Mg or Fe,
Y can be Si or Al.
Many varieties.
Colour variable brown, black, green
Cleavage 2 cleavages at approx. 90°.

One of the most common pyroxenes is Augite Ca(Mg,Fe)Si2O6.

Colour dark green to black
Form 8-sided stubby crystals and granular masses
Hardness 5-6
Density 3.4 g cm-3

Occurrence: Augite is an important constituent of silica-poor igneous rocks, often associated with
olivine and plagioclase. It is an essential constituent of gabbro and basalt. Weathers easily.

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 Amphiboles
General characteristics
Structure Double chain silicate,
Composition hydrous, X2-3Y5 Si8O22(OH)2,
X - Ca or Na,
Y - Mg or Fe, Al
Colour Hornblende Ca2(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si7AlO22(OH)2 dark green to black
Actinolite Ca2Fe5Si8O22(OH)2 green
Tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2 white
Riebeckite Na2Fe32+Fe23+Si8O22(OH)2 blue (asbestos)
Many other amphiboles exist in a wide range of colours and compositions
Form Long six sided crystals; also fibres (Riebeckite) and irregular grains
Hardness 5-6
Cleavage two cleavages at 124° and 56°
Density 3.0-3.4 g cm-3

Occurrence: Hornblende is common in igneous rocks with an intermediate silica content (diorites
and andesites). Actinolite and tremolite occur in metamorphic rocks. Easily weathered.

Sheet silicates
General characteristics
Cleavage one perfect cleavage
Hardness 2.5 or less

Sheet silicates are classified based on: the cations which bind the silicate layers; water content; the
arrangement of the layers

Chlorite
Composition (Mg, Fe, Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8
Colour green
Form massive or thin reflective flakes.
Density 2.7 g cm-3
Occurrence: common alteration product of other iron and magnesium bearing silicates

Micas

Muscovite K2Al4Si6Al2O20(OH)4
Biotite K2(Mg,Fe)6Si6Al2O20(OH)4
compared to biotite muscovite contains aluminium in place of Fe or Mg
Colour Muscovite - silvery white-yellow or transparent
Biotite - brown to black
Cleavage One perfect cleavage
Density Muscovite 2.8 g cm-3
Biotite 2.9 g cm-3
Tenacity Flexible sheets

Occurrence: Both micas are common in silica-rich igneous and metamorphic rocks. Although soft,
muscovite is relatively resistant to weathering, and is common in some sedimentary rocks.

Serpentine Mg6(Si4010)2(OH)
Three polymorphs (different structures same formula)
Chrysotile - white asbestos, Antigorite and Lizardite
Form Fine grained greenish masses and in case of chrysotile fibrous.
Density 2.5 g cm-3

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Occurrence: Serpentine is an alteration product of olivine and other magnesium silicates. Massive
serpentine results from the alteration of ultrabasic igneous rocks.

Clay Minerals
Clay minerals are complex sheet silicates and include kaolinite Al4Si4O10(OH)8, illite
KAl2(Al,Si3)O10(OH)2 and montmorillonite 2H+2Al2(Al,Si3)O10(OH)2 . Typically the clays are
very fine grained and not easily identifiable in hand sample. They are of considerable importance to
the engineering as they are a major component of soils and fine grained sediments. Clay minerals form
as a result of low temperature hydrothermal alteration and weathering. Feldspars in particular alter to
clay minerals

Framework silicates
Quartz SiO2
Structure Interlocking tetrahedra
Colour colourless, white, grey but minor impurities may produce any
colour some semi-precious.
Lustre vitreous
Form Crystals six sided, granular and massive
Hardness 7
Fracture Conchoidal
Cleavage none
Density 2.7 g cm-3

Occurrence: Quartz occurs in silica-rich igneous rocks (excess silica), metamorphic rocks and
sedimentary rocks. A high resistance to abrasion and weathering results in quartz being the major
component in sediments. Quartz is a common constituent of veins.
Other varieties of silica include chert, flint, agate and opal

Feldspar Group
Two main members
K-feldspar KAlSi3O8 (Orthoclase)
Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8 (Albite) to CaAl2Si2O8 (Anorthite)

Colour K-feldspar - flesh coloured , pink, white, grey

Plagioclase - white to dark grey
Form K-feldspar - Prismatic crystals and granular masses
Plagioclase - irregular grains, cleavable masses, tabular crystals
Hardness 6-6.5
Cleavage two perfect cleavages approximately at 90°. Plagioclase is
often has striations on cleavage planes
Density 2.6-2.8 g cm-3
Other features K-feldspar -large crystals often show simple twinning
Plagioclase - large crystals may display zoning

Occurrence: Silica-rich igneous rocks contain up to 80% feldspar (Plagioclase and K-feldspar). Silica
poor igneous rocks contain up to 50% plagioclase.
K-feldspar occurs most commonly in silica-rich igneous rocks. Is relatively resistant to weathering and
as a result is a major component of some sediments and sedimentary rocks. It also occurs in
metamorphic rocks.
Plagioclase is the most abundant mineral in igneous rocks and is used to classify them. It is less
resistant to weather and alteration than K-Feldspar, but more resistant than Fe-Mg minerals. It can be a
significant component of some sedimentary rocks

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 Carbonates

Two most common Calcite - CaCO3

Dolomite - CaMg(CO3)2
Colour Dolomite - white or grey often pale brown or yellow on weathered
surfaces
Calcite - white, grey or transparent
Form Calcite - elongate tapering crystals and granular masses.
Dolomite - rhombohedral crystals granular masses
Hardness 3-3.5 (easily scratched by copper coin)
Cleavage three perfect cleavages at oblique angles forming rhombohedron
Density Calcite - 2.7 g cm-3
Dolomite - 2.8 g cm-3
Special property: Calcite effervesces in cold dilute HCl
Dolomite does not effervesce in cold dilute HCl

Occurrence: Calcite and dolomite occur in sedimentary rocks and are the main constituents of
limestones and dolomites (a term also used to describe rock composed of the same mineral). They are
also found in association with hydrothermal mineralisation and in metamorphic rocks

Sulphates
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Colour white, grey or transparent
Lustre pearly lustre on cleavage surfaces
Form elongate or tabular crystals. Fibrous and earthy masses
Hardness 2 (can be scratched by finger nail)
Cleavage 1 perfect cleavage
Density 2.3 g cm-3

Occurrence: Sedimentary rocks and mineral deposits.

5
 Igneous Rocks and Processes
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapters 4 and 5)

Learning Outcomes
1) Know the main factors that determine the nature of igneous rocks and the behaviour
of magmas.
2) Understand that rate of cooling determines grain size
3) Know the relationship between magma viscosity, type of volcano and style of
eruption.
Magma
Composition – classification based on silica content,
 Basaltic
 Andesitic
 Rhyolitic

Gas content.

Temperature

Viscosity a result of the combined effects of temperature and composition.

Crystallisation
Fast cooling results in fine grained igneous rocks

Slow cooling results in coarse grained igneous rocks

Different minerals start to precipitate in the magma as it cools. Early formed minerals
that precipitated in the magma sometimes occur as large crystals encase in a fine
grained rock. These are known as phenocyrsts and the rock is described as
porphyritic.

Eruptions
Non-explosive, fountains, lava flows, products – vesicular basalts result from gases
trapped in cooling magma. If gas cavities are filled with minerals they are called
amygdales.

Explosive eruptions – viscous magmas produce pyroclastic tephra.

Types of tephra include – bombs, lapilli, ash.

Pyroclastic flows – very destructive, e.g. Pompeii, Mt Saint Helens

Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes – formed from low viscosity basalts
Strato volcanoes – formed from andesitic lavas and pyroclastics
Calderas – collapsed volcanoes

Other volcanic features

Hots springs, geysers etc.

 Igneous Rocks
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapters 4 and 5)

Learning outcomes based on lecture, practical and recommended text:

To be able to:
1) Understand the physical and mineralogical implications of the terms used to describe
igneous rocks in hand sample and be able to systematically apply them.
2) To be able to understand and use the terms that reflect the large scale features of
igneous rocks

Hand sample description

Colour Fine Coarse

Dark rocks Basalt, Gabbro

Intermediate Andesite Diorite

Light Rocks Rhyolite, Granite

Grainsize – phaneritic, aphanitic, glassy, coarse grained, medium grained, fine grained.

Porphyritic – contains phenocrysts

Phenocrysts – large crystals in a finer grained matrix. The result of a two stage
crystallisation process.

Mineral composition – see diagram given in practical

Pyroclastic rocks – tuff or agglomerate

Macroscopic description

Extrusive – lava flows, pyroclastics

Intrusive
Dykes – cut across layering
Sills – parallel to layering
Batholiths – very large intrusions
Plutons – a general name for all igneous intrusion

Xenolith – a piece of the surrounding rock (country rock) caught up in an igneous

intrusion

Cooling features
Columnar Joints – polygonal fracture pattern associated with cooling.
Chilled margins – fine grained, rapidly cooled margins to a pluton
 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Rocks and Sediments
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 7)

Learning Outcomes:
1. Know the general features of sedimentary rocks
2. Know the main types of sediment and sedimentary rock.
3. To know how to systematically describe and classify clastic
sediments and sedimentary rocks
4. Understand how sediment is transported and the origin of
cross bedding and graded bedding

General features of sediments and sedimentary rocks

Layering, also known as stratification
Individual layers are known as strata or more commonly beds,
What causes sedimentary layering?

Sedimentary rocks are of particular economic importance as they host most

of the world’s fossil fuels. There are two main types clastic and non-clastic

Clastic Sediment is composed of the products of weathering,- mineral

fragments, rock fragments, Fe hydroxides,organic matter known as detritus
These fragments are also known as clasts and rocks composed of mineral
and rock fragments are referred to as clastic rocks

Terms used to describe clastic sediment and sedimentary rocks.

 Grain composition
Quartz
Feldspar
Clay
organic matter
Biogenic material (e.g. plant debris, shells)
 Grain size
 Sorting
 Shape roundness, sphericity
 Scale of bedding
 Special types of bedding – e.g. bedforms
 Colourof fresh surface (Fe3+ in iron oxides produces red rocks,
minerals containing Fe2+ produce dull green to black rocks , organic
matter gives rocks a brown to black colour)

Sediment transport and bedforms

The process of sediment transport results in abrasion, practicle rounding and
a reduction in partical size. It can also produce features known as bedforms.
Two particularly common bedforms are known as cross bedding and graded
bedding
Graded Bedding – grainsize changes through the bed usually from coarse
grained at the base to fine grained at the top.

Cross bedding and bedform motion

Cross bedding results from the motion of dunes, ripples etc

Diagenesis
 Formation of new mineral cements, happens from top few millimetres
downwards and different processes ar different depths.
 Compaction
 Recrystallisation
 Minerals dissolution
Near surface processes very important in particular those related to the
destruction of organic matter by micro-organisms.

Clastic sedimentary rock types

Main types Conglomerate
Sandstone
Siltstone
Mudstone

Mudstone and siltstone are commonly referred to as shale.

 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

Bedding Features Diagenesis and Non-clastic sediments

(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 7)

Learning Outcomes:
1) To be able to understand the origins and significance of a range of bedforms.
2) Know the origins of the main non-clastic rock types and the terms used to describe
them

Bedforms and other features

Flute marks/Sole marks – result of scouring of the surface of a bed and the infilling of the
scoured depressions with new sediment
Ripple marks – the surface of some beds show ripple marks
Mud cracks – evidence of dessication
Bioturbation – disruption of bedding by living organisms, e.g. worm burrows,
footprints etc

Non clastic sediments

Non-clastic sediments are formed by biochemical and inorganic chemical processes
Limestones types, oolitic, coral, crinoidal, often named after fossil constituents or
constituent particles.
Chalk composed of the shells of micro-organisms called coccoliths

Dolostones rocks composed of dolomite. Sometimes formed by the alteration of limestone

Ironstones rocks composed of iron minerals which were often precipitated by bacterial
processes
Stromatolites mounds of carbonate or iron minerals formed by bacteria. Evidence for the
earliest forms of life

Travertine carbonates precipitated around hot springs

Evaporites rocks formed by the evaporation of sea water or fresh water. Typical marine
evaporite minerals gypsum, anhydrite, potash, halite. Freshwater evaporites
often include nitrates.

Phosphates marine sediment composed of phosphate minerals, usually formed in highly

productive waters.

Coal a rock made almost entirely of organic matter usually derived from land plants.
 Geological Time

(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 11)

Learning outcomes:

1) Understand the concepts of absolute and relative time.

2) Understand the term unconformity and its stratigraphic significance.

3) Know the geological time scale.

4) Understand how time is measured.

5) Be aware of the geological changes that have occurred in the UK over

geological time.

The age of the earth and the timescales of earth processes have been a source

of much debate

Two aspects to geological time

1) Relative time.

2) Absolute time.

Relative time is based on the principle of stratigraphic superposition. From this a

relative stratigraphy of rocks in the earths crust can be produced.

Continuous deposition vs breaks in deposition

Breaks in deposition result in

Unconformities

There are a number of types of unconformity

Angular unconformity

Disconformity
 Nonconformity

Absolute time - How can this be measured?

Early Scientific estimates

Comte de Buffon (1707-88) 132 000 yrs based on cooling spheres

John Joly (1889) 90 My based on salinity of the
oceans
William Thomson (1880’s) 100My based on rates of cooling
and the thermal properties
of rocks

Correct age 4600My Radiometric dating

Modern estimates of time are based on measurements of the concentrations of

radioactive isotopes. Different isotope pairs can be used to measure different ages.
This technique is kown as radiometric dating.

By combining time measurements with stratigraphic knowledge a definitive

geological column and timescale has been produced.

Time on the geological time scale is divided into

Eras

Periods

Epochs

Magnetism has also been used to provide a geological time scale. This can be done
using radiometric dating and by measuring the direction of magnetic polarity in a
rock.
 Sedimentary Environments
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 7)

Learning Outcomes:
1) Understand the reasons for lateral and vertical variation in
sedimentary rock types
2) Know the meaning of the term sedimentary facies
3) Know the main types of sedimentary facies/environment.

Sequences of sediments

The following general principles are applied to the interpretation of sediments

 Sediments are originally deposit on a near horizontal surface

 Younger sediments are deposited on top of older sediments

Vertical changes in sediment composition represent changes in the environment

of deposition. Primary causes of changing sediment over time are –sea
level change, climate change and mountain building

Groups of sedimentary rocks and bedforms representing a specific environment

are referred to as a sedimentary facies.

Types of sedimentary facies

Alluvial (river deposits) – Mixture of channel and floodplain deposits. No

marine sediments and few fossils.

Eolian - very well sorted , fine spherical grains, red sands, large scale cross
bedding (10’s m).

Glacial - poorly sorted sediment - boulder clay, landscape features, dropstones in

ancient marine sediments.

Deltaic - mixture of freshwater and shallow-marine deposits and coal. Typical

sedimentary features include channel infills and cross beds.

Beach - well sorted rounded sands, lagoons of mud and silt, salt marsh, dune
sands.

Shallow marine - Sands, muds, rippled sands, marine fossils, bioturbation. If

clastic supply is minimal then limestones may form.

Turbidites (Deep marine) – Turbidites are dense sediment laden flows which
are generated by slumping on the continental slope. Typical features include
graded bedding, flute marks, small scale cross beds.

Pelagic (Deep marine) – calcareous ooze above carbonate compensation depth

(3000-4000 m, depth at which calcium carbonate dissolves). Below carbonate
compensation depth siliceous ooze, volcanic ash, dust from deserts.
 Metamorphic rocks
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 8)

Learning Outcomes:

1) Understand the origins of metamorphic rocks

2) Understand the terms contact, regional metamorphism and cataclastic
metamorphism
3) Be able to apply the correct terms when describing metamorphic rocks and
their fabrics.
4) Understand the metamorphic terms grade, facies, retrograde and prograde.
5) Have a knowledge of the processes involved in metamorphism.

Metamorphic Processes
When the minerals in rock change due to the effects of elevated temperature, high
pressure and deformation the rock is said to have been metamorphosed and is a
metamorphic rock.

Most metamorphic rocks form at temperatures greater than 200°C.

The temperature of metamorphism is known as the metamorphic grade.
Low grade – Low temperature
High grade – High temperature

Increasing temperature results in loss of volatiles (H20 and CO2) and new mineral
formation.
Increasing pressure results in formation of denser minerals e.g. garnet.
Prograde – changes experienced as a result of increasing pressure and temperature
Retrograde – uplift and cooling of the metamorphic rocks usually involving the
addition of water.

Types of Metamorphism
Types of metamorphism are classified based on the processs which result in the
elevated pressures (P), temperatures (T) and or deformation.

Burial Metamorphism – P and T increase due to burial. In this case there is a

smooth transition from diagenesis to metamorphism.

Cataclastic Metamorphism – also known as dynamic metamorphic this is due to

high shear stresses, and depending on T results can result in both fracturing and
recrystallisation

Contact metamorphism – also known as thermal metamorphism contact

metamorphic rocks are metamorphosed by high temperatures at the margins of an
igneous intrusion.

Contact metamorphic rocks are known as hornfels. They are typically very strong
as their minerals have been recrystallised and annealed in random orientation.

Contact metamorphic aureoles are rarely greater than 1km wide

 Typical minerals include: biotite, muscovite, cordierite, andalusite

Regional metamorphism – this is the result of a combination of increased P T and

the deformation that occurs during mountain building processes. Regional
metamorphic rocks generally occur over wide areas.

Deformation results in regional metamorphic rocks developing a fabric known as a

cleavage or foliation.
In low grade metamorphosed mudstones the cleavage is known as a slaty cleavage
and the rock is known as a slate.
In high grade metamorphosed mudstones the cleavage is known as a schistosity
and the rock is known as a schist.
Names of metamorphic rocks

Mudstone – pelite
Sandstone – quartzite (or psammite depending on proportion of quartz)
Limestone – marble
Basalt/gabbro – metabasite

Regionally metamorphosed pelites can be subdivided based on grade into:

Low grade - Slate,
Phyllite
Schist
High Grade - Gneiss
As T increases so does grain size and new minerals form.

Typical minerals in pelites (metamorphosed mudstones)

Slate fine grained clays, muscovite, chlorite

Phyllite muscovite chlorite, phyllites have a characteristic sheen due to slightly
coarser grains
Schist muscovite, biotite plus other new minerals including garnet, and
kyanite. Coarser than phyllite
Gneiss Biotite, muscovite grains > 1mm. New minerals including garnet and
sillimanite

melting at highest T to form granite, and a rock known as migmatite

Metamorphic Facies
Group of minerals or mineral assemblage reflects P-T conditions of formation and
texture differential stress A group of minerals which are characteristic of particular P-
T conditions are said to distinguish a Metamorphic Facies
 Rock Deformation
(Skinner, Porter an Park 2004, Chapter 9)

Learning Outcomes:
1) Understand the basic concepts of stress and strain
2) Know the difference between brittle and ductile deformation and the influence of temperature
and strain rate on the type of deformation
3) Be able to describe the main types of geological structure produced by brittle deformation.
4) Know how to express the orientation of a planar structure in terms of dip and strike.

Stress equivalent of pressure and measured in Pascals (Nm-2)

Two types of stress

uniform
differential

Types of differential stress.

compression
tension
shear

Strain - change in length or shape, dimensionless.

Stress-strain graphs
elastic
plastic/ductile
fracture

At high T rocks are more ductile

A low strain rates rocks are more ductile

Types of brittle structure.

Joints – fractures across which there has been little or no relative motion. Joints form for a number of
reasons including decompression in near surface environments, cooling and contraction of magmas– eg
columnar joints

Faults – fractures across which there has been significant relative motion.

Fault terms
Displacement
Footwall
Hanging wall
Throw

Types of Fault
Normal
Reverse
StrikeslipThrust

Types of fault bounded feature

Graben
Horst
 Rock Deformation – Ductile Structures, folds, and dip and strike
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 9)

Learning Outcomes:
1. Understand the terms dip and strike
2. Know how to describe folded geological structures
3. Understand the relationship between foliation (e.g. slaty cleavage, schistosity) and folds.
4. Understand the relationship between linear fabrics and folds

The orientation of planar structures (like bedding planes or fault planes) are measured in terms of
– strike and dip or dip and dip direction.

 Dip – maximum angle of inclination of a plane. Expressed as an angle between 0° and 90°.
 Strike – direction of a horizontal line on a plane, usually expressed between compass bearings
001° and 180°.
 Dip direction – the direction of the maximum angle of inclination expressed as a compass
bearing of between 001° and 360°.

The orientation of a plane striking N-S and dipping at 45 degrees to the west can be expressed as
either:

 180/45W (strike and dip with a sense of dip direction)

or
 45/090 (dip and dip direction).

Compass bearings need to be corrected for magnetic declination

Folds

General Descriptive terms

Axis - plunge
Axial plane
Hinge
Limbs
Amplitude
Wavelength

Descriptive terms based on interlimb angle

Gentle
Open Based on interlimb angle
Tight
Isoclinal

Descriptive terms based on inclination of axial plane

Upright
Overturned
Recumbent

Axial Planar fabrics develop parallel to the axial plane of the fold and perpendicular to the
maximum stress. Examples include slaty cleavage and schistosity and mineral lineations
 Interpretation of Maps and Cross-sections 1.

Learning Outcomes:
1) Through example classes learn how to read and interpret geological maps
and cross sections.
2) From the practical understand what information can be obtained from a
geological map and understand the symbols used to convey that
information.

Maps give a plan view of the distribution and relationships between rock types. Using
the relationship between geological data and topographic contours cross sections can
constructed

Establishing the order of geological events

To understand the relationship between rocks on a map or cross-section it is crucial

that you refer to the key. This will give you information on what rocks are
represented by specific symbols and whether those rocks are sedimentary, igneous or
metamorphic. In particular the interpretation of maps and cross-sections, is directly
applicable to the interpretation of outcrops.

Basic assumptions are:

1) Sedimentary rocks are originally laid down horizontally
2) Younger rocks are laid on top of older rocks

Disruptions to this pattern result from

1) Folding
2) Igneous intrusions
3) Uplift and erosion which produces an unconformity
4) Faults

Folding
Large scale folding occurs after the sediments have been deposited.
Anticlines have the older rocks in their cores
Synclines have younger rocks in their cores.

Igneous rocks
Lava flows and pyroclastics are generally parallel to bedding
Intrusive igneous rocks commonly cross-cut bedding and other structures which they
postdate. An exception to this is an intrusive sill which by definition is bedding
parallel. Sills can often be distinguished from lava flows based on rock type i.e. you
cannot get a granite lava flow.

Unconformities
Angular unconformities are recognised by an angular relationship between the
bedding in older and younger strata.
Disconformities are recognised by an irregular erosion surface between beds or a
significant break in deposition.
 Interpretation of Maps and Cross-sections 2

Components of a typical real Geological Map.

On most geological maps geological data is superimposed on a standard topographic

base map on which topographic contours, towns, roads etc are marked.

Key.
Solid Geology – refers to rocks
Drift Geology – refers to soils, alluvium and glacial material

Each rock type is represented by a colour, a symbol and in some instances a pattern.

Solid Geology
Rocks are usually separated into two categories igneous and
sedimentary/metamorphic. Pyroclastic rocks and lava flows are sometimes included
in the sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are given in a stratigraphic column in order of

age. The oldest rocks are normally at the bottom and the youngest at the top.
Sometimes this stratigraphic column has a vertical scale.

Drift material which is Quaternary is usually given in a separate block of information

at the top of the key.

Dip and dip direction is usually indicated by a small arrow pointing in the direction
of dip and a value for the dip of the strata at that point.
Horizontal strata
Vertical strata

Stratigraphic boundaries are indicated by a thin black line.

Faults are indicated by a thick black line and the downthrown side of the fault is
indicated by a small mark on the fault line.

Mineral veins are indicated by thick black lines and the type of minerals are usually
indicated alongside the vein.

Solid lines indicated certainty in the position of a boundary fault or vein.

Dashed lines indicate uncertainty in the position of a boundary, fault or vein.
 Earthquakes
(Skinner, Porter and Park 2004, Chapter 10)

Learning Objectives
1) Be able to understand and apply earthquake and seismic wave terminology
2) Know the meaning of magnitude and intensity
3) Know some of the risks associated with earthquake activity

Earthquakes occur as a result of sudden motion on faults. The energy released is

stored elastic energy. How much energy is stored depends on properties of fault
surface and rock type. The study of earthquakes and vibrations in the earth is
known as seismology.

Occurrence
Earthquakes only occur in the brittle lithosphere

Earthquake terminology

Focus - place where energy is released

Epicentre - closest point to focus on ground

Waves
Energy dispersed by waves - body waves, surface waves

Types of body waves

P –waves (primary) compressive waves that travel through solids, liquids and
gases, 6km/s.
S – waves (secondary) shear waves that travel in solids only, 3.5km/s

Surface waves – much slower than P or S waves and confined to the earths
surface

Seismic waves can be transmitted, reflected, refracted

Times of arrival are used to deduce the position of the epicentre.

Size of Earthquake
Magnitude - measured using the Richter scale, which is an estimate of the
energy released. The Richter Scale is logarithmic. The energy is proportional to
maximum amplitude squared. 1 richter unit is equal to energy increase of 30x

Intensity – is a measure of the response of ground, buildings and people and is

measured using the Modified Mercalli Scale

Hazard assessment
To assess the risk of the an earthquake you need to consider both frequency with
magnitude.

Earthquake risks
Ground motions - building destruction
Fault breakage
Fire
Landslip
Liquefaction
Tsunamis