History

1
How, When and Where

HOW IMPORTANT ARE DATES?

There was a time when historians were fascinated with dates. There were heated debates about the dates on which rulers
were crowned or battles were fought. In the common-sense notion, History was synonymous with dates. You may have
heard people say. “I find history boring because it is all about memorising dates.” Is such a concept true?
History is certainly about changes that occur over time. It is about finding out how things were in the past and how
things have changed. As soon as we compare the past with the present we refer to time,
we talk of “before” and “after”.

There was a time when history was an account of battles and big events. It was about rulers and their policies. Historians
wrote about the year a king was crowned, the year he married, the year he had a child, the year he fought a particular
war, the year he died, and the year the next ruler succeeded to the throne. For events such as these, specific dates can
be determined, and in histories such as these, debates about dates continue to be important.

Historians now write about a host of other issues, and other questions. They look at how people earned their livelihood,
what they produced and eat, how cities developed and markets came up, how kingdoms were formed and new ideas
spread, and how cultures and society changed.

WHICH DATES:
On which criteria we choose a set of dates which is important? The dates we select, the dates around which we compose
our story of the past, are not important on their own. They become vital because we focus on a particular set of events
as important. If our focus of study changes, if we begin to look at new issues, a new set of dates will appear significant.

In the histories written by British historians in India, the rule of each Governor-
General was important. These histories began with the rule of the first
Governor-General, Warren Hastings, and ended with the last Viceroy, Lord
Mountbatten. In separate chapters we read about the deeds of others–
Hastings, Wellesley, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning, Lawrence, Lytton, Ripon,
Curzon, Harding, Irwin. It was a seemingly never-ending succession of
Governor- Generals and Viceroys. All the dates in these history books were
linked to these personalities – to their activities, policies, achievements. It
was as if there was nothing outside their lives that was important for us to
know. The chronology of their lives marked the different chapters of the history
of British India.

When we write history, or a story, we divide it into chapters. Why do we do this? It is to give each chapter some coherence.
It is to tell a story in a way that makes some sense and can be followed. In the process we focus only on those events

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that help us to give shape to the story we are telling. In the histories that revolve around the life of British Governor-
Generals, the activities of Indians simply do not fit, they have no space. What, then, do we do? Clearly, we need another
format for our history. This would mean that the old dates will no longer have the significance they earlier had. A new
set of dates will become more important for us to know.

HOW DO WE PERIODISE?
In 1817, James Mill, a Scottish economist and political philosopher, published a massive three-volume work, A History
of British India. In this he divided Indian history into three periods – Hindu, Muslim and British. This periodisation
came to be widely accepted.

Why do we try and divide history into different periods? We do so in an attempt to capture the characteristics of a time,
its central features as they appear to us. So the terms through which we periodise – that is, demarcate the difference
between periods – become important. They reflect our ideas about the past. They show how we see the significance
of the change from one period to the next.

Mill thought that all Asian societies were at a lower level of civilisation than Europe. According to his telling of history,
before the British came to India, Hindu and Muslim despots ruled the country. Religious intolerance, caste taboos and
superstitious practices dominated social life. British rule, Mill felt, could civilise India. To do this it was necessary to
introduce European manners, arts, institutions and laws in India. Mill, in fact, suggested that the British should conquer
all the territories in India to ensure the enlightenment and happiness of the Indian people. For India was not capable
of progress without British help.

Moving away from British classification, historians have usually divided Indian history into ‘ancient’, ‘medieval’ and
‘modern’. This division too has its problems. It is a periodisation that is borrowed from the West where the modern
period was associated with the growth of all the forces of modernity – science, reason, democracy, liberty and equality.
Medieval was a term used to describe a society where these features of modern society did not exist. Can we uncritically
accept this characterisation of the modern period to describe the period of our study? As you will see in this book, under
British rule people did not have equality, freedom or liberty. Nor was the period one of economic growth and progress.
Many historians therefore refer to this period as ‘colonial’.

WHAT IS COLONIAL?
British cane to conquer the country and establish their rule, subjugating local nawabs and rajas, they established control
over the economy and society, collected revenue to meet all their expenses, bought the goods they wanted at low prices.
British rule brought about in values and tastes, customs and pratices. When the subjugation of one country by another
leads to these kinds of political, economic, social and cultural changes, this refers to the process as colonisation.

HOW DO WE KNOW?
Administration produces records
One important source is the official records of the British administration. The British believed that the act of writing
was important. Every instruction, plan, policy decision, agreement, investigation had to be clearly written up. Once this
was done, things could be properly studied and debated. This conviction produced an administrative culture of memos,
notings and reports.

The British also felt that all important documents and letters needed to be carefully preserved. So they set up record
rooms attached to all administrative institutions. The village tahsildar’s office, the collectorate, the commissioner’s office,

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the provincial secretariats, the lawcourts - all had their record rooms. Specialised institutions like archives and museums
were also established to preserve important records.
In the early years of the nineteenth century these documents were carefully copied out and beautifully written by calligraphists
- that is, by those who specialised in the art of beautiful writing. By the middle of the nineteenth century, with the spread
of printing, multiple copies of these records were printed as proceedings of each government department.

The National Archives of India came up in the 1920s

SURVEYS BECOME IMPORTANT:

By the early nineteenth century detailed surveys were being carried out to map the entire country. In the villages, revenue
surveys were conducted. The effort was to know the topography, the soil quality, the flora, the fauna, the local histories,
and the cropping pattern – all the facts seen as necessary to know about to administer the region. From the end of the
nineteenth century, Census operations were held every ten years. These prepared detailed records of the number of people
in all the provinces of India, noting information on castes, religions and occupation. There were many other surveys
– botanical surveys, zoological surveys, archaeological surveys, anthropological surveys, forest surveys.

WHAT OFFICIAL RECORDS DO NOT TELL:

When we begin to search for these other sources we find them in plenty, though they are more difficult to get than official
records. We have diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims and travellers, autobiographies of important personalities, and
popular booklets that were sold in the local bazaars. As printing spread, newspapers were published and issues were
debated in public. Leaders and reformers wrote to spread their ideas, poets and novelists wrote to express their feelings.

The rebels of 1857

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All these sources, however, were produced by those who were literate. From these we will not be able to understand
how history was experienced and lived by the tribals and the peasants, the workers in the mines or the poor on the streets.
Getting to know their lives is a more difficult task.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Through which act Warren Hastings became the Governor-General of India?
2. What is History. How does History help us?
3. Why do we connect History with dates?
4. What is Census?
5. What is calligraphy?
6. What is the title the book written by James Mill?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

7. How can we write History in different ways?
8. What was the misconception of James Mills?
9. What were the drawbacks of official records?
10. Why do we divide History into different periods?
11. What should be the base of selection of dates?
12. How various surveys helped the British administration?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

13. How the various surveys conducted by British became an important source of History?
14. Name same important archaeological sources. Explain any one.
15. What is Imperialism ? How did imperialism lead to imperialist rivalries
16. What do you understand by the Industrial Revolution ?
17. Distinguish between literary sources and Archaeological sources.
18. How the periodisation done by James Mill differ from other Historians?
19. What is Colonial and Colony?
20. What are our main sources for the study of modern period of Indian history ?

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2
From Trade to Territory

INTRODUCTION
Aurangzeb was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers. He established control over a very large part of the territory that is
now known as India. After his death in 1707, many Mughal governors (subadars) and big zamindars began asserting their
authority and establishing regional kingdoms. As powerful regional kingdoms emerged in various parts of India, Delhi could
no longer function as an effective centre.

By the second half of the eighteenth century, however, a new power was emerging on the political horizon – the British. Did
you know that the British originally came as a small trading company and were reluctant to acquire territories? How then did
they come to be masters of a vast empire?

EAST INDIA COMPANY COMES EAST

In 1600, the East India Company acquired a charter from the ruler of England, Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the sole right
to trade with the East. This meant that no other trading group in England could compete with the East India Company. With
this charter the Company could venture across the oceans, looking for new lands from which it could buy goods at a cheap
price, and carry them back to Europe to sell at higher prices. The Company did not have to fear competition from other
English trading companies. Mercantile trading companies in those days made profit primarily by excluding competition, so
that they could buy cheap and sell dear.

Routes to India in the eighteenth century

The royal charter, however, could not prevent other European powers from entering the Eastern markets. By the time the first
English ships sailed down the west coast of Africa, round the Cape of Good Hope, and crossed the Indian Ocean, the
Portuguese had already established their presence in the western coast of India, and had their base in Goa. In fact, it was
Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, who had discovered this sea route to India in 1498. By the early seventeenth
century, the Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in the Indian Ocean. Soon the French traders arrived on the
scene.

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The problem was that all the companies were interested in buying the same things. The fine qualities of cotton and silk
produced in India had a big market in Europe. Pepper, cloves, cardamom and cinnamon too were in great demand. Competition
amongst the European companies inevitably pushed up the prices at which these goods could be purchased, and this
reduced the profits that could be earned. The only way the trading companies could flourish was by eliminating rival
competitors. The urge to secure markets therefore led to fierce battles between the trading companies. Through the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries they regularly sank each other’s ships, blockaded routes, and prevented rival ships from moving
with supplies of goods. Trade was carried on with arms and trading posts were protected through fortification.

This effort to fortify settlements and carry on profitable trade also led to intense conflict with local rulers. The company
therefore found it difficult to separate trade from politics.

EAST INDIA COMPANY BEGINS TRADE IN BENGAL

The first English factory was set up on the banks of the river Hugli in 1651. This was the base from which the
Company’s traders, known at that time as “factors”, operated. The factory had a warehouse where goods for export were
stored, and it had offices where Company officials sat. As trade expanded, the Company persuaded merchants and traders to
come and settle near the factory. By 1696 it began building a fort around the settlement. Two years later it bribed Mughal
officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three villages. One of these was Kalikata, which later grew into the
city of Calcutta or Kolkata as it is known today. It also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting
the Company the right to trade duty free.

The Company tried continuously to press for more concessions and manipulate existing privileges. Aurangzeb’s farman, for
instance, had granted only the Company the right to trade duty free. But officials of the Company, who were carrying on
private trade on the side, were expected to pay duty. This they refused to pay, causing an enormous loss of revenue for
Bengal.

Local boats bring goods from ships in Madras,

painted by William Simpson, 1867

HOW TRADE LED TO BATTLES

Through the early eighteenth century the conflict between the Company and the nawabs of Bengal intensified. After the
death of Aurangzeb, the Bengal nawabs asserted their power and autonomy, as other regional powers were doing at that time.

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Murshid Quli Khan was followed by Alivardi Khan and then Sirajuddaulah as the Nawab of Bengal. Each one of them was a
strong ruler. They refused to grant the Company concessions, demanded large tributes for the Company’s right to trade,
denied it any right to mint coins, and stopped it from extending its fortifications. Accusing the Company of deceit, they
claimed that the Company was depriving the Bengal government of huge amounts of revenue and undermining the authority
of the nawab. It was refusing to pay taxes, writing disrespectful letters, and trying to humiliate the nawab and his officials.

Robert Clive
The Company on its part declared that the unjust demands of the local officials were ruining the trade of the Company, and
trade could flourish only if the duties were removed. It was also convinced that to expand trade it had to enlarge its settlements,
buy up villages, and rebuild its forts.

THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY

When Alivardi Khan died in 1756, Sirajuddaulah became the nawab of Bengal. The Company was worried about his power
and keen on a puppet ruler who would willingly give trade concessions and other privileges. So it tried, though without
success, to help one of Sirajuddaulah’s rivals become the nawab. An infuriated Sirajuddaulah asked the Company to stop
meddling in the political affairs of his dominion, stop fortification, and pay the revenues. After negotiations failed, the
Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the Company officials, locked the
warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded English ships. Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over
the Company’s fort there.

Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive, reinforced by naval fleets. Prolonged negotiations
with the Nawab followed. Finally, in 1757, Robert Clive led the Company’s army against Sirajuddaulah at Plassey. One of
the main reasons for the defeat of the Nawab was that the forces led by Mir Jafar, one of Sirajuddaulah’s commanders, never
fought the battle. Clive had managed to secure his support by promising to make him nawab after crushing Sirajuddaulah.

The Battle of Plassey became famous because it was the first major victory the Company won in India.

When Mir Jafar protested, the Company deposed him and installed Mir Qasim in his place. When Mir Qasim complained,
he in turn was defeated in a battle fought at Buxar (1764), driven out of Bengal, and Mir Jafar was reinstalled. The Nawab
had to pay Rs 500,000 every month but the Company wanted more money to finance its wars, and meet the demands of trade
and its other expenses. It wanted more territories and more revenue. By the time Mir Jafar died in 1765 the mood of the
Company had changed. Having failed to work with puppet nawabs, Clive declared: “We must indeed become nawabs
ourselves.”

Finally, in 1765 the Mughal emperor appointed the Company as the Diwan of the provinces of Bengal. The Diwani allowed the
Company to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal. This solved a major problem that the Company had earlier faced. From
the early eighteenth century its trade with India had expanded. But it had to buy most of the goods in India with gold and

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silver imported from Britain. This was because at this time Britain had no goods to sell in India. The outflow of gold from
Britain slowed after the Battle of Plassey, and entirely stopped after the assumption of Diwani. Now revenues from India
could finance Company expenses. These revenues could be used to purchase cotton and silk textiles in India, maintain
Company troops, and meet the cost of building the Company fort and offices at Calcutta.

The General Court Room, East India House, Leadenhall Street

COMPANY OFFICIALS BECOME 'NABOBS"

After the Battle of Plassey the actual nawabs of Bengal were forced to give land and vast sums of money as personal gifts to
Company officials. Robert Clive himself amassed a fortune in India. He had come to Madras (now Chennai) from England
in 1743 at the age of 18. When in 1767 he left India his Indian fortune was worth £401,102. Interestingly, when he was
appointed Governor of Bengal in 1764, he was asked to remove corruption in Company administration but he was himself
cross-examined in 1772 by the British Parliament which was suspicious of his vast wealth. Although he was acquitted, he
committed suicide in 1774.

However, not all Company officials succeeded in making money like Clive. Many died an early death in India due to disease
and war and it would not be right to regard all of them as corrupt and dishonest.

Those who managed to return with wealth led flashy lives and flaunted their riches. They were called “nabobs”.

COMPANY RULE EXPANDS

The Company rarely launched a direct military attack on an unknown territory. Instead it used a variety of political, economic
and diplomatic methods to extend its influence before annexing an Indian kingdom.

After the Battle of Buxar (1764), the Company appointed Residents in Indian states. They were political or commercial
agents and their job was to serve and further the interests of the Company. Through the Residents, the Company officials
began interfering in the internal affairs of Indian states. They tried to decide who was to be the successor to the throne, and
who was to be appointed in administrative posts. Sometimes the Company forced the states into a “subsidiary alliance”.

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According to the terms of this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. They were to
be protected by the Company, but had to pay for the “subsidiary forces” that the Company was supposed to maintain for the
purpose of this protection. If the Indian rulers failed to make the payment, then part of their territory was taken away as
penalty. For example, when Richard Wellesley was Governor- General (1798-1805), the Nawab of Awadh was forced to
give over half of his territory to the Company in 1801, as he failed to pay for the “subsidiary forces”. Hyderabad was also
forced to cede territories on similar grounds.

TIPU SULTAN THE "TIGER OF MYSORE"

Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761 to 1782) and his famous
son Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799). Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the Company
purchased pepper and cardamom. In 1785 Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the
ports of his kingdom, and disallowed local merchants from trading with the Company.

Tipu Sultan
He also established a close relationship with the French in India, and modernised his army with their help.

The Britishers saw Haider and Tipu as ambitious, arrogant and dangerous – rulers who had to be controlled and crushed.
Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799). Only in the last – the Battle of Seringapatam –
did the Company ultimately win a victory. Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam, Mysore was placed
under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars and a subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.

WAR WITH THE MARATHAS

From the late eighteenth century the Company also sought to curb and eventually destroy Maratha power. With their defeat
in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas’ dream of ruling from Delhi was shattered. They were divided into many
states under different chiefs (sardars) belonging to dynasties such as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsle. These chiefs
were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa (Principal Minister) who became its effective military and administrative
head based in Pune. Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Phadnis were two famous Maratha soldiers and statesmen of the late eighteenth
century.

The Marathas were subdued in a series of wars. In the first war that ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai, there was no
clear victor. The Second Anglo- Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on different fronts, resulting in the British gaining
Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river including Agra and Delhi. Finally, the Third Anglo-Maratha War of
1817-19 crushed Maratha power. The Peshwa was removed and sent away to Bithur near Kanpur with a pension. The
Company now had complete control over the territories south of the Vindhyas.

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Cornwallis receiving the sons of Tipu Sultan as hostages,

painted by Daniel Orme, 1793

THE CLAIM TTO

O PPARAMOUNT
ARAMOUNT CY
ARAMOUNTCY
From the early nineteenth century the Company pursued an aggressive policy of territorial expansion. Under Lord Hastings
(Governor- General from 1813 to 1823) a new policy of “paramountcy” was initiated. Now the Company claimed that its
authority was paramount or supreme, hence its power was greater than that of Indian states.

This process, however, did not go unchallenged. For example, when the British tried to annex the small state of Kitoor (in
Karnataka today), Rani Channamma took to arms and led an anti-British resistance movement. She was arrested in 1824 and
died in prison in 1829. But Rayanna, a poor chowkidar of Sangoli in Kitoor, carried on the resistance. With popular support
he destroyed many British camps and records. He was caught and hanged by the British in 1830.

In the late 1830s the East India Company became worried about Russia. It imagined that Russia might expand across Asia
and enter India from the north-west. Driven by this fear, the British now wanted to secure their control over the north-west.
They fought a prolonged war with Afghanistan between 1838 and 1842 and established indirect Company rule there. Sind
was taken over in 1843. Next in line was Punjab. But the presence of Maharaja Ranjit Singh held back the Company. After
his death in 1839, two prolonged wars were fought with the Sikh kingdom. Ultimately, in 1849, Punjab was annexed.

THE DOCTRINE OF LAPSE

This was introduced under the reign of Lord Dalhousie, who was Governor-General from 1848 to 1856. He devised a policy
that came to be known as the Doctrine of Lapse. The doctrine declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir his
kingdom would “lapse”, that is, become part of Company territory. One kingdom after another was annexed simply by
applying this doctrine: Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852), Nagpur (1853) and Jhansi (1854).

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Lord Hastings
Finally, in 1856, the Company also took over Awadh. This time the British had an added argument – they said they were
“obliged by duty” to take over Awadh in order to free the people from the “misgovernment” of the Nawab! Enraged by the
humiliating way in which the Nawab was deposed, the people of Awadh joined the great revolt that broke out in 1857.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh holding court

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SETTING UP A NEW ADMINISTRATION

Warren Hastings (Governor-General from 1773 to 1785) was one of the many important figures who played a significant role
in the expansion of Company power. By his time the Company had acquired power not only in Bengal, but also in Bombay and
Madras. British territories were broadly divided into administrative units called Presidencies. There were three Presidencies:
Bengal, Madras and Bombay. Each was ruled by a Governor. The supreme head of the administration was the Governor-
General. Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced several administrative reforms, notably in the sphere of
justice.
From 1772 a new system of justice was established. Each district was to have two courts – a criminal court (faujdari adalat
) and a civil court (diwani adalat). Maulvis and Hindu pandits interpreted Indian laws for the European district collectors who
presided over civil courts. The criminal courts were still under a qazi and a mufti but under the supervision of the collectors.
A major problem was that the Brahman pandits gave different interpretations of local laws based on different schools of the
dharmashastra. To bring about uniformity, in 1775 eleven pandits were asked to compile a digest of Hindu laws. N.B.
Halhed translated this digest into English. By 1778 a code of Muslim laws was also compiled for the benefit of European
judges. Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a new Supreme Court was established, while a court of appeal – the Sadar
Nizamat Adalat – was also set up at Calcutta.
The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector. As the title suggests, his main job was to collect revenue and taxes
and maintain law and order in his district with the help of judges, police officers and darogas. His office – the Collectorate
– became the new centre of power and patronage that steadily replaced previous holders of authority.

THE COMPANY ARMY

The Mughal army was mainly composed of cavalry (sawars: trained soldiers on horseback) and infantry, that is, paidal (foot)
soldiers. They were given training in archery (teer-andazi ) and the use of the sword. The cavalry dominated the army and the
Mughal state did not feel the need to have a large professionally trained infantry.
A change occurred in the eighteenth century when Mughal successor states like Awadh and Benaras started recruiting
peasants into their armies and training them as professional soldiers. The East India Company adopted the same method
when it began recruitment for its own army, which came to be known as the sepoy army (from the Indian word sipahi,
meaning soldier).
As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the Company’s army declined. This is because
the British empire was fighting in Burma, Afghanistan and Egypt where soldiers were armed with muskets and matchlocks.
The soldiers of the Company’s army had to keep pace with changing military requirements and its infantry regiments now
became more important.

CONCLUSION
The East India Company was transformed from a trading company to a territorial colonial power. The arrival of new steam
technology in the early nineteenth century also aided this process. Till then it would take anywhere between six and eight
months to travel to India by sea. Steamships reduced the journey time to three weeks enabling more Britishers and their
families to come to a far-off country like India.
By 1857 the Company came to exercise direct rule over about 63 per cent of the territory and 78 per cent of the population
of the Indian subcontinent. Combined with its indirect influence on the remaining territory and population of the country, the
East India Company had virtually the whole of India under its control.

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Expansion of British territorial power in India

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Who was Rani Channamma?

2. When was Tipu Sultan killed?

3. Who issued the Charter granting monopoly rights to trade with India?

4. What led to intense conflicts between local rulers and various trading companies?

5. Why did the English turn hostile towards Mir Qasim?

6. In which battle, the British defeated Tipu Sultan?

7. What was the main cause of the defeat of Sirajuddaulah in the battle of Plassey?

8. Who were 'nabobs'? Why they were called so?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

9. What were the causes of trade rivalries?

10. On what pretext was Awadh annexed?

11. Briefly describe the composition of the British army in India.

12. What was the policy of Paramountcy?

13. What were the results of the Fourth Mysore War?

14. Describe the conditions prior to battle of Plassey.

15. Describe the various changes in Judiciary brought by Warren Hastings.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

16. What do you understand by the 'Doctrine of Lapse'? Who introduced it?

17. Briefly write about the Battle of Plassey.

18. Describe the new administration set up by British.

19. Who introduced Subsidiary alliance, what were the terms?

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3
Ruling The Countryside

Robert Clive accepting the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and

Orissa from the Mughal ruler in 1765

THE COMP
COMP ANY BE
OMPANY COME
BECOMESS THE DIWAN
DIWAN
On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal. The actual event most
probably took place in Robert Clive’s tent, with a few Englishmen and Indians as witnesses.

As Diwan, the Company became the chief financial administrator of the territory under its control. Now it had to think of
administering the land and organising its revenue resources. This had to be done in a way that could yield enough revenue to
meet the growing expenses of the company. A trading company had also to ensure that it could buy the products it needed and
sell what it wanted.

REVENUE FOR THE COMPANY

Before 1865, the Company had purchased goods in India by importing gold and silver from Britain. Now the revenue
collected in Bengal could finance the purchase of goods for export.

The Bengal economy was facing a deep crisis. Artisans were deserting villages since they were being forced to sell their
goods to the Company at low prices. Peasants were unable to pay the dues that were being demanded from them. Artisanal
production was in decline, and agricultural cultivation showed signs of collapse. Then in 1770 a terrible famine killed ten
million people in Bengal. About one-third of the population was wiped out.

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THE NEED TO IMPROVE AGRICULTURE

The company introduced the permanent settlement in 1793.

By the terms of the settlement, the rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars. They were asked to collect rent from the
peasants and pay revenue to the Company. The amount to be paid was fixed permanently, that is, it was not to be increased
ever in future. It was felt that this would ensure a regular flow of revenue into the Company’s coffers and at the same time
encourage the zamindars to invest in improving the land. Since the revenue demand of the state would not be increased, the
zamindar would benefit from increased production from the land.

Charles Cornwallis
The Permanent Settlement, however, created problems. Company officials soon discovered that the zamindars were in fact
not investing in the improvement of land. The revenue that had been fixed was so high that the zamindars found it difficult
to pay. Anyone who failed to pay the revenue lost his zamindari. Numerous zamindaris were sold off at auctions organised
by the Company.

By the first decade of the nineteenth century the situation changed. The prices in the market rose and cultivation slowly
expanded. This meant an increase in the income of the zamindars but no gain for the Company since it could not increase a
revenue demand that had been fixed permanently.

As long as the zamindars could give out the land to tenants and get rent, they were not interested in improving the land. In the
villages, the cultivator found the system extremely oppressive. The rent he paid to the zamindar was high and his right on the
land was insecure. To pay the rent he had to often take a loan from the moneylender, and when he failed to pay the rent he was
evicted from the land he had cultivated for generations.

A NEW SYSTEM IS DEVISED

In the North Western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency (most of this area is now in Uttar Pradesh), an Englishman called
Holt Mackenzie devised the new system which came into effect in 1822. He felt that the village was an important social
institution in north Indian society and needed to be preserved. Under his directions, collectors went from village to village,
inspecting the land, measuring the fields, and recording the customs and rights of different groups.

The estimated revenue of each plot within a village was added up to calculate the revenue that each village (mahal) had to
pay. This demand was to be revised periodically, not permanently fixed. The charge of collecting the revenue and paying it
to the Company was given to the village headman, rather than the zamindar. This system came to be known as the mahalwari
settlement.

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THE MUNRO SYSTEM

In the Southern territories of British a new system was devised called Ryotwar (or Ryotwari). It was tried on a small scale by
Captain Alexander Read in some of the areas that were taken over by the Company after the wars with Tipu Sultan. Subsequently
developed by Thomas Munro, this system was gradually extended all over south India.

Read and Munro felt that in the south there were no traditional zamindars. The settlement, they argued, had to be made
directly with the cultivators (ryots) who had tilled the land for generations. Their fields had to be carefully and separately
surveyed before the revenue assessment was made. Munro thought that the British should act as paternal father figures
protecting the ryots under their charge.
Driven by the desire to increase the income from land, revenue officials fixed too high a revenue demand. Peasants were
unable to pay, ryots fled the countryside, and villages became deserted in many regions. Optimistic officials had imagined
that the new systems would transform the peasants into rich enterprising farmers. But this did not happen.

CROPS FOR EUROPE

By the late eighteenth century the Company was trying its best to expand the cultivation of opium and indigo. In the century
and a half that followed, the British persuaded or forced cultivators in various parts of India to produce other crops: jute in
Bengal, tea in Assam, sugarcane in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), wheat in Punjab, cotton in Maharashtra and
Punjab, rice in Madras.
In printing, there were various types of colours are used, which are derived from [Link] is likely that the blue dye used in
the Morris prints in nineteenth-century Britain was manufactured from indigo plants cultivated in India. For India was the
biggest supplier of indigo in the world at that time.

WHY THE DEMAND FOR INDIAN INDIGO?

The indigo plant grows primarily in the tropics. By the thirteenth century Indian indigo was being used by cloth manufacturers
in Italy, France and Britain to dye cloth.
However, only small amounts of Indian indigo reached the European market and its price was very high. European cloth
manufacturers therefore had to depend on another plant called woad to make violet and blue dyes. Being a plant of the
temperate zones, woad was more easily available in Europe. It was grown in northern Italy, southern France and in parts of
Germany and Britain. Worried by the competition from indigo, woad producers in Europe pressurised their governments to
ban the import of indigo.
Cloth dyers, however, preferred indigo as a dye. Indigo produced a rich blue colour, whereas the dye from woad was pale
and dull. By the seventeenth century, European cloth producers persuaded their governments to relax the ban on indigo
import. The French began cultivating indigo in St Domingue in the Caribbean islands, the Portuguese in Brazil, the English
in Jamaica, and the Spanish in Venezuela. Indigo plantations also came up in many parts of North America.
By the end of the eighteenth century, the demand for Indian indigo grew further. Britain began to industrialise, and its cotton
production expanded dramatically, creating an enormous new demand for cloth dyes. While the demand for indigo increased,
its existing supplies from the West Indies and America collapsed for a variety of reasons. Between 1783 and 1789 the
production of indigo in the world fell by half. Cloth dyers in Britain now desperately looked for new sources of indigo
supply.

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BRITAIN TURNS TO INDIA

From the last decades of the eighteenth century indigo cultivation in Bengal expanded rapidly and Bengal indigo came to
dominate the world market. In 1788 only about 30 per cent of the indigo imported into Britain was from India. By 1810, the
proportion had gone up to 95 per cent.

As the indigo trade grew, commercial agents and officials of the Company began investing in indigo production. Over the
years many Company officials left their jobs to look after their indigo business. Attracted by the prospect of high profits,
numerous Scotsmen and Englishmen came to India and became planters. Those who had no money to produce indigo could
get loans from the Company and the banks that were coming up at the time.

The Slave Revolt in St Domingue, August 1791,

painting by January Scuhodolski

HOW WAS INDIGO CULTIVATED?

There were two main systems of indigo cultivation – nij and ryoti. Within the system of nij cultivation, the planter produced
indigo in lands that he directly controlled. He either bought the land or rented it from other zamindars and produced indigo
by directly employing hired labourers.

THE PROBLEM WITH NIJ CULTIVATION

The planters found it difficult to expand the area under nij cultivation. Indigo could be cultivated only on fertile lands, and
these were all already densely populated. Only small plots scattered over the landscape could be acquired. Planters needed
large areas in compact blocks to cultivate indigo in plantations. Where could they get such land from? They attempted to
lease in the land around the indigo factory, and evict the peasants from the area. But this always led to conflicts and tension.

Nor was labour easy to mobilise. A large plantation required a vast number of hands to operate. And labour was needed
precisely at a time when peasants were usually busy with their rice cultivation.

Nij cultivation on a large scale also required many ploughs and bullocks. One bigha of indigo cultivation required two
ploughs. This meant that a planter with 1,000 bighas would need 2,000 ploughs. Investing on purchase and maintenance of
ploughs was a big problem. Nor could supplies be easily got from the peasants since their ploughs and bullocks were busy
on their rice fields, again exactly at the time that the indigo planters needed them.

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Till the late nineteenth century, planters were therefore reluctant to expand the area under nij cultivation. Less than 25 per
cent of the land producing indigo was under this system. The rest was under an alternative mode of cultivation – the ryoti
system.

INDIGO ON THE LAND OF RYOTS

Under the ryoti system, the planters forced the ryots to sign a contract, an agreement (satta). At times they pressurised the
village headmen to sign the contract on behalf of the ryots. Those who signed the contract got cash advances from the
planters at low rates of interest to produce indigo. But the loan committed the ryot to cultivating indigo on at least 25 per cent
of the area under his holding. The planter provided the seed and the drill, while the cultivators prepared the soil, sowed the
seed and looked after the crop.

When the crop was delivered to the planter after the harvest, a new loan was given to the ryot, and the cycle started all over
again. Peasants who were initially tempted by the loans soon realised how harsh the system was. The price they got for the
indigo they produced was very low and the cycle of loans never ended.

An indigo factory located near indigo fields, painting by

William Simpson, 1863

THE “BLUE REBELLION” AND AFTER

In March 1859 thousands of ryots in Bengal refused to grow indigo. As the rebellion spread, ryots refused to pay rents to the
planters, and attacked indigo factories armed with swords and spears, bows and arrows. Women turned up to fight with pots,
pans and kitchen implements. Those who worked for the planters were socially boycotted, and the gomasthas – agents of
planters – who came to collect rent were beaten up. Ryots swore they would no longer take advances to sow indigo nor be
bullied by the planters’ lathiyals – the lathi-wielding strongmen maintained by the planters.

In 1859, the indigo ryots felt that they had the support of the local zamindars and village headmen in their rebellion against
the planters. In many villages, headmen who had been forced to sign indigo contracts, mobilised the indigo peasants and
fought pitched battles with the lathiyals. In other places even the zamindars went around villages urging the ryots to resist the
planters. These zamindars were unhappy with the increasing power of the planters and angry at being forced by the planters
to give them land on long leases.

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As the rebellion spread, intellectuals from Calcutta rushed to the indigo districts. They wrote of the misery of the ryots, the
tyranny of the planters, and the horrors of the indigo system.
Worried by the rebellion, the government brought in the military to protect the planters from assault, and set up the Indigo
Commission to enquire into the system of indigo production. The Commission held the planters guilty, and criticised them
for the coercive methods they used with indigo cultivators. It declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots.
The Commission asked the ryots to fulfil their existing contracts but also told them that they could refuse to produce indigo
in future.
After the revolt, indigo production collapsed in Bengal. But the planters now shifted their operation to Bihar. With the
discovery of synthetic dyes in the late nineteenth century their business was severely affected, but yet they managed to
expand production. When Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa, a peasant from Bihar persuaded him visit Champaran
and see the plight of the indigo cultivators there. Mahatma Gandhi’s visit in 1917 marked the beginning of the Champaran
movement against the indigo planters.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Who introduced Ryotwari settlement?
2. Which state had the Kalamkari print in India?
3. Why Mackenzie wanted the land to be kept with the village?
4. Why numerous Scotsmen and Englishmen came to India and became planters?
5. When the Company became Diwan, what impact it had on Bengal economy?
6. Who was Munro?
7. Who were ryots?
8. What was the motive behind introduction of Permanent Settlement?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

9. What was Nij cultivation?
10. Why the woad producers in Europe pressurised their government to ban the import of indigo?
11. What problems were faced by nij cultivators?
12. What was the Munro system?
13. What was permanent settlement?
14. Why there was a great demand for Indigo in Europe?
15. Explain Mahalwari system of Revenue.
16. What was Diwani system?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

17. What were the problems faced by the British after the enactment of Permanent Settlement?
18. Why the British persuaded or forced cultivators in various parts of India to produce other crops?
19. “The Company had become the Diwan, but it still saw itself primarily as a trader”. How we can say that?
20. Write in brief the land tenure system of British.
21. Write in detail about the ‘Blue Rebellion’.
22. Why did indigo ryots took place?
23. Which system was adopted by the British to force the ryots to grow indigo on their land?

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4
Tribals, Dikus and The Vision of A Golden Age

INTRODUCTION
Tribals has their own customs and rituals that were very different from other social classes. However, this did not mean that
there were no social and economic differences within tribes.

In 1895, a man named Birsa was seen roaming the forests and villages of Chottanagpur in Bihar. People said he had
miraculous powers – he could cure all diseases and multiply grain. Birsa himself declared that God had appointed him to
save his people from trouble, free them from the slavery of dikus (outsiders). Soon thousands began following Birsa, believing
that he was bhagwan (God) and had come to solve all their problems.

Birsa was born in a family of Mundas – a tribal group that lived in Chottanagpur. But his followers included other tribals of
the region – Santhals and Oraons. All of them in different ways were unhappy with the changes they were experiencing and
the problems they were facing under British rule. Their familiar ways of life seemed to be disappearing, their livelihoods
were under threat, and their religion appeared to be in danger.

Women of the Dongria Kandha tribe in Orissa wade

through the river on the way to the market

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HOW DID TRIBAL GROUPS LIVE?

Tribal people in differeny parts of India were involved in a variety of activities.

SOME WERE JHUM CULTIVATORS:

Some of them practised jhum cultivation, that is, shifting cultivation. This was done on small patches of land, mostly in
forests. The cultivators cut the tree tops to allow sunlight to reach the ground, and burnt the vegetation on the land to clear
it for cultivation. They spread the ash from the firing, which contained potash, to fertilise the soil. They used the axe to cut
trees and the hoe to scratch the soil in order to prepare it for cultivation. They broadcast the seeds, that is, scattered the seeds
on the field instead of ploughing the land and sowing the seeds. Once the crop was ready and harvested, they moved to
another field. A field that had been cultivated once was left fallow for several years,

Shifting cultivators were found in the hilly and forested tracts of north-east and central India. The lives of these tribal people
depended on free movement within forests and on being able to use the land and forests for growing their crops. That is the
only way they could practise shifting cultivation.

SOME WERE HUNTERS AND GATHERERS:

In many regions tribal groups lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce. They saw forests as essential for
survival. The Khonds were such a community living in the forests of Orissa. They regularly went out on collective hunts and
then divided the meat amongst themselves. They ate fruits and roots collected from the forest and cooked food with the oil
they extracted from the seeds of the sal and mahua. They used many forest shrubs and herbs for medicinal purposes, and sold
forest produce in the local markets. The local weavers and leather workers turned to the Khonds when they needed supplies
of kusum and palash flowers to colour their clothes and leather.

Tribal groups often needed to buy and sell in order to be able to get the goods that were not produced within the locality. This
led to their dependence on traders and moneylenders. Traders came around with things for sale, and sold the goods at high
prices. Moneylenders gave loans with which the tribals met their cash needs, adding to what they earned. But the interest
charged on the loans was usually very high. So for the tribals, market and commerce often meant debt and poverty. They
therefore came to see the moneylender and trader as evil outsiders and the cause of their misery.

SOME HERDED ANIMALS:

Many tribal groups lived by herding and rearing animals. They were pastoralists who moved with their herds of cattle or
sheep according to the seasons. When the grass in one place was exhausted, they moved to another area. The Van Gujjars
of the Punjab hills and the Labadis of Andhra Pradesh were cattle herders, the Gaddis of Kulu were shepherds, and the
Bakarwals of Kashmir reared goats.

SOME TOOK TO SETTLED CULTIVATION:

Even before the nineteenth century, many from within the tribal groups had begun settling down, and cultivating their fields
in one place year after year, instead of moving from place to place. They began to use the plough, and gradually got rights
over the land they lived on. In many cases, like the Mundas of Chottanagpur, the land belonged to the clan as a whole. All
members of the clan were regarded as descendants of the original settlers, who had first cleared the land. Therefore, all of
them had rights on the land. Very often some people within the clan acquired more power than others, some became chiefs
and others followers. Powerful men often rented out their land instead of cultivating it themselves.

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HOW DID COLONIAL RULE AFFECT TRIBAL LIVES?

The lives of tribal groups changed during British rule.

WHAT HAPPENED TO TRIBAL CHIEFS?

Before the arrival of the British, in many areas the tribal chiefs were important people. They enjoyed a certain amount of
economic power and had the right to administer and control their territories. In some places they had their own police and
decided on the local rules of land and forest management.

Under British rule, the functions and powers of the tribal chiefs changed considerably. They were allowed to keep their land
titles over a cluster of villages and rent out lands, but they lost much of their administrative power and were forced to follow
laws made by British officials in India. They also had to pay tribute to the British, and discipline the tribal groups on behalf
of the British. They lost the authority they had earlier enjoyed amongst their people, and were unable to fulfil their traditional
functions.

Location of some tribal groups in India

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE SHIFTING CULTIVATORS?

The British were uncomfortable with groups who moved about and did not have a fixed home. They wanted tribal groups to
settle down and become peasant cultivators.

Settled peasants were easier to control and administer than people who were always on the move. The British also wanted a
regular revenue source for the state. So they introduced land settlements – that is, they measured the land, defined the rights
of each individual to that land, and fixed the revenue demand for the state. Some peasants were declared landowners, others
tenants.

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The British effort to settle jhum cultivators was not very successful. Settled plough cultivation is not easy in areas where
water is scarce and the soil is dry. In fact, jhum cultivators who took to plough cultivation often suffered, since their fields did
not produce good yields. So the jhum cultivators in north-east India insisted on continuing with their traditional practice.
Facing widespread protests, the British had to ultimately allow them the right to carry on shifting cultivation in some parts of
the forest.

FOREST LAWS AND THEIR IMPACT:

The life of tribal groups, was directly connected to the forest. So changes in forest laws had a considerable effect on tribal
lives. The British declared that forests were state property. Reserved forest produced timber which the British wanted. In
these forests people were not allowed to move freely, practise jhum cultivation. Collect fruits or hunt animals.
Once the British stopped the tribal people from living inside forests, they faced the shortage of labour to cut trees for railway
sleepers and to transport logs.
Colonial officials came up with a solution. they decided that they would give jhum cultivators small patches of land in the
forests and allow them to cultivate these on the condition that those who lived in the villages would have to provide labour
to the forest department and look after the forests.
Many tribal groups reacted against the colonial forest laws. They disobeyed the new rules, continued with practices that
were declared illegal and at times rose in open rebellion. Such was the revolt of Songram Sangma in 1906 in Assam and the
forest satyagraha of the 1930s in the Central Provinces.

Godara women weaving

THE PROBLEM WITH TRADE:
During the nineteenth century, tribal groups found that traders and moneylenders were coming into the forests more often,
wanting to buy forest produce, offering cash loans, and asking them to work for wages. It took tribal groups some time to
understand the consequences of what was happening.
In the eighteenth century, Indian silk was in demand in European markets. The fine quality of Indian silk was highly valued
and exports from India increased rapidly. As the market expanded, East India Company officials tried to encourage silk
production to meet the growing demand.
Hazaribagh, in present-day Jharkhand, was an area where the Santhals reared cocoons. The traders dealing in silk sent in their
agents who gave loans to the tribal people and collected the cocoons. The growers were paid Rs 3 to Rs 4 for a thousand

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cocoons. These were then exported to Burdwan or Gaya where they were sold at five times the price. The middlemen – so
called because they arranged deals between the exporters and silk growers – made huge profits. The silk growers earned very
little. Understandably, many tribal groups saw the market and the traders as their main enemies.

THE SEARCH FOR WORK

The plight of the tribals who had to go far away from their homes in search of work was even worse. From the late nineteenth
century, tea plantations started coming up and mining became an important industry. Tribals were recruited in large numbers
to work the tea plantations of Assam and the coal mines of Jharkhand. They were recruited through contractors who paid
them miserably low wages, and prevented them from returning home.

Bhil women cultivating in a forest in Gujarat

A CLOSER LOOK
Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, tribal groups in different parts of the country rebelled against the changes
in laws, the restrictions on their practices, the new taxes they had to pay, and the exploitation by traders and moneylenders.
(i) The Kols rebelled in 1831-32. (Bengal)
(ii) Santhals rose in revolt in 1855. (Bihar, Bengal and Jharkhand)
(iii) The bastar Rebellion in 1910 (Central India)
(iv) The Warli Revolt in Maharashtra in 1940.

BIRSA MUNDA :
(i) Birsa was born in the mid-1870s. As an adolescent. Birsa heard tales of the Munda uprisings of the past and saw the
sirdars (leaders) of the community urging the people to revolt. They talked of a golden age when the Mundas had
been free of the oppression of dikus and ancestral right of community would be restored. They reminded people of
the need to win back their kingdom.
(ii) From the sermons of missionaries, Brisa heard that it was possible for the Mundas to attain the Kingdom of Heaven,
and regain their lost rights. Birsa also spent some time in the company of a prominent Vaishnav preacher. He wore
the sacred thread, and begain to value the importance of purity and piety.
(iii) Birsa was deeply influenced by many of the ideas he came in touch with in his growing-up years. He aimed at
reforming tribal society. He urged the Mundas to give up drinking liquor, clean their village, and stop believing in
witchcraft and sorcery. Birsa also turned against missionaries and Hindu landlords. He saw them as outside forces
that were ruining the Munda way of life.

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(iv) In 1895 Birsa urged his followers to recover their glorious past. Birsa also wanted people to once again work on their
land, settle down and cultivate their fields.
(v) British got worried of the political aim of the Birsa movement which wanted to drive out missionaries, monelender
Hindu landlords, and the government and set up a Munda Raj with Birsa at its head. The movement identified all
these forces as the cause of the misery the Mundas were suffering. British officials arrested Birsa in 1895, convicted
him on charges of rioting and jailed him for two years.
(vi) When Birsa was released in 1897 he began touring the villages to gather support. He used traditional symbols and
language to rouse people against the dikus and the Europeans. Birsa’s followers began targeting the symbols of
diku and European power. They attacked police stations and churches, and raided the property of moneylenders
and zamindars. They raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
(vii) In 1900 Birsa died of cholera and the movement faded out.
(viii) The movement was significant in at least two ways. First it forced the colonial government to introduce laws so that
the land of the triblas could not be easily taken over by dikus.
Second - it showed once again that the tribal people had the capacity to protest against injustice and express their
anger against colonial rule.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Why Birsa against missionaries and Hindu landlords?

2. In which areas shifting cultivators were found?

3. Why the Khonds collected the seeds of the sal and mahua?

4. Why the British were uncomfortable with groups who did not have a fixed home?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

5. Write the features of a tribal group which lived by hunting animals and gathering forest produce.

6. What made tribal groups dependent on traders and moneylenders?

7. What was the dream of Birsa Munda?

8. How the tribals were forced to leave shifting cultivation?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. How Forest law affected the life of tribals?

10. What was the impact of colonial rule on tribal life?

11. Write in brief the living patterns of tribes.

12. Why tribals revolted against British?

13. What was the significance of the movement started by Birsa Munda?

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5
When People Rebel

Sepoys and peasants gather forces for the revolt that spread across
the plains of north India in 1857

POLICIES AND THE PEOPLE

Kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, soldiers were all affected by the British Rule different ways the policies of the
East India Company and the effect they had on different people.

NAWABS LOSE THEIR POWER:

Since the mid-eighteenth century, nawabs and rajas had seen their power erode. They had gradually lost their authority and
honour. Residents had been stationed in many courts, the freedom of the rulers reduced, their armed forces disbanded, and
their revenues and territories taken away by stages.

Many ruling families tried to negotiate with the Company to protect their interests. For example, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi
wanted the Company to recognise her adopted son as the heir to the kingdom after the death of her husband. Nana Saheb, the
adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II, pleaded that he be given his father’s pension when the latter died. However, the Company,
confident of its superiority and military powers, turned down these pleas.

Awadh was one of the last territories to be annexed. In 1801, a subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh, and in 1856 it was
taken over. Governor-General Dalhousie declared that the territory was being misgoverned and British rule was needed to
ensure proper administration.

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THE PEASANTS AND THE SEPOYS:

In the countryside peasants and zamindars resented the high taxes and the rigid methods of revenue collection. Many failed
to pay back their loans to the moneylenders and gradually lost the lands they had tilled for generations.

The Indian sepoys in the employ of the Company also had reasons for discontent. They were unhappy about their pay,
allowances and conditions of service. Some of the new rules, moreover, violated their religious sensibilities and beliefs.

So when in 1824 the sepoys were told to go to Burma by the sea route to fight for the Company, they refused to follow the
order, though they agreed to go by the land route. They were severely punished, and since the issue did not die down, in 1856
the Company passed a new law which stated that every new person who took up employment in the Company’s army had to
agree to serve overseas if required.

Sepoys also reacted to what was happening in the countryside. Many of them were peasants and had families living in the
villages. So the anger of the peasants quickly spread among the sepoys.

RESPONSES TO REFORMS:
The British believed that Indian society had to be reformed. Laws were passed to stop the practice of sati and to encourage
the remarriage of widows. English-language education was actively promoted.

After 1830, the Company allowed Christian missionaries to function freely in its domain and even own land and property. In
1850, a new law was passed to make conversion to Christianity easier. This law allowed an Indian who had converted to
Christianity to inherit the property of his ancestors. Many Indians began to feel that the British were destroying their religion,
their social customs and their traditional way of life.

THROUGH THE EYES OF THE PEOPLE

THE LIST OF EIGHTY-FOUR RULES:
In his book Majha Pravas, Vishnu Bhatt Godse has written that. “The English were determined to wipe out religions of the
Hindus and the Muslims. They had made a list of eighty-four rules and announced these in a gathering of all big kings and
princes in Calcutta. They said that the kings refused to accept these rules and warned the English of dire consequences and
massive upheaval if these were implemented. All the big people began making plans. A date was fixed for the war of religion
and the secret plan had been circulated from the cantonment in Meerut by letters sent to different cantonments.”

“There was soon excitement in every regiment”

Subedar Sitaram Pande a sepoy in the Bengal Native Army, served the English for 48 years and retired in 1860. He helped
the British to suppress the rebellion. On retirement he was persuaded by his commanding Officers, Norgate, to write his
memoirs. He completed the writing in 1861 in Awadhi and Norgate translated it into English and had it published under the
title From Sepoy to Subedar. Sitaram Pande wrote:

Seizing of Oudh filled the minds of the Sepoys with distrust and led them to plot against the Government. Agents of the
Nawab of Oudh and also of the King of Delhi were sent all over India to discover the temper of the army. They worked upon
the feelings of sepoys, telling them how treacherously the foreigners had behaved towards their king. They invented ten
thousand lies and promises to persuade the soldiers to mutiny and turn against their masters, the English, with the object of
restoring the Emperor of Delhi to the throne. They maintained that this wholly within the army’s powers if the soldiers would
only act together and do as they were advised.

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It chanced that about this time the Sarkar sent parties of men from each regiment to different garrisons for instructions in the
use of the new rifle. These men performed they new drill for some time until a report got about by some means or the other,
that the cartridges used for these new rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. The men from our regiment wrote to
others in the regiment telling them about this, and there was soon excitement in every regiment. Some men pointed out that
in forty years’ service nothing had ever been done by the Sarkar to insult their religion, but as I have already mentioned the
sepoy’s minds had been inflamed by the seizure of Oudh. Interested parties were quick to point out that the great aim of the
English was to turn us all into Christians, and they had therefore introduced the cartridge in order to brings this about, since
both Mohammedans and Hindus would be defiled by using it.

A MUTINY BECOMES A POPULAR REBELLION:

Though struggles between rulers and the ruled are not unusual, sometimes such struggles become quite widespread as a
popular resistance so that the power of the state breaks down. A very large number of people begin to believe that they have
a common enemy and rise up against the enemy at the same time. For such a situation to develop people have to organise,
communicate, take initiative and display the confidence to turn the situation around.

Such a situation developed in the northern parts of India in 1857. After a hundred years of conquest and administration, the
English East India Company faced a massive rebellion that started in May 1857 and threatened the Company’s very presence
in India.

Sepoys mutinied in several places beginning from Meerut and a large number of people from different sections of society
rose up in rebellion. Some regard it as the biggest armed resistance to colonialism in the nineteenth century anywhere in the
world.

The battle in the cavalry lines

FROM MEERUT TO DELHI:
On 29 March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death for attacking his officers in Barrackpore. Some
days later, some sepoys of the regiment at Meerut refused to do the army drill using the new cartridges, which were suspected
of being coated with the fat of cows and pigs. Eighty-five sepoys were dismissed from service and sentenced to ten years in
jail for disobeying their officers. This happened on 9 May 1857.

The response of the other Indian soldiers in Meerut was quite extraordinary. On 10 May, the soldiers marched to the jail in
Meerut and released the imprisoned sepoys. They attacked and killed British officers. They captured guns and ammunition

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and set fire to the buildings and properties of the British and declared war on the firangis. The soldiers were determined to
bring an end to their rule in the country. But who would rule the land instead? The soldiers had an answer to this question –
the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.

The sepoys of Meerut rode all night of 10 May to reach Delhi in the early hours next morning. As news of their arrival
spread, the regiments stationed in Delhi also rose up in rebellion.

Again british officers were killed, arms and ammunition seized, buildings set on fire. Triumphant soldiers gathered around
the walls of the Red Fort where the Badshah lived, demanding to meet him. The emperor was not quite willing to challenge
the mighty British power but the soldiers persisted. They forced their way into the palace and proclaimed Bahadur Shah
Zafar as their leader.

The ageing emperor had to accept this demand. He wrote letters to all the chiefs and rulers of the country to come forward
and organise a confederacy of Indian states to fight the British. This single step taken by Bahadur Shah had great implications.

The British had not expected this to happen. They thought the disturbance caused by the issue of the cartridges would die
down. But Bahadur Shah Zafar’s decision to bless the rebellion changed the entire situation dramatically. Often when people
see an alternative possibility they feel inspired and enthused. It gives them the courage, hope and confidence to act.

THE REBELLION SPREADS

Regiment after regiment mutinied and took off to join other troops at nodal points like Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow. After
them, the people of the towns and villages also rose up in rebellion and rallied around local leaders, zamindars and chiefs
who were prepared to establish their authority and fight the British.

Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the late Peshwa Baji Rao who lived near Kanpur, gathered armed forces and expelled the
British garrison from the city. He proclaimed himself Peshwa. He declared that he was a governor under Emperor Bahadur
Shah Zafar.

In Lucknow, Birjis Qadr, the son of the deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, was proclaimed the new Nawab. He too acknowledged
the suzerainty of Bahadur Shah Zafar. His mother Begum Hazrat Mahal took an active part in organising the uprising against
the British.

In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai joined the rebel sepoys and fought the British along with Tantia Tope, the general of Nana
Saheb.

The British were greatly outnumbered by the rebel forces. They were defeated in a number of battles. This convinced the
people that the rule of the British had collapsed for good and gave them the confidence to take the plunge and join the
rebellion. A situation of widespread popular rebellion developed in the region of Awadh in particular.

Many new leaders came up. For example, Ahmadullah Shah, a maulvi from Faizabad, prophesied that the rule of the British
would come to an end soon. He caught the imagination of the people and raised a huge force of supporters. He came to
Lucknow to fight the British. In Delhi, a large number of ghazis or religious warriors came together to wipe out the white
people. Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly, took charge of a large force of fighters who came to Delhi. He became a key
military leader of the rebellion. In Bihar, an old zamindar, Kunwar Singh, joined the rebel sepoys and battled with the
British for many months. Leaders and fighters from across the land joined the fight.

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As the mutiny spread, British officers were killed in the cantonments

THE COMPANY FIGHTS BACK

The Company decided to repress the revolt with all its might. It brought reinforcements from England, passed new laws so
that the rebels could be convicted with ease, and then moved into the storm centres of the revolt. Delhi was recaptured from
the rebel forces in September 1857. The last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried in court and sentenced to life
imprisonment. His sons were shot dead before his eyes. He and his wife Begum Zinat Mahal were sent to prison in Rangoon
in October 1858. Bahadur Shah Zafar died in the Rangoon jail in November 1862.

Lucknow was taken in March 1858. Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed in June 1858. Tantia Tope escaped to the
jungles of central India and continued to fight a guerrilla war with the support of many tribal and peasant leaders. He was
captured, tried and killed in April 1859.

British forces attack the rebels who had occupied the Red Fort
(on the right ) and Salimgarh Fort in Delhi (on the left )

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The siege train reaches Delhi

AFTERMATH
The British had regained control of the country by the end of 1859, but they could not carry on ruling the land with the same
policies any more.

The important changes that were introduced by the British are:

1. The British Parliament passed a new Act in 1858 and transferred the powers of the East India Company to the
British Crown in order to ensure a more responsible management of Indian affairs. A member of the British Cabinet
was appointed Secretary of State for India and made responsible for all matters related to the governance of India.
He was given a council to advise him, called the India Council. The Governor-General of India was given the title
of Viceroy, that is, a personal representative of the Crown. Through these measures the British government accepted
direct responsibility for ruling India.

2. All ruling chiefs of the country were assured that their territory would never be annexed in future. They were
allowed to pass on their kingdoms to their heirs, including adopted sons. However, they were made to acknowledge
the British Queen as their Sovereign Paramount. Thus the Indian rulers were to hold their kingdoms as subordinates
of the British Crown.

3. It was decided that the proportion of Indian soldiers in the army would be reduced and the number of European
soldiers would be increased. It was also decided that instead of recruiting soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India
and south India, more soldiers would be recruited from among the Gurkhas, Sikhs and Pathans.

4. The land and property of Muslims was confiscated on a large scale and they were treated with suspicion and
hostility. The British believed that they were responsible for the rebellion in a big way.

5. The British decided to respect the customary religious and social practices of the people in India.

6. Policies were made to protect landlords and zamindars and give them security of rights over their lands. Thus a new
phase of history began after 1857.

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Some important centres of the Revolt in North India

PRACTICE EXERCISE

Very ShorT Answer Type Questions:

1. Where did Rani Laxmi Bai was born?

2. What reward was announced for the loyal landlords?

3. When was Delhi recaptured from the rebel forces?

4. Why were Muslims treated as hostile after 1857?

5. When was Awadh annexed?

6. From where did the sepoy multiny begin?

7. When was a new law passed, if required, sepoy had to serve overseas?

8. Who was Nana Sahab?

9. Why were the sepoys reluctant to serve overseas?

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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. What impact did Bahadur Shah Zafar’s support to the rebellion have on the people and the ruling families?

11. How did the British succeed in securing the submission of the rebel landowners of Awadh?

12. Why were the sepoys employed in the service of the Company unhappy?

13. What new rule was passed about the overseas service of the sepoy in 1856?

14. How did the following react during 1857?

15. What plan did the company make to bring an end to the Mughal dynasty?

16. In what ways did the British change their policies as a result of the rebellion of 1857?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. In what ways Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi have been an unusual woman for her time?

18. What reforms were made by the British in the Indian society? How did Indians see these laws?

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6
Colonialism and The City

WHAT HAPPENED TO CITIES UNDER COLONIAL RULE?

In most parts of the Western world modern cities emerged with industrialisation. In Britain, industrial cities like Leeds and
Manchester grew rapidly in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as more and more people sought jobs, housing and other
facilities in these places. However, unlike Western Europe, Indian cities did not expand as rapidly in the nineteenth century.

In the late eighteenth century, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras rose in importance as Presidency cities. They became the
centres of British power in the different regions of India. At the same time, a host of smaller cities declined. Many towns
manufacturing specialised goods declined due to a drop in the demand for what they produced. Old trading centres and ports
could not survive when the flow of trade moved to new centres. Similarly, earlier centres of regional power collapsed when
local rulers were defeated by the British and new centres of administration emerged. This process is often described as de-
urbanisation. Cities such as Machlipatnam, Surat and Seringapatam were deurbanised during the nineteenth century. By the
early twentieth century, only 11 per cent of Indians were living in cities.

A view of Machlipatnam, 1672

The historic imperial city of Delhi became a dusty provincial town in the nineteenth century before it was rebuilt as the
capital of British India after 1912.

Bombay port in the eighteenth century

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HOW MANY ‘DELHIS’ BEFORE NEW DELHI?

As many as 14 capital cities were founded in a small area of about 60 square miles on the left bank of the river Jamuna. The
remains of all other capitals may be seen on a visit to the modern city-state of Delhi. Of these, the most important are the
capital cities built between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries.

The most splendid capital of all was built by Shah Jahan. Shahjahanabad was begun in 1639 and consisted of a fort-palace
complex and the city adjoining it. Lal Qila or the Red Fort, made of red sandstone, contained the palace complex. To its west
lay the Walled City with 14 gates. The main streets of Chandni Chowk and Faiz Bazaar were broad enough for royal
processions to pass. A canal ran down the centre of Chandni Chowk.

The eastern gate of the Jama Masjid in Delhi, by Thomas Daniell, 1795
Delhi during Shah Jahan’s time was also an important centre of Sufi culture. It had several dargahs, khanqahs and idgahs.
Open squares, winding lanes, quiet cul-desacs and water channels were the pride of Delhi’s residents. No wonder the poet
Mir Taqi Mir said, “The streets of Delhi aren’t mere streets; they are like the album of a painter.”

The shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi

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THE MAKING OF NEW DLEHI

In 1803, the British gained control of Delhi after defeating the Marathas. Since the capital of British India was Calcutta, the
Mughal emperor was allowed to continue living in the palace complex in the Red Fort. The modern city as we know it today
developed only after 1911 when Delhi became the capital of British India.

DEMOLISHING A PAST:
Before 1857, developments in Delhi were somewhat different from those in other colonial cities. In Madras, Bombay or
Calcutta, the living spaces of Indians and the British were sharply separated. Indians lived in the “black” areas, while the
British lived in well-laidout “white” areas. In Delhi, especially in the first half of the nineteenth century, the British lived
along with the wealthier Indians in the Walled City. The British learned to enjoy Urdu/Persian culture and poetry and
participated in local festivals.

Looking out from Jama Masjid, photograph by Felice Beato, 1858-59

The establishment of the Delhi College in 1792 led to a great intellectual flowering in the sciences as well as the humanities,
largely in the Urdu language. Many refer to the period from 1830 to 1857 as a period of the Delhi renaissance.

All this changed after 1857. During the Revolt that year, as you have seen, the rebels gathered in the city, and persuaded
Bahadur Shah to become the leader of the uprising. Delhi remained under rebel control for four months.

The British wanted Delhi to forget its Mughal past. The area around the Fort was completely cleared of gardens, pavilions
and mosques (though temples were left intact). The British wanted a clear ground for security reasons. Mosques in particular
were either destroyed, or put to other uses. For instance, the Zinatal- Masjid was converted into a bakery. No worship was
allowed in the Jama Masjid for five years. One-third of the city was demolished, and its canals were filled up.

In the 1870s, the western walls of Shahjahanabad were broken to establish the railway and to allow the city to expand beyond
the walls. The British now began living in the sprawling Civil Lines area that came up in the north, away from the Indians in
the Walled City. The Delhi College was turned into a school, and shut down in 1877.

PLANNING A NEW CAPITAL:

The British were fully aware of the symbolic importance of Delhi. After the Revolt of 1857, many spectacular events were
held there. In 1877, Viceroy Lytton organised a Durbar to acknowledge Queen Victoria as the Empress of India. Remember
that Calcutta was still the capital of British India, but the grand Durbar was being held in Delhi.

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During the Revolt, the British had realised that the Mughal emperor was still important to the people and they saw him as
their leader. It was therefore important to celebrate British power with pomp and show in the city the Mughal emperors had
earlier ruled, and the place which had turned into a rebel stronghold in 1857.

In 1911, when King George V was crowned in England, a Durbar was held in Delhi to celebrate the occasion. The decision
to shift the capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi was announced at this Durbar.

The Coronation Durbar of King George V, 12 December, 1911

New Delhi was constructed as a 10-square-mile city on Raisina Hill, south of the existing city. Two architects, Edward
Lutyens and Herbert Baker, were called on to design New Delhi and its buildings.

The government complex in New Delhi consisted of a two-mile avenue, Kingsway (now Rajpath), that led to the Viceroy’s
Palace (now Rashtrapati Bhavan), with the Secretariat buildings on either sides of the avenue. The features of these government
buildings were borrowed from different periods of India’s imperial history, but the overall look was Classical Greece (fifth
century BCE). For instance, the central dome of the Viceroy’s Palace was copied from the Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, and the
red sandstone and carved screens or jalis were borrowed from Mughal architecture. But the new buildings had to assert
British importance: that is why the architect made sure that the Viceroy’s Palace was higher than Shah Jahan’s Jama Masjid!

New Delhi took nearly 20 years to build. The idea was to build a city that was a stark contrast to Shahjahanabad. There were
to be no crowded mohallas, no mazes of narrow bylanes. In New Delhi, there were to be broad, straight streets lined with
sprawling mansions set in the middle of large compounds. The architects wanted New Delhi to represent a sense of law and
order, in contrast to the chaos of Old Delhi. The new city also had to be a clean and healthy space. The British saw overcrowded
spaces as unhygienic and unhealthy, the source of disease. This meant that New Delhi had to have better water supply,
sewage disposal and drainage facilities than the Old City. It had to be green, with trees and parks ensuring fresh air and
adequate supply of oxygen.

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The Viceregal Palace (Rashtrapati Bhavan) atop Raisina Hill

LIFE IN THE TIME OF PARTITION:

The Partition of India in 1947 led to a massive transfer of populations on both sides of the new border. As a result, the
population of Delhi swelled, the kinds of jobs people did changed, and the culture of the city became different.

Days after Indian Independence and Partition, fierce rioting began. Thousands of people in Delhi were killed and their
homes looted and burned. As streams of Muslims left Delhi for Pakistan, their place was taken by equally large numbers of
Sikh and Hindu refugees from Pakistan. Refugees roamed the streets of Shahjahanabad, searching for empty homes to
occupy. At times they forced Muslims to leave or sell their properties. Over two-thirds of the Delhi Muslims migrated,
almost 44,000 homes were abandoned. Terrorised Muslims lived in makeshift camps till they could leave for Pakistan.

At the same time, Delhi became a city of refugees. Nearly 500,000 people were added to Delhi’s population (which had a
little over 800,000 people in 1951). Most of these migrants were from Punjab. They stayed in camps, schools, military
barracks and gardens, hoping to build new homes. Some got the opportunity to occupy residences that had been vacated;
others were housed in refugee colonies. New colonies such as Lajpat Nagar and Tilak Nagar came up at this time. Shops and
stalls were set up to cater to the demands of the migrants; schools and colleges were also opened.

The skills and occupations of the refugees were quite different from those of the people they replaced. The new migrants
coming to Delhi were rural landlords, lawyers, teachers, traders and small shopkeepers. Partition changed their lives, and
their occupations. They had to take up new jobs as hawkers, vendors, carpenters and ironsmiths. Many, however, prospered
in their new businesses.

INSIDE THE OLD CITY

In the past, Mughal Delhi’s famed canals had brought not only fresh drinking water to homes, but also water for other
domestic uses. This excellent system of water supply and drainage was neglected in the nineteenth century. The system of
wells (or baolis) also broke down, and channels to remove household waste (called effluents) were damaged.

The broken-down canals could not serve the needs of this rapidly increasing population. At the end of the nineteenth century,
the Shahjahani drains were closed and a new system of open surface drains was introduced. This system too was soon
overburdened, and many of the wealthier inhabitants complained about the stench from roadside privies and overf lowing
open drains. The Delhi Municipal Committee was unwilling to spend money on a good drainage system.

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A famous baoli near the shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi

THE DECLINE OF HAVELIS:

The Mughal aristocracy in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries lived in grand mansions called havelis.

A haveli housed many families. On entering the haveli through a beautiful gateway, you reached an open courtyard, surrounded
by public rooms meant for visitors and business, used exclusively by males. The inner courtyard with its pavilions and rooms
was meant for the women of the household. Rooms in the havelis had multiple uses, and very little by way of furniture.

Many of the Mughal amirs were unable to maintain these large establishments under conditions of British rule. Havelis
therefore began to be subdivided and sold. Often the street front of the havelis became shops or warehouses. Some havelis
were taken over by the upcoming mercantile class, but many fell into decay and disuse.

The colonial bungalow was quite different from the haveli. Meant for one nuclear family, it was a large singlestoreyed
structure with a pitched roof, and usually set in one or two acres of open ground. It had separate living and dining rooms and
bedrooms, and a wide veranda running in the front, and sometimes on three sides. Kitchens, stables and servants’ quarters
were in a separate space from the main house. The house was run by dozens of servants. The women of the household often
sat on the verandas to supervise tailors or other tradesmen.

Chandni Chowk in Delhi in the late nineteenth century

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THE MUNICIPALITY BEGINS TO PLAN:

The census of 1931 revealed that the walled city area was horribly crowded with as many as 90 persons per acre, while New
Delhi had only about 3 persons per acre.

The poor conditions in the Walled City, however, did not stop it from expanding. In 1888 an extension scheme called the
Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme was planned by Robert Clarke for the Walled City residents. The idea was to draw
residents away from the Old City to a new type of market square, around which shops would be built.

Streets in this redevelopment strictly followed the grid pattern, and were of identical width, size and character. Land was
divided into regular areas for the construction of neighbourhoods. Clarkegunj, as the development was called, remained
incomplete and did not help to decongest the Old City. Even in 1912, water supply and drainage in these new localities was
very poor.

The Delhi Improvement Trust was set up 1936, and it built areas like Daryaganj South for wealthy Indians. Houses were
grouped around parks. Within the houses, space was divided according to new rules of privacy. Instead of spaces being
shared by many families or groups, now different members of the same family had their own private spaces within the home.

HERBERT BAKER IN SOUTH AFRICA:

In the early 1890s, a young English architect named Herbert Baker went to South Africa in search of work. It was in South
Africa that Baker came in touch with Cecil Rhodes, the Governor of Cape Town, who inspired in Baker a love for the British
empire and an admiration for the architectural heritage of ancient Rome and Greece. Figure shows the Union Building that
Baker designed in the city of Pretoria in South Africa.

It used some of the elements of ancient classical architecture that Baker later included in his plans of the Secretariat building
in New Delhi. The Union Building was also located on a steep hill as is the Secretariat Building in New Delhi. Have you not
noticed that people in positions of power want to look down on others from above rather than up towards them from below?
The Union Building and the Secretariat were both built to house imperial offices.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Name any two Presidency cities?

2. What percentage of India’s population lived in cities by the early twentieth century?

3. What did the British do to make Delhi forget the Mughal past?

4. Why were the western walls of Shahjahanabad broken in 1870s?

5. What was the design of streets in the Lahore Gate Improvement Scheme?

6. When did the British gain control of Delhi?

7. Name few Indian cities which were de-urbanised during the nineteenth century.

8. Give one feature of the living spaces in the Presidency towns.

9. Which period is known as a period of Delhi renaissance?

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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. Why did the British hold Durbars in Delhi?

11. What were the ideas of architects while developing New Delhi?

12. Give a description of Shahjahanbad.

13. Discuss the living spaces of the British and Indians in Delhi befroe 1857.

14. What did the British do to prevent rebellion in future in Delhi?

15. How did the partition change the life and occupation of the people in Delhi?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

16. How the colonial bunglows were different fron havelies?

17. Discuss the features of new buildings made by the British in New Delhi.

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7
Weavers, Iron Smelters and Factory Owners

INTRODUCTION
Industrialisation led to the growth of colonialism and Impearealism, Britain started controlling the Asian and African countries
with the view to get Raw material, Capital, Cheap Labour and Vast Market to sale their finish goods. Similarly British
industrialists began to see India as a vast market for their industrial products, and over time manufactured goods from Britain
began flooding India. How did this affect Indian crafts and industries?

Trading ships on the port of Surat in the seventeenth century

INDIAN TEXTILES AND THE WORLD MARKET

Around 1750, before the British conquered Bengal, India was by far the world’s largest producer of cotton textiles. Indian
textiles had long been renowned both for their fine quality and exquisite craftsmanship. They were extensively traded in
Southeast Asia (Java, Sumatra and Penang) and West and Central Asia. From the sixteenth century European trading companies
began buying Indian textiles for sale in Europe.

Patola weave, mid-nineteenth century

WORDS TELL US HISTORIES:

Muslin: All fine women cloths carried by Arab Merchants from Mosul (Iraq) referred as ‘Muslin’ by European traders.

Calico: Cotton textlies which were bought from Calicut along with spieces were called Calico by Europeans.

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There are many other words such as Dungarees, Chintz, Taffeta, Cossaes (Khassa) and Bandanna (brightly colored Scarf)
which point to the popularity of Indian textiles in Western markets.

The Patola weave of Surat, Ahmedabad and Paton had high value in Indonesia.

Jamdani was fine muslin on which decorative motifs were women on the loom, typically in grey and white. Often a mixture
of cotton and gold thread was used. The most important centres of jamdani weaving were Dacca in Bengal and Lucknow in
the United Provinces.

Printined desing on fine cloth chintz produced in Masulipatnam, Andhra Pradesh were exported to Iran and Europe.

From the 1680s; there started a craze for printed Indian cotton textlies in England and Europe mainly for their exquisite
floral designs, fine texture and relative cheapness. Rich people of England including the Queen herself wore clothes of
Indian fabric.

Bandanna design, early twentieth century

INDIAN TEXTILES IN EUROPEAN MARKETS:

By the early eighteenth century, worried by the popularity of Indian textiles, wool and silk makers in England began protesting
against the import of Indian cotton textiles. In 1720, the British government enacted a legislation banning the use of printed
cotton textiles – chintz – in England. Interestingly, this Act was known as the Calico Act.

Unable to compete with Indian textiles, English producers wanted a secure market within the country by preventing the entry
of Indian textiles. The first to grow under government protection was the calico printing industry. Indian designs were now
imitated and printed in England on white muslin or plain unbleached Indian cloth.

Competition with Indian textiles also led to a search for technological innovation in England. In 1764, the spinning jenny
was invented by John Kaye which increased the productivity of the traditional spindles.

However, Indian textiles continued to dominate world trade till the end of the eighteenth century. European trading companies
– the Dutch, the French and the English – made enormous profits out of this flourishing trade. These companies purchased
cotton and silk textiles in India by importing silver. When the English East India Company gained political power in Bengal,
it no longer had to import precious metal to buy Indian goods. Instead, they collected revenues from peasants and zamindars
in India, and used this revenue to buy Indian textiles.

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A sea view of the Dutch settlement in Cochin, seventeenth century

WEAVING CENTRES (1500 - 1750)

Textile production was concentrated in four regions in the early nineteenth century. Bengal was one of the most important
centres. Located along the numerous rivers in the delta, the production centres in Bengal could easily transport goods to
distant places. In the early nineteenth century railways had not developed and roads were only just beginning to be laid on an
extensive scale.

Dacca in Eastern Bengal (now Bangladesh) was the foremost textlie centre in the eighteenth century. It was famous for its
mulmul and jamdani weaving.

At the southern part of India there was a second cluster of cotton weaving centres along the Coromandel coasts stretching
from Madras to northern Andhra Pradesh. On the western coast there were important weaving centres in Gujarat.

Weaving centres: 1500-1750

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WHO WERE THE WEAVERS?

Weavers often belonged to communities that specialised in weaving. Their skills were passed on from one generation to the
next. The tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of north India, sale and kaikollar and devangs of south
India are some of the communities famous for weaving.

The first stage of production was spinning – a work done mostly by women. The charkha and the takli were household
spinning instruments. The thread was spun on the charkha and rolled on the takli. When the spinning was over the thread was
woven into cloth by the weaver. In most communities weaving was a task done by men. For coloured textiles, the thread was
dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez. For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as
chhipigars. Handloom weaving and the occupations associated with it provided livelihood for millions of Indians.

THE DECLINE OF INDIAN TEXTLIES

The development of cotton industries in Britain affected textile producers in India in several ways.

First: Indian textiles now had to compete with British textiles in the European and American markets. Second: Exporting
textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were imposed on Indian textiles imported into
Britain.

By the beginning of the nineteenth century, Englishmade cotton textiles successfully ousted Indian goods from their traditional
markets in Africa, America and Europe. Thousands of weavers in India were now thrown out of employment. Bengal
weavers were the worst hit.

English and European companies stopped buying Indian goods and their agents no longer gave out advances to weavers to
secure supplies.

By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets. In fact, by the 1880s two-thirds of all the cotton clothes worn by
Indians were made of cloth produced in Britain.

THE IMPACT OF DECLINE

Thousands of rural women who made a living by spinning cotton thread were rendered jobless.

Handloom weaving did not completely die in India. This was because some types of cloths could not be supplied by machines
such as saris with intricate borders or coarse cloths used by the poor people in Inda.

Sholapur in western India and Madura in South India emerged as important new centres of weaving in the late nineteenth
century.

Later, during the national movement. Mahatama Gandhi urged people to boycott imported textlies and use hand-spun and
handwoven cloth. Khadi gradually became a symbol of nationalism. The charkha came to represent India, and it was put at
the centre of the tricolour flag of the Indian National Congress adopted in 1931.

Many weavers became agricultural labourers. Some migrated to cities in seach of work, and yet others went out of the
country to work in plantations in Africa and South America. Some of these handloom weavers also found work in the new
cotton mills that were establishedi n Bombay (now Mumbai), Ahmedabad, Sholapur, Nagpur and Kanpur.

The first cotton mill in India was set up as a spinning mill in Bombay in 1854. From the early nineteenth century, Bombay
had grown as an important port for the export of raw cotton from India to England and China. It was close to the vast black
soil tract of western India where cotton was grown.

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By 1900, over 84 mills started operating in Bombay. Many of these were established by Parsi and Gujarati businessmen who
had made their money through trade with China.

Mills came up in other cities too. The first mill in Ahmedabad was started in 1861. A year later a mill was established in
Kanpur, in the United Provinces. Growth of cotton mills led to a demand for labour. Thousands of poor peasants, artisans
and agricultural labourers moved to the cities to work in the mills.

THE SWORD OF TIPU SULTAN AND WOOTZ STEEL

The story of Indian steel and iron metallurgy by recounting the famous story of Tipu Sultan who ruled Mysore till 1799.

The sword of Tipu Sultan had an incredibly hard and sharp edge that could easily rip through the opponent’s amour. This
quality of the sword came from a special type of high carbon steel called Wootz which was produced all over south India.

Francis Buchanan who toured through Mysore in 1800, a year after Tipu Sultan’s death, has left us an account of the
technique by which Wootz steel was produced in many hundreds of smelting furnaces in Mysore. In these furnaces, iron was
mixed with charcoal and put inside small clay pots. Through an intricate control of temperatures the smelters produced steel
ingots that were used for sword making not just in India but in West and Central Asia too. Wootz is an anglicised version of
the Kannada word ukku, Telugu hukku and Tamil and Malayalam urukku – meaning steel.

Indian Wootz steel fascinated European scientists. Michael Faraday, the legendary scientist and discoverer of electricity and
electromagnetism, spent four years studying the properties of Indian Wootz (1818-22).

However, the Wootz steel making process, which was so widely known in south India, was completely lost by the mid-
nineteenth century.

By the late nineteenth century, however, the craft of iron smelting was in decline, due to unavailability of wood for charcoal,
new forest laws, reserve forest and high taxes etc.

Tipu’s sword made in

the late eighteenth centur

Moreover, by the late nineteenth century iron and steel was being imported from Britain. Ironsmiths in India began using the
imported iron to manufacture utensils and implements. This inevitably lowered the demand for iron produced by local
smelters.

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IRON AND STEEL FACTORIES

In the hot month of April, Charles Weld, an American geologist and Dorabji Tata, the eldest son of Jamsetji Tata, were
travelling in Chhattisgarh in search of iron ore deposits.

Jamsetji Tata had decided to spend a large part of his fortune to build a big iron and steel industry in India. But this could not
be done without identifying the source of fine quality iron ore.

After travelling for many hours in the forests, Weld and Dorabji came upon a small village and found a group of men and
women carrying basketloads of iron ore. These people were the Agarias. When asked where they had found the iron ore, the
Agarias pointed to a hill in the distance. Weld and Dorabji reached the hill after an exhausting trek through dense forests. On
exploring the hill the geologist declared that they had at last found what they had been looking for. Rajhara Hills had one of
the finest ores in the world. But there was a problem. The region was dry and water – necessary for running the factory – was
not to be found nearby. The Tatas had to continue their search for a more suitable place to set up their factory. However, the
Agarias helped in the discovery of a source of iron ore that would later supply the Bhilai Steel Plant.

A few years later a large area of forest was cleared on the banks of the river Subarnarekha to set up the factory and an
industrial township – Jamshedpur. Here there was water near iron ore deposits. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO)
that came up began producing steel in 1912.

TISCO was set up at an opportune time. All through the late nineteenth century, India was importing steel that was manufactured
in Britain. Expansion of the railways in India had provided a huge market for rails that Britain produced. For a long while,
British experts in the Indian Railways were unwilling to believe that good quality steel could be produced in India.

The Tata Iron and Steel factory on the banks of the river Subarnarekha, 1940
By the time TISCO was set up the situation was changing. In 1914 the First World War broke out. Steel produced in Britain
now had to meet the demands of war in Europe. So imports of British steel into India declined dramatically and the Indian
Railways turned to TISCO for supply of rails. As the war dragged on for several years, TISCO had to produce shells and
carriage wheels for the war. By 1919 the colonial government was buying 90 per cent of the steel manufactured by TISCO.
Over time TISCO became the biggest steel industry within the British empire.

In the case of iron and steel, as in the case of cotton textiles, industrial expansion occurred only when British imports into
India declined and the market for Indian industrial goods increased. This happened during the First World War and after. As
the nationalist movement developed and the industrial class became stronger, the demand for government protection became

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louder. Struggling to retain its control over India, the British government had to concede many of these demands in the last
decades of colonial rule.

Expansion at the end of the war

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Who formed Tata Iron and Steel Company and during which movement?

2. What is Bandanna?

3. Who are the Agaria?

4. Which famous king used the Wootz Steel in making of the swords?

5. What is Muslin?

6. What is Jamadani?

7. Which river supported the TISCO plant?

8. Who was Charles Weld?

9. Who toured for the search of Iron ore?

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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. What was the process of making Wootz Steel?

11. How did the situation of steel plant change after First World War in India?

12. How do the names of different textiles tell us about their histories?

13. Why did the wool and silk producers in England protest against the import of Indian textiles in the early eighteenth century?

14. What kinds of cloth had a large market in Europe?

15. Why the making of Wootz Steel declined in India?

16. What were the main causes of decline of cotton textiles in India?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. What helped TISCO expand steel production during the First World War?

18. How did the development of cotton industries in Britain affect textile producers in India?

19. Why did the Indian iron smelting industry decline in the nineteenth century?

20. What problems did the Indian textile industry face in the early years of its development?

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8
Civilising The “Native: Educating The Nation
HOW THE BRITISH SAW EDUCATION
The British in India wanted not only territorial conquest and control over revenues. They also felt that they had a cultural
mission: they had to “civilise the natives”, change their customs and values.

What changes were to be introduced? How were Indians to be educated, “civilised”, and made into what the British believed
were “good subjects”? In the process of this enquiry we will also see how Indians reacted to British ideas, and how they
developed their own views about how Indians were to be educated.

William Jones learning Persian

THE TRADITION OF ORIENTALISM:

In 1783, a person named William Jones arrived in Calcutta. He had an appointment as a junior judge at the Supreme Court that
the Company had set up. In addition to being an expert in law, Jones was a linguist. He had studied Greek and Latin at Oxford,
knew French and English, had picked up Arabic from a friend, and had also learnt Persian. At Calcutta, he began spending
many hours a day with pandits who taught him the subtleties of Sanskrit language, grammar and poetry. Soon he was
studying ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine and the other sciences.
Jones discovered that his interests were shared by many British officials living in Calcutta at the time. Englishmen like Henry
Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were also busy discovering the ancient Indian heritage, mastering Indian languages
and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English. Together with them, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and
started a journal called Asiatick Researches.

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Henry Thomas Colebrooke

Jones and Colebrooke came to represent a particular attitude towards India. They shared a deep respect for ancient cultures,
both of India and the West.

In order to understand India it was necessary to discover the sacred and legal texts that were produced in the ancient period.
For only those texts could reveal the real ideas and laws of the Hindus and Muslims, and only a new study of these texts
could form the basis of future development in India.

So Jones and Colebrooke went about discovering ancient texts, understanding their meaning, translating them, and making
their findings known to [Link] officials also though that Hindus and Muslims ought to be taught what they were already
familiar with and what they valued and treasured, not subjects that were alien to them.

With this object in view a madrasa was set up in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law;
and the Hindu College was established in Benaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts that would be
useful for the administration of the country.

Not all officials shared these views. Many were very strong in their criticism of the Orientalists.

WOOD’S DISPATCH:
In 1854, the Government declared its intention of “creating a property articulated system of education from primary to the
university stage”. Sir Charles Wood sent a dispatch to the Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie, with some
recommendations. This is famous as Wood’s Dispatch, also known as ‘the Magna Carta of Indian Education’. It was
an important landmark in the history of education in modern India. The recommendations of the Wood’s Dispatch were:

(i) Setting up of education departments in the provinces.

(ii) Universities to be set up in each of the presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

(iii) Private schools and colleges were to be given government grants.

(iv) A new service called Indian Educational Service was to be introduced, which would recruit teachers for government
institutions all over India.

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(v) At least one government school was to be opened in every district.

(vi) Local languages along with English were to be made the medium of instruction at the school stage and English at
the college stage.

(vii) The Dispatch would, according to the initiators, foster western culture in India.

“GRAVE ERRORS OF THE EAST”

From the early nineteenth century many British officials began to criticise the Orientalist vision of learning. They said that
knowledge of the East was full of errors and unscientific thought; Eastern literature was non-serious and light-hearted. So
they argued that it was wrong on the part of the British to spend so much effort in encouraging the study of Arabic and
Sanskrit language and literature.

James Mill was one of those who attacked the Orientalists. The British effort, he declared, should not be to teach what the
natives wanted, or what they respected, in order to please them and “win a place in their heart”. The aim of education ought
to be to teach what was useful and practical. So Indians should be made familiar with the scientific and technical advances
that the West had made, rather than with the poetry and sacred literature of the Orient.

By the 1830s, the attack on the Orientalists became sharper. One of the most outspoken and influential of such critics of the
time was Thomas Babington Macaulay. He saw India as an uncivilised country that needed to be civilised. No branch of
Eastern knowledge, according to him could be compared to what England had produced.

Macaulay emphasised the need to teach the English language. He felt that knowledge of English would allow Indians to read
some of the finest literature the world had produced; it would make them aware of the developments in Western science and
philosophy. Teaching of English could thus be a way of civilising people, changing their tastes, values and culture.

Following Macaulay’s minute, the English Education Act of 1835 was introduced. The decision was to make English the
medium of instruction for higher education, and to stop the promotion of Oriental institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa and
Benaras Sanskrit College.

EDUCATION FOR COMMERCE:

In 1854, the Court of Directors of the East India Company in London sent an education despatch to Company in London sent
an educational despatch to the Governor-General in India. Issued by Charles Wood, the President of the Board Of Control of
the Company, it has come to be known as Wood’s Despatch. One of the practical uses the Despatch pointed to was economic.
European learning will help in expansion of trade and commerce, and make them see the importance of developing the
resources of the country. Introduction of European ways of life, would change their tastes and desires, and thus would create
a demand for British goods.

European learning would also improve the moral character of Indians. They would also be truthful and honest, and it could
also instill in people a sense of duty and a commitment to work.

Following the 1854 Despatch, several measures were introduced by the British. Education departments of the government
were set up to extend control over all matters regarding education. Steps were taken to establish a system of university
education. In 1857, while the sepoys rose in revolt in Meerut and Delhi, universities were being established in Calcutta,
Madras and Bombay. Attempts were also made to bring about changes within the system of school education.

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Bombay University in the nineteenth century

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE LOCAL SCHOOLS?

The pre British school were entirely different. We can see by the following report.

THE REPORT OF WILLIAM ADAM

In the 1830s, William Adam, a Scottish missionary, toured the districts of Bengal and Bihar, He had been asked by the
Company to report on the progress of education in vernacular schools.

Adam found that there were over 1 lakh pathshalas in Bengal and Bihar. These were small institutions with no more than 20
students each. But the total number of children being taught in these pathshalas was considerable – over 20 lakh. These
institutions were set up by wealthy people, or the local community. At times they were started by a teacher (guru).

The system of education was flexible. There were no fixed fee, no printed books, no separate schoold building, no benches
or chairs, no blackboards, no system of separate classes, no roll-call registers, no annual examinations, and no regular time-
table.

Classes were generally held under banyan tree or at some village shop or temple. Fee depended on the income of parents: the
rich had to pay more than the poor. Teaching was oral, The guru interacted separately with groups of children with different
levels of learning.

Adam discovered that this flexible system was suited to local needs. For instance, classes were not held during harvest time
when rural children often worked in the fields. The pathshala started once again when the crops had been cut and stored. This
meant that even children of peasant families could study.

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A village pathshala
NEW ROUTINES, NEW RULES:
Up to the mid-nineteenth century, the Company was concerned primarily with higher education. So it allowed the local
pathshalas to function without much interference. After 1854 the Company decided to improve the system of vernacular
education. It felt that this could be done by introducing order within the system, imposing routines, establishing rules,
ensuring regular inspections.

For this the government appointed a number of government pandits, each in charge of looking after four to five schools. The
task of the pandit was to visit the pathshalas and try and improve the standard of teaching. Each guru was asked to submit
periodic reports and take classes according to a regular timetable. Teaching was now to be based on textbooks and learning
was to be tested through a system of annual examination. Students were asked to pay a regular fee, attend regular classes, sit
on fixed seats, and obey the new rules of discipline.

Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through government grants. Those who were unwilling to work
within the new system received no government support. Over time gurus who wanted to retain their independence found it
difficult to compete with the government aided and regulated pathshalas.

The children from poor peasant families had not been able to attend the school because of compulsion of attendance. It could
not be flexible according to their harvest period.

THE AGENDA FOR A NATIONAL EDUCATION

British officials were not the only people thinking about education in India. From the early nineteenth century many thinkers
from different parts of India began to talk of the need for a wider spread of education.

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Impressed with the developments in Europe, some Indians felt that Western education would help modernise India. They
urged the British to open more schools, colleges and universities, and spend more money on education.

There were other Indians, however, who reacted against Western education. Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore
were two such individuals.

“ENGLISH EDUCATION HAS ENSLAVED US”

Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians. It made them see
Western civilisation as superior, and destroyed the pride they had in their own culture. There was poison in this education,
said Mahatma Gandhi, it was sinful, it enslaved Indians.

Indians educated in these institutions began admiring British rule. Mahatma Gandhi wanted an education that could help
Indians recover their sense of dignity and self-respect. During the national movement he urged students to leave educational
institutions in order to show to the British that Indians were no longer willing to be enslaved.

Mahatma Gandhi strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching. Education in English crippled
Indians, distanced them from their own social surroundings, and made them “strangers in their own lands”.

Mahatma Gandhi wrote “Literacy or simply learning to read and write - by itself did not count as education.” People had to
work with their hands, learn a craft, and know how different things operated. He emphasized on the concept of practical
education or based on vocational training.

As nationalist sentiments spread, other thinkers also began thinking of a system of national education which would be
radically different from that set up by the British.

Mahatma Gandhi along with Kasturba Gandhi sitting with Rabindranath

Tagore and a group of girls at Santiniketan, 1940

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TAGORE’S “ABODE OF PEACE”

Rabindranath Tagore started the institution in 1901. As a child, Tagore hated going to school. He found it suffocating and
oppressive. The school appeared like a prison, for he could never do what he felt like doing. So while other children listened
to the teacher, Tagore’s mind would wander away.

The experience of his schooldays in Calcutta shaped Tagore’s ideas of education. On growing up, he wanted to set up a
school where the child was happy, where she could be free and creative, where she was able to explore her own thoughts and
desires. Tagore felt that childhood ought to be a time of self-learning, outside the rigid and restricting discipline of the
schooling system set up by the British.

Tagore was of the view that creative learning could be encouraged only within a natural environment. So he chose to set up
his school 100 kilometres away from Calcutta, in a rural setting. He saw it as an abode of peace (santiniketan), where living
in harmony with nature, children could cultivate their natural creativity.

In many senses Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi thought about education in similar ways. There were, however, differences too.
Gandhiji was highly critical of Western civilisation and its worship of machines and technology. Tagore wanted to combine
elements of modern Western civilisation with what he saw as the best within Indian tradition. He emphasised the need to
teach science and technology at Santiniketan, along with art, music and dance.

Children playing in a missionary school in Coimbatore, early twentieth century

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Name a kind of education system introduced by Mahatma Gandhi?

2. What are pathshalas?

3. Which were the traditional centres of learning for Hindus and Muslims?

4. Name the famous Anglicist whose minute or note became the basis for British educational policy?

5. What are Madarsas?

6. Why Rabindranath Tagore founded Shantinikatan?

7. Who started the Journal Asiatik Researches?

8. What should be the aim of education according to Gandhiji?

9. Which educational order of 1854 helped to establish a network of institutions?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. What was the controversy about education in the 19th century? How was it resolved?

11. How William Adam described about Indian schools?

12. Write short ntoe on Shantiniketan?

13. What was Macauley’s Minute?

14. What were the problems associated iwth indigenous education?

15. Why were many Indians interested in the introduction of English education?

16. What were the disadvantages of English education?

17. What was the Agenda for a National education?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

18. Why did William Jones feel the need to study Indian history, philosophy and law?

19. Why did Mahatma Gandhi want to teach children handicrafts?

20. Why did James Mill and Thomas Macaulay think that European education was essential in India?

21. Why did Mahatma Gandhi think that English education had enslaved Indians?

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9
Women, Caste and Reform

INTRODUCTION
Now-a-days most girls from middle-class families go to school, and often study with boys. On growing up, many of them go
to colleges and universities, and take up jobs after that. They have to be adults before they are legally married, and according
to law, they can marry anyone they like, from any caste and community, and widows can remarry too. All women, like all
men, can vote and stand for elections.

There is a great discrimination of course, these rights are not actually enjoyed by all. Poor people have little or no access to
education, and in many families women cannot choose their husbands. Two hundered years ago, things were very different.
Most children were married off at an early age. Both Hindu and Muslim men could marry more than one wife. Sati was a
custom in India. Women’s right to property was also restricted. Besides, most women had virtually not access to education.
In many parts of the country people believed that if a women was educated, she would become a widow.

Differences between men and women were not the only ones in society. In most regions, people were divided along lines of
caste. Brahmans and Kshatriyas considered themselves as “upper castes”. Others, such as traders and moneylenders (often
referred to as Vaishyas) were placed after them. Then came peasants, and artisans such as weavers and potters (referred to as
Shudras). At the lowest rung were those who laboured to keep cities and villages clean or worked at jobs that upper castes
considered “polluting”, that is, it could lead to the loss of caste status. The upper castes also treated many of these groups at
the bottom as “untouchable”. They were not allowed to enter temples, draw water from the wells used by the upper castes,
or bathe in ponds where upper castes bathed. They were seen as inferior human beings, Over the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, many of these norms and perceptions slowly changed.

Sati. painted by BalthazarSolvyn.1813

WORKING TOWARDS CHANGE
From the early nineteenth century, we find debates and discussions about social customs and practices taking on a new
character. One important reason for this was the development of new forms of communication. For the first time, books,
newspapers, magazines, leaflets and pamphlets were printed. Therefore ordinary people could read these, and many of them
could also write and express their ideas in their own languages. All kinds of issues – social, political, economic and religious

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– could now be debated and discussed by men (and sometimes by women as well) in the new cities. The discussions could
reach out to a wider public, and could become linked to movements for social change, These debates were often initiated by
Indian reformers and reform groups. One such reformer was Raja Rammohun Roy (1772-1833). He founded a reform
association known as the Brahmo Sabha (later known as the Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta.

Raja Rammohan Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of Western education in the country and bring about greater freedom
and equality for women. He wrote about the way women were forced to bear the burden of domestic work, confined to the
home and the kitchen, and not allowed to move out and become educated.

Raja Rammohun Roy. painted

byRembr8J7dtPeale. 1833

CHANGING THE LIVES OF WIDOWS:

Rammohun Roy was particularly moved by the problems widows faced in their lives. He began a campaign against the
practice of sati. He tried to show through his writings that the practice of widow burning had no sanction in ancient texts.

By the early nineteenth century, many British officials had also begun to criticise Indian traditions and customs. They were
therefore more than willing to listen to Rammohun who was reputed to be a learned man. In 1829, sati was banned. The
strategy adopted by Rammohun was used by later reformers as well.

For instance, one of the most famous reformers, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, used the ancient texts to suggest that widows
could remarry. His suggestion was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage.
Those who were against the remarriage of widows opposed Vidyasagar, and ever boycotted him.

By the second half of the nineteenth century, the movement in favour of widow remarriage spread to other parts of the
country. In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow
remarriage. Around the same time young intellectuals and reformers in Bombay pledged themselves to working for the
same cause.

In the north, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the reform association called Arya Samaj, also supported widow
remarriage.

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Yet, the number of widows who actually remarried remained low. Those who married were not easily accepted in society and
conservative groups continued to oppose the new law.

Hook swinging festival

GIRLS BEGIN GOING TO SCHOOL:

Many of the reformers felt that education for girls was necessary in order to improve the condition of women.

Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many other reformers in Bombay set up schools for girls. When the first schools were opened in
the mid-nineteenth century, many people were afraid of them. They feared that schools would take girls away from home,
prevent them from doing their domestic duties. Moreover, girls had to travel through public places in order to reach school.
Many people felt that this would have a corrupting influence on them. They felt that girls should stay away from public
spaces. Therefore, throughout the nineteenth century, most educated women were taught at home by liberal fathers or
husbands. Sometimes women taught themselves.

In the latter part of the century, schools for girls were established by the Arya Samaj in Punjab, and Jyotirao Phule in
Maharashtra. In aristocratic Muslim households in North India, women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic by woman tutor.

When girls schools were first set up in the nineteenth century, it was generally believed that the curriculum for girls ought to
be less taxing than that for boys. The Hindu Mahila Vidhyalaya was one of the first institutions to provide girls with the kind
of learning that was usual for boys at the time.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

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WOMEN WRITE ABOUT WOMEN:

From the early twentieth century, Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting education
among women. They founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh. Another remarkable woman, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat
Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.

By the 1880s, Indian women began to enter universities. Some of them trained to be doctors, some became teachers.

Many women began to write and publish their critical views on the place of women in society. Tarabai Shinde, a woman
educated at home at Poona, published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), criticising the
social differences between men and women.

Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book about the
miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women. She founded a widows’ home at Poona to provide shelter to widows who had
been treated badly by their husbands’ relatives. Here women were trained so that they could support themselves economically.

Many Hindu nationalists felt that Hindu women were adopting Western ways and that this would corrupt Hindu culture and
erode family values. Orthodox Muslims were also worried about the impact of these changes. As you can see, by the end of
the nineteenth century, women themselves were actively working for reform.

From the early twentieth century, they formed political pressure groups to push through laws for female suffrage (the right to
vote) and better health care and education for women. Some of them joined various kinds of nationalist and socialist movements
from the 1920s.

Students ofHindu Mahjla VidyaJaya, 1875

CAS TE AND SOCIAL REF

CASTE ORM:
REFORM:
Some of the social reformers we have been discussing also criticised caste inequalities. Rammohun Roy translated an old
Buddhist text that was critical of caste. The Prarthana Samaj adhered to the tradition of Bhakti that believed in spiritual
equality of all castes. In Bombay, the Paramhans Mandali was founded in 1840 to work for the abolition of caste. Many of
these reformers and members of reform associations were people of upper castes. Often, in secret meetings, these reformers
would violate caste taboos on food and touch, in an effort to get rid of the hold of caste prejudice in their lives.

During the course of the nineteenth century, Christian missionaries began setting up schools for tribal groups and “lower”
caste children. These children were thus equipped with some resources to make their way into a changing world. At the same
time, the poor began leaving their villages to look for jobs in municipalities. For building constructions and other construction
works in cities, there was a requirement of coolies, diggers, carriers, bricklayers, sewage cleaners, sweepers, palanquin
bearers, rickshaw pullers. The poor from the villages and small towns, many of them from low castes, began moving to the

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cities where there was a new demand for labour. Some also went to work in plantations in Assam, Mauritius, Trinidad and
Indonesia. Work in the new locations was often very hard. But the poor, the people from low castes, saw this as an opportunity
to get away from the oppressive hold that upper-caste landowners exercised over their lives and the daily humiliation they
suffered.

There were other jobs too. The army, for instance, offered opportunities. A number of Mahar people, who were regarded as
untouchable, found jobs in the Mahar Regiment. The father of B.R. Ambedkar, the leader of the Dalit movement, taught at
an army school.

DEMANDS FOR EQUALITY AND JUSTICE:

Gradually, by the second half of the nineteenth century, people from within the Non-Brahman castes began organising
movements against caste discrimination, and demanded social equality and justice.

The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas who worked among the leather workers and organised
a movement to improve their social status.

In eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked among “low” caste Chandal cultivators. Shri Narayana Guru, from
low caste proclaimed the ideals of unity of all people within “one sect a single caste and one guru”.

All these sects were founded by leaders who came from Non- Brahman castes and worked amongst them. They tried to
change those habits and practices which provoked the contempt of dominant castes. They tried to create a sense of self-
esteem among the subordinate castes.

GULAMGIRI:
One of the most vocal amongst the “low-caste” leaders was Jyotirao Phule. He proposed that Shudras (labouring castes)
and Ati Shudras (untouchables) should unite to challenge caste discrimination. The Satyashodhak Samaj, an association
Phule founded, propagated caste equality.

In 1873, Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri, meaning slavery. Some ten years before this, the Americal Civil War had
been fought, leading to the end of slavery in America. Phule dedicated his book to all those Americans who had fough to free
slaves, thus establishing a link between the conditions of the “lower’ castes in India and the black slaves in America.

Ambedkar was born into a Mahar family. As a child he experienced what caste prejudice meant in everyday life. In school he
was forced to sit outside the classroom on the ground, and was not allowed to drink water from taps that upper-caste children
used.

In 1927 Ambedkar started a temple entry movement in which his Mahar caste followers participated Brahman priests were
outraged when the Dalits used water from the temple tank.

Ambedkar led three such movements for temple entry between 1927 and 1935, His aim was to make everyone see the power
of caste prejudices within society.

THE NON-BRAHMAN MOVEMENT:

In the early twentieth century, the non-Brahman movement started. The initiative came from those non-Brahman castes that
had acquired access to education, wealth and influence.

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E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, as he was called, came from a middle-class family. Interestingly, he had been an ascetic
in his early life and had studied Sanskrit scriptures carefully. Later, he became a member of the Congress, only to leave it in
disgust when he found that at a feast organised by nationalists, seating arrangements followed caste distinctions – that is,
the lower castes were made to sit at a distance from the upper castes. Convinced that untouchables had to fight for their
dignity, Periyar founded the Self Respect Movement.

Periyar was an outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures, especially the Codes of Manu, the ancient law giver, and the Bhagavad
Gita and the Ramayana. He said that these texts had been used to establish the authority of Brahmans over lower castes and
the domination of men over women.

These assertions did not go unchallenged. The forceful speeches, writings and movements of lower caste leaders did lead to
rethinking and some selfcriticism among upper-caste nationalist leaders. But orthodox Hindu society also reacted by founding
Sanatan Dharma Sabhas and the Bharat Dharma Mahamandal in the north, and associations like the Brahman Sabha in
Bengal.

The object of these associations was to uphold caste distinctions as a cornerstone of Hinduism, and show how this was
sanctified by scriptures. Debates and struggles over caste continued beyond the colonial period and are still going on in our
own times.

ORGANISING FOR REFORM

THE BRAHMO SAMAJ:
The Brahmo Samaj, formed in 1830, prohibited all forms of idolatry and sacrifice, believed in the Upanishads, and forbade
its members from criticising other religious practices. It critically drew upon the ideals of religions – especially of Hinduism
and Christianity – looking at their negative and positive dimensions.

DEROZIO AND YOUNG BENGAL:

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta, in the 1820s, promoted radical ideas and encouraged his
pupils to question all authority. Referred to as the Young Bengal Movement, his students attacked tradition and custom,
demanded education for women and campaigned for the freedom of thought and expression.

THE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND VIVEKANANDA:

Named after Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda’s guru, the Ramakrishna Mission stressed the ideal of salvation
through social service and selfless action.

THE PRARTHANA SAMAJ:

Established in 1867 at Bombay, the Prarthana Samaj sought to remove caste restrictions, abolish child marriage, encourage
the education of women, and end the ban on widow remarriage. Its religious meetings drew upon Hindu, Buddhist and
Christian texts.

THE VEDA SAMAJ:

Established in Madras (Chennai) in 1864, the Veda Samaj was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj. It worked to abolish caste
distinctions and promote widow remarriage and women’s education. Its members believed in one God. They condemned the
superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism.

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THE ALIGARH MOVEMENT:

The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, founded by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875 at Aligarh, later became the Aligarh
Muslim University. The institution offered modern education, including Western science, to Muslims. The Aligarh Movement,
as it was known, had an enormous impact in the area of educational reform.

THE SINGH SABHA MOVEMENT

Reform organisations of the Sikhs, the first Singh Sabhas were formed at Amritsar in 1873 and at Lahore in 1879. The Sabhas
sought to rid Sikhism of superstitions, caste distinctions and practices seen by them as non-Sikh. They promoted education
among the Sikhs, often combining modern instruction with Sikh teachings.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Who had written Satyarth Prakash?
2. Who founded Brahmo Samaj and When?
3. Who was Vidya Sagar?
4. Who was Rashsundri Debi?
5. What the Begum of Bhopal did for girls?
6. What was Ved Samaj?
7. Who banned Sati System?
8. Write about preachings of Vivekanand.
9. What do you know about Haridas Thakurs Matuis sect?
10. Who were Mahars?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

11. Why were Christian missionaries attacked by many people in the country? Would some people have supported them too? Is
so, for what reasons?
12. In the British period, what new opportunities opened up for people who came from castes that were regarded as “low”?
13. How did Jyotrirao justify their criticism of caste inequality in society?
14. Why did Phule dedicate his book Gulamgiri to the American movement to free slaves?
15. How did the knowledge of ancient texts help the reformers to promote new laws?
16. What did Ambedkar want to achieve through the Temple Entry Movement?
17. What were the different reasons people had for not sending girls to school?
18. Why were Jyotirao Phule and Ramaswamy Naicker critical of the national movement? Did their criticism help the national
struggle in any way?

Long Answer Type Questions:

19. Write in brief about the works done for women upliftment by social reformers?
20. How the caste discrimination was fought by social reformers?
21. Write some evils related with women in Hindu society.
22. Write about three organizations of social reforms.

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10
The Changing World of Visual Arts

INTRODUCTION
Colonial rule introduced several new art forms, styles, materials and techniques which were creatively adapted by Indian
artists for local patrons and markets, in both elite and popular circles. Many of the visual forms which are take in for granted
today-say, a grand public building with domes, columns and arches; a scenic landscape, the realistic human image in a
portrait or in popular icons of gods and goddesses; a mechanically printed, and mass-produced picture had their origins in
this period.

Damayanthi, painted by Raja Ravi Verma

NEW FORMS OF IMPERIAL ART

From the eighteenth century a stream of European artists came to India along with the British traders and rulers. The artists
brought with them new styles and new conventions of painting. They began producing pictures which became widely popular
in Europe and helped shape Western perceptions of India.

European artists brought with them the idea of realism. This was a belief that artists had to observe carefully and depict
faithfully what the eye saw. What the artist produced was expected to look real and lifelike. European artists also brought
with them the technique of oil painting – a technique with which Indian artists were not very familiar. Oil painting enabled
artists to produce images that looked real. The subjects they painted were varied, but invariably they seemed to emphasis the
superiority of Britain its culture, its people, its power.

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LOOKING FOR THE PICTURESQUE:

One popular imperial tradition was that of picturesque landscape painting. This style of painting depicted India as a quaint
land, to be explored by travelling British artists; its landscape was rugged and wild, seemingly untamed by human hand.
Thomas Daniell and his nephew William Daniell came to India in 1785. They were the most famouns of the artists who
painted within this tradition. They produced some of the most evocative picturesque landscapes of Britain’s newly conquered
territories in India. Their large oil paintings on canvas were regularly exhibited to select audiences in Britain, and their
albums of engravings were eagerly bought up by a British public keen to know about Britain’s empire. Their pictures showed
that decaying civilisation would change and modernize only through British governance.

Ruins on the banks of the Ganges at Ghazipur, painted by

Thomas Daniell (oil, 1791)
The image of British rule bringing modern civilisation to India is powerfully emphasised in the numerous pictures of late-
eighteenth century Calcutta, drawn by the Daniels. They tried to represent the traditional life of India as pre-modern changeless
and motionless, typified by ‘faqirs’, cows, and boats sailing on the river. While the modernizing influence of British rule, by
emphasising a picture of dramatic change.

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Clive street in Calcutta, drawn by Thomas and William Daniell, 1786

PORTRAITS OF AUTHORITY
Another tradition of art that became immensely popular in colonial India was portrait painting. The rich and the powerful,
both British and Indian, wanted to see themselves on canvas. Unlike the existing Indian tradition of painting portraits in
miniature, colonial portraits were life-size images that looked lifelike and real. The size of the paintings itself projected the
importance of the patrons who commissioned these portraits. This new style of portraiture also served as an ideal means of
displaying the lavish lifestyles, wealth and status that the empire generated.

Portrait of Governor- General Hastings with his wife in their

Belvedere estate, painted by Johann Zoffany (oil, 1784)

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Many European portrait painters came to India in search of profitable commissions. one of the most famous of the visiting
European painters was Johann Zoffany. The figures of Indian servant were shown as submissive, inferior and serving their
white masters, while the British were shown as superior and imperious: they flaunt their clothes, stand regally or sit arrogantly,
and live a life of luxury. Indinas were never at the centre of such paintings they usually occupied a shadowy background.

The Aurial and Dashwood Families of Calcutta, painted by Johann Zoffany (oil, 1784)
Many of the Indian nawabs too began commissioning imposing oil portraits by European painters. You the British posted
Residents in Indian courts and began controlling the affairs of the state, undermining the power of the king. Some of these
nawabs reacted against this interference; others accepted the political and cultural superiority of the British. They hoped to
socialise with the British, and adopt their styles and tastes. Muhammad Ali Khan was one such nawab. After a war with the
British in the 1770s he became a dependent pensioner of the East India Company. But he nonetheless commissioned two
visiting European artists, Tilly Kettle and George Willison, to paint his portraits, and gifted these paintings to the King of
England and the Directors of the East India Company. The nawab had lost political power, but the portraits allowed him to
look at himself as a royal figure.

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Portrait of Nawab Muhammad Ali Khan of Arcot,

painted by George Willison (oil, 1775)
PAINTING HISTORY:
There was a third category of imperial art, called “History Painting”. This tradition sought to dramatise and recreate various
episodes of British imperial history, and enjoyed great prestige and popularity during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. British victories in India served as rich material for history painters in Britain. These painters drew on first-hand
sketches and accounts of travellers to depict for the British public a favourable image of British actions in India. These
paintings once again celebrated the British: their power, their victories, their supremacy. One of the first of these history
paintings was produced by Francis Hayman in 1762 and placed on public display in the Vauxhall Gardens in London.

The British had just defeated Sirajuddaulah in the famous Battle of Plassey and installed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of
Murshidabad. It was a victory won through conspiracy, and the traitor Mir Jafar was awarded the title of Nawab. In the
painting by Hayman this act of aggression and conquest is not depicted. It shows Lord Clive being welcomed by Mir Hafar
and his troops after the Battle of Plassey.

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The celebration of British military triumph can be seen in the many paintings of the battle of Seringapatam (now Srirangapatnam).
Tipu Sultan of Mysore, was one of the most powerful enemies of the British. He was finally defeated in 1799 at the famous
battle of Seringapatam. The British troops were shown storming the fort from all sides, cutting Tipu’s soldier, to pieces,
climbing the walls, raising the British flag aloft on the ramparts of Tipu’s fort. It was a painting full of action and energy. The
British painting dramatises the event, and glorifies the British triumph. It was painted by Rober Kerr Porter in 1800.

Imperial history paintings sought to create a public memory of imperial triumphs. Victories had to be remembered, implanted
in the memory of people, both in India and Britain.

Lord Clive meeting Mir Jafar, Nawab of Murshidabad, after the Battle of
Plassey, painted by Francis Hayman (oil, 1762)

WHAT HAPPENED TO THE COURT ARTISTS

What happened to artists who earlier painted miniatures? How did the painters at Indian courts react to the new traditions of
imperial art?

There were different trends in different courts. In Mysore, Tipu Sultan not only fought the British on the battlefield but also
resisted the cultural traditions associated with them. He continued to encourage local traditions, and had the walls of his
palace at Seringapatam covered with mural paintings done by local artists. One such painting shows the celebration of the
famous battle of Polilur of 1780 in which Tipu and Haidar Ali defeated the English troops.

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In the court of Murshidabad we see a different trend. Here, after defeating Sirajuddaulah the British had successfully
installed their puppet Nawabs on the throne, first Mir Zafar and then Mir Qasim. The court at Murshidabad encouraged local
miniature artists to absorb the tastes and artistic styles of the British.

Local miniature artists at Murshidabad began adopting elements of European realism. They use perspective, which creates
a sense of distance between objects that are near and those at a distance. They use light and shade to make the figures look
life like and real.

With the establishment of British power many of the local courts lost their influence and wealth. They could no longer
support painters and pay them to paint for the court. How could the artists earn a living? Many of them turned to the British.

At the same time, British officials, who found the world in the colonies different from that back home, wanted images
through which they could understand India, remember their life in India, and depict India to the Western world. So we find
local painters producing a vast number of images of local plants and animals, historical buildings and monuments, festivals
and processions, trades and crafts, castes and communities. These pictures, eagerly collected by the East India Company
officials, came to be known as Company paintings.

Detail from a mural painting commissioned by Tipu Sultan at the Dariya Daulat
palace at Seringapatam, commemorating Haidar Ali’s victory over the English
army at the battle of Polilur of 1780

THE NEW POPULAR INDIAN ART

In the nineteenth century a new world of popular art developed in many of the cities of India. In Bengal, around the pilgrimage
centre of the temple of Kalighat, local village scroll painters (called patuas) and potters (called kumars in eastern India and
kumhars in north India) began developing a new style of art. Before the nineteenth century, the village patuas and kumars
had worked on mythological themes and produced images of gods and goddesses. On shifting to kalighat, they continued to
paint these religious images.

Traditionally, the figures in scroll paintings looked flat, not rounded. Now Kalighat painters began to use shading to give
them a rounded form, to make the images look three dimensional.

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This was a time when the city was expanding as a commercial and administrative centre. Colonial offices were coming up new
buildings and roads were being built, markets were being established. The city appreared as a place of ooportunity where
people could come to make a new living. Village artists too came and settled in the city in the hope of new partrons and new
buyers of their art.

Popular prints were not painted only by the poor village Kalighat patuas. Often, middle-class Indian artists set up printing
presses and produced prints for a wide market. They were trained in British art schools in new methods of life study, oil
painting and print making. One of the most successful of these presses that were set up in late-nineteenth-century Calcutta
was the Calcutta Art Studio. It produced life like images of eminent Bengali personalities as well as mythological pictures.
But these mythological pictures were realistic. The figures were located in picturesque landscape settings, with mountains,
lakes, rivers and forests. The characteristic elements of these pictures came into being in the late nineteenth century.

These types of popular pictures were printed and circulated in other parts of India too. With the spread of nationalism,
popular prints of the early twentieth century began carrying nationalist messages. In many of them Bharat Mata appearing as
a goddess carrying the national flag, or nationalist heroes sacrificing their head to the Mata, and gods and goddesses slaughtering
the British.

Bharat Mata, a popular print

PHOTOGRAPHING INDIA:
European painters created a variety of images of India. Such images were being produced by photographers as well. By the
mid-nineteenth century photographers from Europe began travelling to India, taking pictures, setting up studios, and
establishing photographic societies to promote the art of photography. Some of them were portrait painters who began taking
photographs of imperial officials, presenting them as figures of authority and power. Others travelled around the country

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searching for ruined buildings and picturesque landscapes. Yet others recorded moments of British military triumph. There
were also those who recorded the cultural diversity of India in ways that tried to show how India was a primitive country.

The Horse Regiment led by William Hodson, which played an important role in suppressing the 1857 revolt, was photographed
by Felice Bearto in 1858. The way the British officer was shown at the centre, standing in an assertive and authoritivative
way, while his soldiers gather around him exhibits superiority of British.

THE SEARCH FOR NATIONAL ART

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, a stronger connection was established between art and nationalism. Many painters
now tried to develop a style that could be considered both modern and Indian.

THE ART OF RAJA RAVI VaRMA:

Raja Ravi Varma was one of the first artists who tried to create a style that was both modern and national. Ravi Varma
belonged to the family of the Maharajas of Travancore in Kerala, and was addressed as Raja. He mastered the Western art of
oil painting and realistic life study, but painted themes from Indian mythology. He dramatised on canvas, scene after scene
from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, drawing on the theatrical performances of mythological stories that he witnessed
during his tour of the Bombay Presidency. From the 1880s, Ravi Varma’s mythological paintings became the rage among
Indian princes and art collectors, who filled their palace galleries with his works.

Responding to the huge popular appeal of such paintings, Ravi Varma decided to set up a picture production team and
printing press on the outskirts of Bombay. Here colour prints of his religious paintings were mass produced. Even the poor
could now buy these cheap prints.

Krishna Sandhan, by Raja Ravi Varma

A DIFFERENT VISION OF NATIONAL ART

In Bengal, a new group of nationalist artists gathered around Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), the nephew of Rabindranath
Tagore. They rejected the art of Ravi Varma as imitative and westernised, and declared that such a style was unsuitable for
depicting the nation’s ancient myths and legends. They felt that a genuine Indian style of painting had to draw inspiration
from non-Western art traditions, and try to capture the spiritual essence of the East. So they broke away from the convention

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of oil painting and the realistic style, and turned for inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of miniature painting and the
ancient art of mural painting in the Ajanta caves. They were also influenced by the art of Japanese artists who visited India
at that time to develop an Asian art movement.

The effort to define what ought to be an authentic Indian style of art continued. After the 1920s, a new generation of artists
began to break away from the style popularised by Abanindranath Tagore. Some saw it as sentimental, others thought that
spiritualism could not be seen as the central feature of Indian culture. They felt that artists had to explore real life instead of
illustrating ancient books, and look for inspiration from living folk art and tribal designs rather than ancient art forms. As the
debates continued, new movements of art grew and styles of art changed.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Who painted Damayanthi?
2. Who was Abnindranath Tagore?
3. Who was William Daniell?
4. What is portrait painting?
5. Who painted the painting related with the battle of Srirangapatnam?
6. Who was the famous visiting European painter selected by commissions of British government?
7. Who was Samuel Bourne? When did he come to India?
8. Who was Francis Hayman?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. What was the difference between the paintings of Raja Ravi Verma and Abnindranath Tagore?
10. Write short note on photography in India.
11. Why did the scroll painters and potters come to Kalighat? Why did they begin to paint new themes?
12. Why can we think of Raja Ravi Varma’s paintings as national?
13. What was the basic idea of national Art?
14. Write short note on portrait paintings.
15. Write short note on Daniells.
16. What does the colonial pictures and paintings show?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. Why do you think some artists wanted to develop a national style of art?
18. In what way did the British history paintings in India reflect the attitudes of imperial conquerors?
19. What was the main thinking of European painters while painting on subjects related with Indian society?
20. Why did some artists produce cheap popular prints? What influence would such prints have had on the minds of people who
looked at them?

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11
The Making of The National Movement : 1870-1947

Police teargas demonstrators during the Quit India movement

THE AWAKENING OF NATIONALISM IN INDIA

Though the elements of nationalism were known to Indians, yet it practically developed in the British period. There were
many reasons for it. The British ruled over India in their self-interest. Gradually Indians realized their motives. They were
fed up and were opporessed by alien rule. The British attempts to interfere in religion and social practices such as adoption
infuriated the Indians and their anger resulted in the armed revolt of 1857. The British crushed the revolt but they could not
crush the spirit of nationalism among Indians.

The dissatisfaction with British rule intensified in the 1870s and 1880s. The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing
Indians from possessing arms. In the same year the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an effort to silence those who
were critical of the government. The Act allowed the government to confiscate the assets of newspapers including their
printing presses if the newspapers published anything that was found “objectionable”. In 1883, there was a furore over the
attempt by the government to introduce the Ilbert Bill. The bill provided for the trial of British or European persons by
Indians, and sought equality between British and Indian judges in the country. But when white opposition forced the government
to withdraw the bill, Indians were enraged. The event highlighted the racial attitudes of the British in India.

The need for an all-India organisation of educated Indians had been felt since 1880, but the Ilbert Bill controversy deepened
this desire. The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay in
December 1885. The early leadership – Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji,
Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramaniam Iyer, among others – was largely from Bombay and Calcutta.
Naoroji, a businessman and publicist settled in London, and for a time member of the British Parliament, guided the younger
nationalists. A retired British official, A.O. Hume, also played a part in bringing Indians from the various regions together.

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A NATION IN THE MAKING

It has often been said that the Congress in the first twenty years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods. During this
period it demanded a greater voice for Indians in the government and in administration. It wanted the Legislative Councils
to be made more representative, given more power, and introduced in provinces where none existed.

Congress demanded that Indians be placed in high positions in the government. For this purpose it called for civil service
examinations to be held in India as well, not just in London.

The demand for Indianisation of the administration was part of a movement against racisim, since most important jobs at the
time were monopolised by white officials, and the British generally assumed that Indians could not be given positions of
responsibility.

Other demands included the separation of the judiciary from the executive, the repeal of the Arms Act and the freedom of
speech and expression.

The early Congress also raised a number of economic issues. It declared that British rule had led to poverty and famines,
increase in the land revenue had impoverished peasants and zamindars, and exports of grains to Europe had created food
shortages. The Congress demanded reduction of revenue, cut in military expenditure, and more funds for irrigation. It passed
many resolutions on the salt tax, treatment of Indian labourers abroad, and the sufferings of forest dwellers – caused by an
interfering forest administration. All this shows that despite being a body of the educated elite, the Congress did not talk only
on behalf of professional groups, zamindars or industrialists.

The Moderate leaders wanted to develop public awareness about the unjust nature of British rule. They published newspapers,
wrote articles, and showed how British rule was leading to the economic ruin of the country. They criticised British rule in
their speeches and sent representatives to different parts of the country to mobilise public opinion.

What was necessary, therefore, was to express these demands, and make the government aware of the feelings of Indians.

Balgangadhar Tilak

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FREEDOM IS OUR BIRTHRIGHT:

By the 1890s many Indians began to raise questions about the political style of the Congress. In Bengal, Maharashtra and
Punjab, leaders such as Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai were beginning to explore more radical
objectives and methods. They criticised the Moderates for their “politics of prayers”, and emphasised the importance of self-
reliance and constructive work. They argued that people must rely on their own strength, not on the “good” intentions of the
government; people must fight for swaraj. Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”

The Kesari a marathi news paper edited by Tilak became one of the strongest critics of British rule.

The Swadeshi movement sought to oppose British rule and encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national
education, and use of Indian languages. To fight for swaraj, the radicals advocated mass mobilisation and boycott of British
institutions and goods.

The opening decades of the twentieth century were marked by other developments as well. A group of Muslim landlords and
nawabs formed the All India Muslim League at Dacca in 1906. The League supported the partition of Bengal. It desired
separate electorates for Muslims, a demand conceded by the government in 1909.

Meanwhile, the Congress split in 1907. The Moderates were opposed to the use of boycott. The two groups reunited in
December 1915. Next year the Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact and decided to work
together for representative government in the country.

Thousands joined the demonstrations during the Swadeshi movement

Lala Lajpat Rai

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THE GROWTH OF MASS NATIONALISM

After 1919 the struggle against British rule gradually became a mass movement, involving peasants, tribals, students and
women in large numbers and occasionally factory workers as well.

The First World War altered the economic and political situation in India. It led to a huge rise in the defence expenditure of
the Government of India. The government in turn increased taxes on individual incomes and business profits. There was a
sharp rise in price which created great difficulties for the common people. The was created a demand for industrial goods
(jute bags, cloths, rails) and caused a decline of imports from other countries into India. So Indian industries expanded
during the war, and Indian business groups began to demand greater opportunities for development.

The war also lead the British to expand their army. Villages were pressurised to supply soldiers for an alien cause. A large
number of soldiers were sent to serve abroad. Many returned after the war with an understanding of the ways in which
imperialist powers were exploiting the peoples of Asia and Africa and with a desire to oppose colonial rule in India.

Furthermore, in 1917 there was a revolution in Russia. News about peasants’ and workers’ struggles and ideas of socialism
circulated widely, inspiring Indian nationalists.

THE ADVENT OF MAHATMA GANDHI:

In these circumstances Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a mass leader. Gandhiji, arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa.
Having led Indians in that country in non-violent marches against racist restrictions, he was already a respected leader,
known internationally.

Mahatma Gandhi spent his first year in India travelling throughout the country, understanding the people, their needs and the
overall situation. His earlist interventions were in local movements in Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad where he came
into contact with Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel. In Ahmedabad he led a successful millworkers’ strike in 1918.

Founders of the Natal Congress, Durban, South Africa, 1895

THE ROWLATT SATYAGRAHA:

In 1919 Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act that the British had just passed. The Act curbed
fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and strengthened police powers. Mahatma Gandhi, Mohammad Ali
Jinnah and others felt that the government had no right to restrict people’s basic freedoms.

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Gandhiji asked the Indian people to observe 6 April 1919 as a day of non-violent opposition to this Act, as a day of
“humiliation and prayer” and hartal (strike). Satyagraha Sabhas were set up to launch the movement.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha turned out to be the first all-India struggle against the British government although it was largely
restricted to cities. In April 1919 there were a number of demonstrations and hartals in the country and the government used
brutal measures to suppress them. The Jallianwala Bagh atrocities, inflicted by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day
(13 April), were a part of this repression.

On learning about the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore expressed the pain and anger of the country by renouncing his knighthood.
Mahatma Gandhi was also keen that Hindus and Muslims support each other in any just cause and they should keep unity in
such critical condition.

KHILAFAT AGITATION AND THE NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT:

The Khilafat issue was one such cause. In 1920 the British imposed a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan or Khalifa. People
were furious about this as they had been about the Jallianwala massacre. Also, Indian Muslims were keen that the Khalifa be
allowed to retain control over Muslim sacred places in the erstwhile Ottoman Empire.

The leaders of the Khilafat agitation, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, now wished to initiate a full-fledged Non-Cooperation
Movement. Gandhiji supported their call and urged the Congress to campaign against “Punjab wrongs” (Jallianwala massacre),
the Khilafat wrong and demand swaraj.

The Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum through 1921-22. Thousands of students left government controlled
schools and colleges. Many lawyers such as Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari and Asaf Ali gave up their practices.
British titles were surrendered and legislatures boycotted. People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth. The imports of foreign
cloth fell drastically between 1920 and 1922. But all this was merely the tip of the iceberg. Large parts of the country were
on the brink of a formidable revolt.

PEOPLE’S INITIATIVES:
In many cases people resisted British rule non-violently. In others, different classes and groups, interpreting Gandhiji’s call
in their own manner, protested in ways that were not in accordance with his ideas. In either case, people linked their movements
to local grievances.

In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue demand of the British. In
coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed.

In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged a number of “forest satyagrahas”, sometimes
sending their cattle into forests without paying grazing fee. They were protesting because the colonial state had restricted
their use of forest resources in various ways. They believed that Gandhiji would get their taxes reduced and have the forest
regulations abolished. In many forest villages, peasants proclaimed swaraj and believed that “Gandhi Raj” was about to be
established.

In Sind (now in Pakistan), Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call.

In Bengal too, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous communal unity and strength to the national movement.

In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants – supported by the British from their gurdwaras.
This movement got closely identified with the Non-Cooperation Movement.

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In Assam, tea garden labourers, shouting “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”, demanded a big increase in their wages. They left the
British-owned plantations amidst declarations that they were following Gandhiji’s wish. Interestingly, in the Assamese
Vaishnava songs of the period the reference to Krishna was substituted by “Gandhi Raja”.

A popular representation of Mahatma Gandhi

THE HAPPENINGS OF 1922-1929:

Mahatma Gandhi, as you know, was against violent movements. He abruptly called off the Non-Cooperation Movement
when in February 1922 a crowd of peasants set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura. Twenty two policemen were killed
on that day. The peasants were provoked because the police had fired on their peaceful demonstration.

Once the Non-Cooperation movement was over, Gandhiji’s followers stressed that the Congress must undertake constructive
work in the rural areas. Through sincere social work in villages in the mid-1920s, the Gandhians were able to extend their
support base. This proved to be very useful in launching the Civil Disobedience movement in 1930. Other leaders such as
Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru argued that the party should fight elections to the councils and enter them in order to
influence government policies.

Two important developments of the mid-1920s were the formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu
organisation, and the Communist Party of India. These parties have held very different ideas about the kind of country India
should be. The revolutionary nationalist Bhagat Singh too was active in this period.

The decade closed with the Congress resolving to fight for Purna Swaraj (complete independence) in 1929 under the
presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru. Consequently, “Independence Day” was observed on 26 January 1930 all over the
country.

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REVOLUTIONARY NATIONALIST:
Revolutionary nationalists such as Bhagat Singh and his comrades wanted to fight colonial rule and the rich exploiting
classes through a revolution of workers and peasants. For this purpose they founded the Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association (HSRA) in 1928 at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi. Members of the HSRA assassinated Saunders, a police officer
who had led a lathi charge that caused the death of Lal Lajpat Rai.

Along with his fellow nationalist B.K. Dutt, he threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929. The aim,
as their, leaflet explained, was not to kill but, “to make the deaf hear”, to remind the foreign government of its callous
exploitation. Bhagat Singh was tried and executed at the age of 23. He gave the slogan of Inquilab Zindabad.

Demonstrators oppose the Simon Commission

THE MARCH TO DANDI:

Purna Swaraj would never come on its own. It had to be fought for. In 1930, Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march
to break the salt law. According to this law, the state had a monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt. Mahatma Gandhi
along with other nationalists reasoned that it was sinful to tax salt since it is such an essential item of our food. The Salt
March related the general desire of freedom to a specific grievance shared by everybody, and thus did not divide the rich and
the poor.

Gandhiji and his followers marched for over 240 miles from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi where they broke the
government law by gathering natural salt found on the seashore, and boiling sea water to produce salt on 6 April 1930
Peasants, tribals and women participated in large numbers. A business federation published a pamphlet on the salt issue. The
government tried to crush the movement through brutal action against peaceful satyagrahis. Thousands were sent to jail.

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Mahatma Gandhi breaking the salt

law by picking up a lump of natural
salt, Dandi, 6 April 1930
The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government announced elections to the
provincial legislatures in 1937. The Congress formed governments in 7 out of 11 provinces. This was the result of combined
effort of people’s effort.

In September 1939, after two years of Congress rule in the provinces, the Second World War broke out. Critical of Hitler,
Congress leaders were ready to support the British war effort. But in return they wanted that India be granted independence
after the war. The British refused to concede the demand. The Congress ministries resigned in protest.

WOMEN IN THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE:

Women from diverse backgrounds participated in the national movement. Young and old, single and married, they came
from rural and urban areas, from both conservative and liberal homes. Their involvement was significant for the freedom
struggle, for the women’s movement, and for themselves personally.

What such participation meant for women is best recounted by them. Ambabai of Karnataka had been married at age twelve.
Widowed at sixteen, she picketed foreign cloth and lliquor shops in Udupi. She was arrested, served a sentence and was
rearrested. Between prison terms she made speeches, taught spinning, and organised prabhat pheris. Ambabai regarded
these as the happiest days of her life because they gave it a new purpose and commitment.

Women, however, had to fight for their right to participate in the movement. During the Salt Satyagraha for instance, even
Mahatma Gandhi was initially opposed to women’s participation. Sarojini Naidu had to persuade him to allow women to
join the movement. She was the first women president of Indian national congress in 1925.

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Sarojini Naidu with Mahatma Gandhi, Paris, 1931

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT AND LATER:

Mahatma Gandhi decided to initiate a new phase of movement against the British in the middle of the Second World War.
The British must quit India immediately. He gave the slogan of “do or die” in non violent way.

Gandhiji and other leaders were jailed at once but the movement spread. It specially attracted peasants and the youth who
gave up their studies to join it. Communications and symbols of state authority were attacked all over the country. In many
areas the people set up their own governments.

the first response of the British was severe repression. By the end of 1943 over 90,000 people were arrested, and around
1,000 killed in police firing.

In many areas orders were given to gun-down crowd with the help of airplanes. The rebellion, however, ultimately brought
the Raj to its knees.

BOSE AND THE INA:

A radical nationalist, with socialist leanings, Bose did not share Gandhiji’s ideal of ahimsa, though he respected him as the
“Father of the Nation”. In January 1941, he secretly left his Calcutta home, went to Singapore, via Germany, and raised the
Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA), to free India from British control. In 1944 the INA tried to invade India
through Imphal and Kohima but the campaign failed. The INA members were imprisoned and tried. People across the
country, from all walks of life, participated in the movement against the INA trials.

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TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE AND PARTITION

Meanwhile, in 1940 the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims in the north-
western and eastern areas of the country. The resolution did not mention partition or Pakistan.

From the late 1930s, the League began viewing the Muslims as a separate “nation” from the Hindus. In developing this
notion it may have been influenced by the history of tension between some Hindu and Muslim groups in the 1920s and
1930s. More importantly, the provincial elections of 1937 seemed to have convinced the League that Muslims were a
minority, and they would always have to play second fiddle in any democratic structure. It feared that Muslims may even go
unrepresented. The Congress’s rejection of the League’s desire to form a joint Congress- League government in the United
Provinces in 1937 also annoyed the League.

The Congress’s failure to mobilise the Muslim masses in the 1930s allowed the League to widen its social support. It sought
to enlarge its support in the early 1940s when most Congress leaders were in jail. At the end of the war in 1945, the British
opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India. The talks failed
because the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India’s Muslims. The Congress could not accept this claim since
a large number of Muslims still supported it.

Elections to the provinces were again held in 1946. The Congress did well in the “General” constituencies but the League’s
success in the seats reserved for Muslims was spectacular. It persisted with its demand for “Pakistan”. In March 1946 the
British cabinet sent a three-member mission to Delhi to examine this demand and to suggest a suitable political framework
for a free India. This mission suggested that India should remain united and constitute itself as a loose confederation with
some autonomy for Muslim-majority areas. But it could not get the Congress and the Muslim League to agree to specific
details of the proposal. Partition now became more or less inevitable.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Pashtun leader from the North West Frontier Province, with his colleagues at a peace
march through Bihar, March 1947 Also known as Badshah Khan, he was the founder of the Khudai Khidmatgars, a
powerful non-violent movement among the Pathans of his province. Badshah Khan was strongly opposed to the Partition of
India. He criticised his Congress colleagues for agreeing to the 1947 division.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the

Pashtun leader from the North
West Frontier Province, with
his colleagues at a peace march
through Bihar, March 1947

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After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League decided on mass agitation for winning its Pakistan demand. It
announced 16 August 1946 as “Direct Action Day”. On this day riots broke out in Calcutta, lasting several days and resulting
in the death of thousands of people. By March 1947 violence spread to different parts of northern India.

Many hundred thousand people were killed and numerous women had to face untold brutalities during the Partition. Millions
of people were forced to flee their homes. Tom saunder from their homelands, they were reduced to being refugees in alien
lands. Partition also meant that India changed, many of its cities changed, and a new country – Pakistan – was born. So, the
joy of our country’s independence from British rule came mixed with the pain and violence of Partition.

Jawaharlal Nehru listens to Mahatma Gandhi before the Bombay

session of the Congress, July 1946

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Who had written Kesari?

2. Who founded Indian National Congress?

3. When did the partition of Bengal take place?

4. Who were the members of Radical group?

5. When was the Arms Act passed?

6. Who was Sarojini Naidu?

7. When did the Non-cooperation movement take place? Which other movement joined this?

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8. Which act gave the provincial autonomy?

9. Who gave the slogan “Inquilab Zindabad”?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. Write about some revolutionary activities?

11. What was Khilafat agitation?

12. What was Illbert Bill?

13. How the Non-Cooperation Movement initiated by ther communities of India in Khera and Assam?

14. With what aim the Swadeshi movement was started?

15. Who was Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan?

16. What was Rowlatt satyagraha?

17. What was INA? Who founded it?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

18. How was the politics of Radicals within the Congress different from that of the Moderates?

19. How did the Moderates struggle against British rule?

20. Discuss the various forms that the Non-cooperation movement took in different parts of India. How did the people understand
Gandhiji?

21. Discuss those developments of the 1937-47 period that led to the creation of Pakistan?

22. Why did Gandhiji choose to break the salt law?

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12
India After Independence

A NEW AND DIVIDED NATION

When India became independent in August 1947, it faced a series of very great challenges. As a result of Partition, 8 million
refugees had come into the country from what was now Pakistan. These people had to be found homes and jobs. Then there
was the problem of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be
persuaded to join the new nation.

The problems of the refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed immediately. In the longer term, the new nation
had to adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes and expectations of its population.

Thousands gathered on the occasion of the flag hoisting ceremony at the

Red Fort on 15 August 1947

PROBLEM OF DIVERSITY:
India’s population in 1947 was large, almost 345 million. It was also divided. There were divisions between high castes and
low castes, between the majority Hindu community and Indians who practised other faiths. The citizens of this vast land
spoke many different languages, wore many different kinds of dress, eat different kinds of food and practised different
professions.

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PROBLEM OF DEVELOPMENT:
To the problem of unity was added the problem of development. At Independence, the vast majority of Indians lived in the
villages. Farmers and peasants depended on the monsoon for their survival. So did the non-farm sector of the rural economy,
for if the crops failed, barbers, carpenters, weavers and other service groups would not get paid for their services either. In
the cities, factory workers lived in crowded slums with little access to education or health care. Clearly, the new nation had
to lift its masses out of poverty by increasing the productivity of agriculture and by promoting new, job-creating industries.

Unity and development had to go hand in hand. If the divisions between different sections of India were not healed, they
could result in violent and costly conflicts – high castes fighting with low castes, Hindus with Muslims and so on. At the
same time, if the fruits of economic development did not reach the broad masses of the population, it could create fresh
divisions – for example, between the rich and the poor, between cities and the countryside, between regions of India that
were prosperous and regions that lagged behind.

A CONSTITUTION IS WRITTEN
Between December 1946 and November 1949, some three hundred Indians had a series of meetings on the country’s political
future. The meetings of this “Constituent Assembly” were held in New Delhi, but the participants came from all over India,
and from different political parties. These discussions resulted in the framing of the Indian Constitution, which was adopted
on 26 January 1950. Jawahar Lal nehru introduced the resolution that outlined the objectives of the constitution.

Jawaharlal Nehru introducing the resolution that outlined the objectives of the Constitution

ADULT FRANCHISE:
One feature of the Constitution was its adoption of universal adult franchise. All Indians above the age of 21 would be
allowed to vote in state and national elections, (Now a days 18 years). This was a revolutionary step for never before had
Indians been allowed to choose their own leaders. Unlike to United Kingdom and the United States, where right had been
granted in stages. India chose to grant this right to all its citizen regardless of gender, class or education soon after Independence.

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EQUALITY:
A second feature of the Constitution was that it guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens, regardless of their caste or
religious affiliation. There were some Indians who wished that the political system of the new nation be based on Hindu
ideals, and that India itself be run as a Hindu state. They pointed to the example of Pakistan, a country created explicitly to
protect and further the interests of a particular religious community – the Muslims. However, the Indian Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru, was of the opinion that India could not and must not become a “Hindu Pakistan”.

Besides Muslims, India also had large populations of Sikhs and Christians, as well as many Parsis and Jains. Under the new
Constitution, they would have the same rights and opportunities as Hindus.

PRIVILEGES TO WEAKER SECTION:

A third feature of the Constitution was that it offered special privileges for the poorest and most disadvantaged Indians. The
practice of untouchability, a blot of Hindu society.

Hindu temples, previously open to only the higher castes, were thrown’ open to all, including the former untouchables. After
a long debate, the Constitutent Assembly also recommended that a certain percentage of seats in legislatures as well as jobs
in government be reserved for members of hte lowest castes. It had been argued by some that Untouchable or as they were
now known, Harijan, candidates did not have good enough grades to get into the prestigious Indian Administrative Service.
But, as one member of the Constituent Assembly, H.J. Khandekar, argued, it was the upper castes who were responsible for
the Harijans and supported their rights.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891-1956), respectfully referred to as Babasaheb, belonged to a Marathi-speaking dalit family. A
lawyer and economist, he is best known as a revered leader of the Dalits and the father of the Indian Constitution. He also
supported their rights.

Along with the former Untouchables, the adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted reservation in seats and jobs. Like
the Scheduled Castes, these Indians too had been deprived and discriminated against. The tribals had been deprived of
modern health care and education, while their lands and forests had been taken away by more powerful outsides. The new
privileges granted them by the Constitution were meant to make amends for this.

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FEDERAL FEATURES:
The Constituent Assembly spent many days discussing the powers of the central government versus those of the state
governments. Some members thought that the Centre’s interests should be foremost. Only a strong Centre, it was argued,
“would be in a position to think and plan for the well-being of the country as a whole”. Other members felt that the provincess
should have greater autonomy and freedom.

The Constitution sought to balance these competing claims by providing three lists of subjects: a Union List, with subjects
such as taxes, defence and foreign affairs, which would be the exclusive responsibility of the Centre; a State List of subjects,
such as education and health, which would be taken care of principally by the states; a Concurrent List, under which would
come subjects such as forests and agriculture, in which the Centre and the state would have joint responsibility.
Another major debate in the Constituent Assembly concerned language. Many members believed that the English language
should leave India with the British rulers. Its place, they argued, should be taken by Hindi. However, those who did not speak
Hindi were of a different opinion. Speaking in the Assembly, T.T. Krishnamachari conveyed “a warning on behalf of people
of the South”, some of whom threatened to separate from India if Hindi was imposed on them. A compromise was finally
arrived at: namely, that while Hindi would be the “official language” of India, English would be used in the courts, the
services, and communications between one state and another.
Many Indians contributed to the framing of the Constitution. But perhaps the most important role was played by Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, who was Chairman of the Drafting Committee, and under whose supervision the document was finalished.
In his final speech to the Constituent Assembly, Dr. Ambedkar pointed out that political democracy had to be accompanied
by economic and social democracy. Giving the right to vote would not automatically lead to the removal of other inequalities
such as between rich and poor, or between upper and lower castes.
With the new Constitution, in politics we will be recognising the principle of one man one vote and one value. In our social
and economic life, we shall, by reason of our social and economic structure, continue to deny the principle of one man one
value.

HOW WERE STATES TO BE FORMED?

Back in the 1920s, the Indian National Congress – the main party of the freedom struggle – had promised that once the
country won independence, each major linguistic group would have its own province. However, after independence the
Congress did not take any steps to honour this promise. For India had been divided on the basis of religion: despite the
wishes and efforts of Mahatma Gandhi, freedom had come not to one nation but to two. As a result of the partition of India,
more than a million people had been killed in riots between Hindus and Muslims. Could the country afford further divisions
on the basis of language.

Both Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Vallabhbhai Patel were against the creation of linguistic states.

Patel put it in these words: the first and last need of India at the present moment is that it should be made a nation “Everything
which helps the growth of nationalism has to go forward and everything which throws obstacles in its way has to be rejected.”

The people were stubborn that the Congress leaders would now go back on their promise created great disappointment. The
Kannada speakers, Malayalam speakers, the Marathi speakers, had all looked forward to having their own state. The strongest
protests, however, came from the Telugu-speaking districts of what was the madras presidency. When Nehru went to campaign
there during the general elections of 1952, he was met with black flags and slogans demanding “We want Andhra”. Sriramulu
the Gandhain leader died fasting for the telugu speakers the central government was forced to give in to the demand. Thus,
on 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra Pradesh came into being.

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After the creation of Andhra, other linguistic communities also demanded their own separate states. A States Reorganisation
Commission was set up, which submitted its report in 1956, recommending the redrawing of district and provincial boundaries
to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively. The
large Hindi-speaking region of north India was broken up into several states. A little later, in 1960, the bilingual state of
Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati speakers. In 1966, the state of Punjab was also divided
into Punjab and Haryana, the former for the Punjabi speakers (who were also mostly Sikhs), the latter for the rest (who spoke
not Punjabi but versions of Haryanvi or Hindi).

Lifting India and Indians out of poverty, and building a modern technical and industrial base were among the major objectives
of the new nation. In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for
economic development. There was a broad agreement on what was called a “mixed economy” model. Here, both the State
and the private sector would play important and complementary roles in increasing production and generating jobs. What,
specifically, these roles were to be- which industries should be initiated by the state and which by the market, how to achieve
a balance between the different regions and states- was to be defined by the Planning Commission.

In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated. This focused strongly on the development of heavy industries such as
steel, and on the building of large dams. These sectors would be under the control of the state. This focus on heavy industry,
and the effort at state regulation of the economy was to guide economic policy for the next few decades. This approach had
many strong supporters, as well as critics.

Some of them wanted development in various other fields also such as agriculture, Primary education. In 1949 Mira Behn
warned the environmental implications of economic policies.

THE SEARCH FOR AN INDEPENDENT FOREIGN POLICY:

India gained freedom soon after the devastations of the Second World War At that lime a new International body -the United
Nations -formed in 1945 was In Its infancy. The 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of the Cold War, that is, power rivalries
and ideological conflicts between the USA and the USSR, with both countries creating military alliances This was also the
period when colonial empires were collapsing and many countries were attaining Independence, Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru, who was also the foreign minister of newly independent India developed free India's foreign policy in this context.
Non-alignment formed the bedrock of this foreign policy Krishna Menon led the Indian delegation to the UN between 1952
and 1962 and argued for a policy of non-alignment.

Led by statesmen from Egypt, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Ghana and India, the non-aligned movement urged countries not to
join either of the two major alliances. But this policy of staying away from alliances was not a matter of remaining 'isolated"
or "neutral". The former means remaining aloof from world affairs whereas non-aligned countries such as India played an
active role in mediating between the American and soviet alliances. They tried to prevent war -often taking a humanitarian
and moral stand against war. However, for one reason or another, many non-aligned countries including India got involved
in wars.

Leaders of Asian and African countries met at Bandung (Indonesia) in 1955. Over 29 newly independent states participated
In this famous conference to discuss how Afro-Asian nations could continue to oppose colonialism and Western domination.

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THE NATION, SIXTY YEARS ON:

On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its existence as a free nation.

India is still united, and that it is still democratic, are achievements that we might justly be proud of. Many foreign observers
had felt that India could not survive as a single country, that it would break up into many parts, with each region or linguistic
group seeking to form a nation of its own. Others believed that it would come under military rule. However, as many as
thirteen general elections have been held since Independence, as well as hundreds of state and local elections. There is a free
press, as well as an independent judiciary. Finally, the fact that people speak different languages or practise different faiths
has not come in the way of national unity.

On the other hand, deep divisions persist. Oespite constitutional guarantees, the Untouchables or, as they are now referred
to, the Dalits, face violence and discrimination. And despite the secular ideals enshrined in the Constitution, there have been
clashes between different religious groups in many states. The gulf between the rich and the poor has grown over the years.

Some parts of India and some groups of Indians have benefited a great deal from economic development. They live in large
houses and dine in expensive restaurants, send their children to expensive private schools and take expensive foreign holidays.
At the same time many others continue to live below the poverty line. Houses in urban slums, or living in remote villages on
lands that yield little, they cannot afford to send their children to school.

The Constitution recognises equality before the law, but in real life some Indians are more equal than others. Judged by the
standards it set itself at Independence, the Republic of India has not been a great success. But it has not been a failure either.

The bridge on the Mahanadi river constructed to control the flow of water

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Who was the last Viceroy of Indian Origin?
2. Name three problems that the newly independent nation of India faced.
3. What was the basis of division of states?
4. Write three features of Indian constitution?
5. Who warned about south in constituent assembly and why?
6. What was the reason of partition of India?
7. Who was Mira Behn?
8. Who participated at Bandung in 1955?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. Write the federal features of constitution.
10. What were princely states? How they were ruled?
11. Give one reason why English continued to be used in India after Independence?
12. How will you interpret equality according to constitution?
13. What was the role of the Planning Commission?
14. After Independence, why was there a reluctance to divide the country on linguistic lines?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

15. Write in brief about Constituent Assembly of India.
16. Evaluate achievement of India after independence.
17. What did Dr. Ambedkar mean when he said that “in politics we will have equality, and in social and economic life we will have
inequality”?
18. How was the economic development of India visualised in the early decades after Independence?

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 Geography

1
Resources
INTRODUCTION
A resource is a source or supply, support or aid, especially one that can be readily drawn upon when needed. Resources, the
collective wealth of a country or its means of producing wealth.

RESOURCES
1. Any thing that can be used to satisfy human need is a resource.

2. Utility or usability is what makes an object or substance a resource.

3. Any physical material becomes a resource when humans find them useful and attach some value to it, such as rocks,
minerals, soils, rivers, plants and animals.

4. By developing human skills only, other resources can be developed.

5. The things become resources only when they have a value.

6. Time and technology are two important factors that can change substances into resources. For example discovery
of fire led to the practice of cooking.

TYPES OF RESOURCES
Resources are generally classified into Natural, Human made and Human.

NATURAL RESOURCES:
Resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much modification are called natural resources. The air we breathe,
the water in our rivers and lakes, the soils, minerals are all natural resources. Many of these resources are free gifts of nature
and can be used directly.

Natural resources are classified into different groups depending upon their level of development and use; origin; stock and
distribution.

On the basis of their development and use resources can be classified into two groups, actual resources and potential
resources.

Actual resources are those resources whose quantity is known. These resources are being used in the present. The rich
deposits of coal in Ruhr region of Germany and petroleum in the West Asia, the dark soils of the Deccan plateau in Maharashtra
are all actual resources.

Potential resources are those whose entire quantity may not be known and these are not being used at present. These
resources could be used in the future.

The level of technology we have at present may not be advanced enough to easily utilise these resources. The uranium found
in Ladakh is an example of potential resource that could be used in the future. High speed winds were a potential resource
two hundred years ago. Today they are an actual resource and wind farms generate energy using windmills like in Netherlands.

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Windmills
Based on their origin, resources can be abiotic or biotic. Abiotic resources are non-living while biotic resources are living.
Soils, rocks and minerals are abiotic but plants and animals are biotic resources.

Natural resources can be broadly categorised into renewable and non-renewable resources.

Renewable resources are those which get renewed or replenished quickly. Some of these are unlimited and are not affected
by human activities, such as solar and wind energy.

Non-renewable resources are those which have a limited stock. Once the stocks are exhausted it may take thousands of
years to be renewed or replenished. Since this period is much more than human life spans, such resources are considered
non-renewable. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are some examples.

On the basis of their distribution resources can be ubiquitous or localised. Resources that are found everywhere like the air
we breathe, are ubiquitous. But those which are found only in certain places are localised, like copper and iron ore.

The distribution of natural resources depends upon number of physical factors like terrain, climate and altitude. The distribution
of resources is unequal because these factors differ so much over the earth.

HUMAN MADE RESOURCES:

Sometimes, natural substances become resources only when their original form has been changed. Iron ore was not a resource
until people learnt to extract iron from it. People use natural resources to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery and
vehicles, which are known as human made resources. Technology is also a human made resource.

HUMAN RESOURCES:
People can make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have the knowledge, skill and the technology to
do so. That is why human beings are a special resource. People are human resources. Education and health help in making
people a valuable resource. Improving the quality of people’s skills so that they are able to create more resources is known
as human resource development.

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CONSERVING RESOURCES
Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation. Balancing the need to use
resources and also conserve them for the future is called sustainable development. There are many ways of conserving
resources. Each person can contribute by reducing consumption, recycling and reusing thing. Ultimately it makes a difference
because all our lives are linked.

The future of our planet and its people is linked with our ability to maintain and preserve the life support system that nature
provides. Therefore it is our duty to ensure that.

• all uses of renewable resources are sustainable

• the diversity of life on the earth is conserved

• the damage to natural environmental system is minimised.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. How Humas is formed?

2. Give two examples of human made resources?

3. Mention the resources which get used up with the passage of time?

4. Name any five Renewable resources?

5. What are the four values associated with resource?

6. What do you mean be reserve resource?

7. What causes the degradation or depletion of many valuable resources?

8. Why are resources distributed unequally over the earth?

9. Name three categories of resources?

10. Which is the most important natural resource available to man?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

11. What are the factors which determine the utility of resources?

12. Why is land an important resource for the human being?

13. Describe with examples ‘natural resources’?

14. Explain with examples the resources having ‘aesthetic value’ and ‘ethical value’?

15. What is meant by human made resources?

16. ‘Developed countries’ use more resources than developing countries. Comment.

17. How does technology help in the development of resources?

18. How are resources classified on the basis of stages of development?

19. Classify resources on the basis of their continued availability?

20. Why is human resource considered very crucial?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

21. How can sustainable development be achieved?

22. What are the causes of depletion of many valuable resources?

23. On what different bases have the resources been classified? Explain the categories briefly.

24. What do you understand by sustainable development? Why is it necessary for people on our earth?

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2
Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources
LAND
Land is among the most important natural resources. It covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of the earth’s surface
and all parts of this small percentage are not habitable.

The uneven distribution of population in different parts of the world is mainly due to varied characteristics of land and
climate. The rugged topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to water logging, desert areas,
thick forested areas are normally sparsely populated or uninhabited. Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture.
Hence, these are the densely populated areas of the world.

LAND USE:
Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries.
This is commonly termed as Land use.

The use of land is determined by physical factors such as topography, soil, climate, minerals and availability of water.
Human factors such as population and technology are also important determinants of land use pattern.
Pe rce ntage of are a in
C ountrie s
C ropland Pasture F ore st Othe r Use
Aust ralia 6 56 14 24
Brazil 9 20 66 5
Canada 5 4 39 52
China 10 33 14 42
F ranc e 35 21 27 17
India 57 4 22 17
Japan 12 2 67 19
Russia 8 5 44 44
UK 29 46 10 16
USA 21 26 32 21
World 11 26 31 32

Land can also be divided on the basis of private land and community land. Private land is owned by individuals whereas,
community land is owned by the community for common uses like collection of fodder, fruits, nuts or medicinal herbs. These
community lands are also called common property resources.

People and their demands are ever growing but the availability of land is limited. The quality of land also differs from place
to place. People started encroaching the common lands to build up commercial areas, housing complexes in the urban areas
and to expand the agricultural land in the rural areas.

Today the vast changes in the land use pattern also reflect the cultural changes in our society. Land degradation, landslides,
soil erosion, desertification are the major threats to the environment because of the expansion of agriculture and constructional
activities.

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CONSERVATION OF LAND RESOURCES:

Growing population and their ever growing demand has led to a large scale destruction of forest cover and arable land and
has created a fear of losing this natural resource. Therefore, the present rate of degradation of land resources must be
checked. Afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of chemical pesticide and fertilisers and checks on overgrazing are
some of the common methods used to conserve land.

(1) (2)

(3) (4)
Change in land use over time
Landslids: Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They often take place
in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. A prolonged spell of rainfall can cause heavy landslide that can block
the flow of river for quite some time. The formation of river blocks can cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its
bursting. In the hilly terrain landslides have been a major and widely spread natural disaster that often strike life and property
and occupy a position of major concern.

SOIL
The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called soil. It is closely linked to land. Landforms
determine the type of soil. Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on the earth. This happens
through the process of weathering. The right mix of minerals and organic matter make the soil fertile.

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Top soil with humus and vegetation

Sub soil with sand, silt and clay

Weathered rock material

Parent rock

Soil Profile
FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION:
The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock and climatic factors. Other factors are the topography, role
of organic material and time taken for the composition of soil formation. All these differ from place to place.

Parent Rock Climate

Determines colour, Temperature,
texture, chemical Rainfall influence
properties
SOIL rate of
mineral, content, weathering
permeability and human

Relief Flora, Fauna and Time

Altitude and Micro-organism Determines
slope, determine thickness
Affect the rate of
accumulation of soil
humus formation
of soil profile

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

DEGRADATION OF SOIL AND CONSERVATION MEASURES:

Factors which lead to soil degradation are deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical feritilisers or pesticides, rain wash,
landslides and floods.

Some methods of soil conservation are

Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.
Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to
collect water.
Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
Terrace farming: These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce
surface run-off and soil erosion.

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Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.

Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down the slope.

Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover.

WATER
Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Three fourth’s of the earth’s surface is covered with water. It is therefore
appropriately called the ‘water planet’.

The oceans cover two-thirds of the earth’s surface and support a rich variety of plant and animal life. The ocean water is
however saline and not fit for human consumption. Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly 70 per cent of
this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions. Due to their location they are inaccessible.
Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found as ground water, as surface water in rivers and
lakes and as water vapour in the atmosphere.

Fresh water is therefore, the most precious substance on earth. Water can neither be added nor subtracted from the earth. Its
total volume remains constant. Its abundance only seems to vary because it is in constant motion, cycling through the oceans,
the air, the land and back again, through the processes of evaporation, precipitation and run-off. This is referred to as the
‘water cycle’.

RPOBLEMS OF WATER AVAILABILITY:

There is scarcity of water in many regions of the world. Most of Africa, West Asia, South Asia, parts of western USA, north-
west Mexico, parts of South America and entire Australia are facing shortages in fresh water supply.

Countries located in climatic zones most susceptible to droughts face great problems of water scarcity. Thus, water shortage
may be a consequence of variation in seasonal or annual precipitation or the scarcity is caused by overexploitation and
contamination of water sources.

CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES:

Access to clean and adequate water sources is a major problem facing the world today. Steps have to be taken to conserve
this dwindling resource. Even though water is a renewable resource, its overuse and pollution make it unfit for use.

Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents in water bodies are major
contaminants. They pollute water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.

Most of these chemicals being non-biodegradable reach human bodies through water. Water pollution can be controlled by
treating these effluents suitably before releasing them in water bodies.

Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and replenish underground water. Water harvesting is another
method to save surface runoff. Water is used for irrigating fields. The canals should be properly lined to minimise losses by
water seepage. Sprinklers effectively irrigate the area by checking water losses through seepage and evaporation. In dry
regions with high rates of evaporation, drip or trickle irrigation is very useful. The valuable water resource can therefore be
conserved by adopting these means of conservation.

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Yamuna is getting polluted due

to sewage, industrial effluents
and garbage

NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE:

Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere
that we call biosphere.

In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent on each other for survival. This life supporting system is
known as the ecosystem.

Vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources. Plants provide us with timber, give shelter to animals, produce oxygen we
breathe, protects soils so essential for growing crops, act as shelter belts, help in storage of underground water, give us fruits,
nuts, latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants and also the paper that is so essential for your studies.

Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects as well as the aquatic life forms. They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool. Insects
like bees provide us honey, help in pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem.
The birds feed on insects and act as decomposers as well. Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger
and considered a vital cleanser of the environment. So animals big or small, all are integral to maintaining balance in the
ecosystem.

Silk Worms Brahma Kamal A Blue Kingfisher

a Medicinal Herb

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DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION:

The major vegetation types of the world are grouped as forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra.

In areas of heavy rainfall, huge trees may thrive. The forests are thus associated with areas having abundant water supply.
As the amount of moisture decreases the size of trees and their density reduces.

In the regions of moderate rainfall short stunted trees and grasses grow forming the grasslands of the world. In dry areas of
low rainfall, thorny shrubs and scrubs grow. In such areas plants have deep roots and leaves have thorny and waxy surface to
reduce loss of moisture by transpiration. Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions comprise of mosses and lichens.

Forests are broadly classified as evergreen and deciduous depending on when they shed their leaves.

Evergreen forests do not shed their leaves simultaneously in any season of the year. Deciduous forests shed their leaves in a
particular season to conserve loss of moisture through transpiration. These forests are further classified as tropical or temperate
based on their location in different latitudes.

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE:

Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the ecosystem. Changes of climate and human interferences can
cause the loss of natural habitats for the plants and animals. Many species have become vulnerable or endangered and some
are on the verge of extinction. Deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami and landslides are
some of the human made and natural factors which together accelerate the process of extinction of these great natural
resources.

One of the major concerns is the increasing incidents of poaching that result in a sharp decline in the number of particular
species. The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns as well as feathers. Some
of these animals are tiger, lion, elephant, deer, black buck, crocodile, rhinoceros, snow leopard, ostrich and peacock. These
can be conserved by increasing awareness.

National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, biosphere reserves are made to protect our natural vegetation and wildlife. Conservation
of creeks, lakes, and wetlands is necessary to save the precious resource from depletion.

Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanamohatasava should be encouraged at the regional and community
level. School children should be encouraged for bird watching and visiting nature camps so that they appreciate the habitat
of varied species.

Many countries have passed laws declaring that the trades as well as killing of birds and animals are illegal. In India, killing
of lions, tigers, deers, great Indian bustards and peacocks have been banned.

An international convention CITES has been established that lists several species of animals and birds in which trade is
prohibited. Conservation of plants and animals is an ethical duty of every citizen.

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Loss of rainforest in Great Nicobar after Tsunami

Elephant herd in Kaziranga National Park

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What is Parent rock?

2. What are natural resources?

3. What is meant by wildlife?

4. Name two factors that influence plant growth.

5. In what way we can check soil erosion from wind action in a dry region?

6. Give some uses of water.

7. What is humuns and why is it useful for soil?

8. List three factors responsible for soil erosion.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. What do you mean by land use? State five ways in which land can be used.

10. What are Physical & Human factors responsible for destruction of soil?

11. Why is all the water available not fit for human use?

12. Explain how soil erosion can be prevented.

13. Suggest three ways to conserve plant and wild life.

14. How can we improve the quality of Water?

15. Describe the factors that influence land use pattern.

16. Name way two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and animals.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. What are the types of forests?

18. What is the importance of soil? State the factors that govern the formation of soil?

19. Why is the distribution of water resource uneven in the world? What are the problems or reasons of water pollution?

20. What are the factors responsible for soil degradation? How can we conserve it?

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3
Mineral And Power Resources
WHAT ARE MINERALS?
A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition is a mineral. Minerals are not evenly distributed
over space. They are concentrated in a particular area or rock formations. Some minerals are found in areas which are not
easily accessible such as the Arctic ocean bed and Antarctica.
Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying conditions. They are created by natural
processes without any human interference. They can be identified on the basis of their physical properties such as colour,
density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility.

Loading of a truck in a coal mine

TYPES OF MINERALS
On the basis of composition, minerals are classified mainly as metallic and non-metallic minerals.

Minerals

Metallic Non-metallic

Ferrous Non-ferrous

The metallic minerals contain metal in raw form. Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have a
characteristic lustre or shine. Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore are some examples.

Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous minerals like iron ore, manganese and chromites contain iron. A
non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.

The non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. Limestone, mica and gypsum are examples of such minerals. The mineral
fuels like coal and petroleum are also non-metallic minerals.

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EXTRACTION OF MINERALS
Minerals can be extracted by mining, drilling or quarrying.

Extraction of Minerals

Mining Drilling Quarrying

Open cast Shaft

mining mining

The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s surface is called mining.

Off shore drilling of oil

Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this is known as open-cast mining.

Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. Deep wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling.

Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known as quarrying.

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS
Minerals occur in different types of rocks. Some are found in igneous rocks, some in metamorphic rocks while others occur
in sedimentary rocks. Generally, metallic minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations that form large
plateaus. Iron-ore in north Sweden, copper and nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada, iron, nickel, chromites and platinum in
South Africa are examples of minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Sedimentary rock formations of plains and young fold mountains contain non-metallic minerals like limestone. Limestone
deposits of Caucasus region of France, manganese deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and phosphate beds of Algeria are some
examples. Mineral fuels such as coal and petroleum are also found in the sedimentary strata.

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ASIA
China, Malaysia and Indonesia are among the world’s leading tin producers. China also leads in production of lead, antimony
and tungsten. Asia also has deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc and copper.

World: Distribution of Iron, Copper and Bauxite

EUROPE
Europe is the leading producer of iron-ore in the world. The countries with large deposits of iron ore are Russia, Ukraine,
Sweden and France. Minerals deposits of copper, lead, zinc, manganese and nickel are found in eastern Europe and Euro-
pean Russia.

NORTH AMERICA
The mineral deposits in North America are located in three zones: the Canadian region north of the Great Lakes, the Appa-
lachian region and the mountain ranges of the west. Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium and copper are mined in the Canadian
Shield Region, coal in the Appalachians region. Western Cordilleras have vast deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver.

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World: Distribution of Mineral Oil and Coal

SOUTH AMERICA
Brazil is the largest producer of high grade iron-ore in the world. Chile and Peru are leading producers of copper. Brazil and
Bolivia are among the world’s largest producers of tin. South America also has large deposits of gold, silver, zinc, chromium,
manganese, bauxite, mica, platinum, asbestos and diamond. Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru and
Columbia.

AFRICA
Africa is rich in mineral resources. It is the world’s largest producer of diamonds, gold and platinum. South Africa, Zimba-
bwe and Zaire produce a large portion of the world’s gold. The other minerals found in Africa are copper, iron ore, chro-
mium, uranium, cobalt and bauxite. Oil is found in Nigeria, Libya and Angola.

AUSTRALIA
Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world. It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin and nickel. It
is also rich in copper, lead, zinc and manganese. Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of western Australia have the largest
deposits of gold.

ANTARTICA
The geology of Antarctica is sufficiently well known to predict the existence of a variety of mineral deposits, some probably
large. Significant size of deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of East
Antarctica is forecasted. Iron ore, gold, silver and oil are also present in commercial quantities.

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DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA
Iron: India has deposits of high grade iron ore. The mineral is found mainly in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Bauxite: Major bauxite producing areas are Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu.
Mica: Mica deposits mainly occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is the largest producer and
exporter of mica in the world.
Copper: It is mainly produced in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Manganese: India’s manganese deposits lie in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
Limestone: Major limestone producing states in India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan,
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Gold: Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. These mines are among the deepest in the world which makes mining
of this ore a very expensive process.
Salt: It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. India is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of salt.

USES OF MINERALS
Minerals are used in many industries. Minerals which are used for gems are usually hard. These are then set in various styles
for jewellery. Copper is another metal used in everything from coins to pipes. Silicon, used in the computer industry is
obtained from quartz. Aluminum obtained from its ore bauxite is used in automobiles and airplanes, bottling industry,
buildings and even in kitchen cookware.

COSERVATION OF MINERALS
Minerals are a non-renewable resource. The rate of formation is much smaller than the rate at which the humans consume
these minerals. It is necessary to reduce wastage in the process of mining. Recycling of metals is another way in which the
mineral resources can be conserved.

WAYS TO CONSERVE MINERALS:

(i) Recycling: It means using descarded materials once again. Many metals like Iron, Gold, Copper and Aluminium
become reusable through recycling.
(ii) Avoid Wastage: Minerals can be conserved by using efficient methods of extraction and processing and by avoid-
ing wastage. Saving can be done at consumption level also.
(iii) Substitutes: In recent years biodegradable plastics and other substitutes have been used to conserve mineral
resources.

POWER RESOURCES
Energy is an indispensable requirement in modern life. It may be manual or animal and mechanical or electrical. Electricity is
used to operate various kinds of machines. Availability of energy is a pre-requisite of modern economic activities. There are
several sources of energy: some of them are coal, petroleum, natural gas, solar energy, wind energy and hydel energy.
Sources of energy are categorised as conventional and non-convetional. Conventional sources of energy are those which
have been in common use for a long time. Firewood and fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources.

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CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

OIL NATURAL GAS

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages

Easier to transport Depletion of oxygen due to Easier to transport
(tankers) oil spillage and gas leakage (Pipelines)
Basis of petrochemical Pollutants released caused Cleaner than oil
industry acid rain and coal
Exploration of new fuel is Cheaper than oil
not easy

CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

Fire Wood Coal

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Easy access Collection is time Extensively available Polluting source
consuming
Provides energy to a Efficient conversion Bulky to transport
large number of people Polluting to electricity
Promoting green
house effect
Deforestation

Hydel Power
Advantages Disadvantages
Non-polluting Displacement of
local community
Promotes irrigation
and fishing Inundates low
Cheap Expensive to setup

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National Power Grid to supply Electricity

CONVENTIONAL SOURCES:
Conventional sources of energy are those which have been in common use for a long time. Firewood and fossil fuels are the
two main conventional energy sources.

FIREWOOD:
It is widely used for cooking and heating. In our country more than fifty per cent of the energy used by villagers comes from
fire wood.

Remains of plants and animals which were buried under the earth for millions of years got converted by the heat and pressure
into fossil fuels. Fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are the main sources of conventional energy. The reserves
of these minerals are limited. The rate at which the growing world population is consuming them is far greater than the rate
of their formation. So, these are likely to be exhausted soon.

COAL:
This is the most abundantly found fossil fuel. It is used as a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron and steel, steam engines
and to generate electricity. Electricity from coal is called thermal power.

The coal which we are using today was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the
layers of earth. Coal is therefore referred to as Buried Sunshine.

The leading coal producers of the world are China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa and France. The coal producing
areas of India are Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand.

PETROLEUM:
It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located in off-shore and coastal areas. This is then sent
to refineries which process the crude oil and produce a variety of products like diesel, petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics and
lubricants.

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Petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold as they are very valuable. The chief petroleum producing countries are
Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The other major producers are USA, Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria. The leading producers
in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.

NATURAL GAS:
Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is brought to the surface. It can be used as a
domestic and industrial fuel. Russia, Norway, UK and the Netherlands are the major producers of natural gas.

In India Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas resources.

The sharp increase in our consumption of fossil fuels has led to their depletion at an alarming rate. The toxic pollutants
released from burning these fuels are also a cause for concern. Unchecked burning of fossil fuel is like an unchecked
dripping tap which will eventually run dry. This has led to the tapping of various non-conventional sources of energy that are
cleaner alternatives to fossil fuels.

HYDEL POWER
Rain water or river water stored in dams is made to fall from heights. The falling water flows through pipes inside the dam
over turbine blades placed at the bottom of the dam. The moving blades then turn the generator to produce electricity. This
is called hydro electricity.

One fourth of the world’s electricity is produced by hydel power. The leading producers of hydel power in the world are
Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and China. Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra Nangal, Gandhi Sagar,
Nagarjunsagar and Damodar valley projects.

Hydel Power

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NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

The increasing use of fossil fuels is leading to its shortage.

Moreover, their use also causes environmental pollution. Therefore, there is need for using non-conventional sources such
as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy which are renewable.

SOLAR ENERGY:
Sun’s heat and light energy can be felt by us every day. Solar energy trapped from the sun can be used in solar cells to
produce electricity. Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to generate power for heating and lighting purpose.

The technology of utilising solar energy benefits a lot of tropical countries that are blessed with abundant sun shine. Solar
energy is also used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers besides being used for community lighting and traffic signals.

Solar Panels to trap solar energy

WIND ENERGY:
Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. Wind mills have been used for grinding grain and lifting water since times
immemorial. In modern time wind mills, the high speed winds rotate the wind mill which is connected to a generator to
produce electricity.

Wind farms having clusters of such wind mills are located in coastal regions and in mountain passes where strong and steady
winds blow. Windfarms are found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA and Spain are noted for their wind energy
production.

NULCEAR POWER:
Nuclear power is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radio active elements like
uranium and thorium. These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit power. The greatest producers of
nuclear power are USA and Europe. In India Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found in
large quantities in the Monazite sands of Kerala. The nuclear power stations in India are located in Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu,
Tarapur in Maharastra, Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan, Narora in Uttar Pradesh and Kaiga in Karnataka.

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Hot water
Nuclear Generator
reactor Steam Turbine

Electricity
produced

Heat from fission

NUCLEAR ENERGY

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:
Heat energy obtained from the earth is called geothermal energy. The temperature in the interior of the earth rises steadily as
we go deeper. Some times this heat energy may surface itself in the form of hot springs. This heat energy can be used to
generate power. Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs has been used for cooking, heating and bathing for several
years. USA has the world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, Philippines and Central
America. In India, geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.

Geothermal Energy

TIDAL ENERGY:
Energy generated from tides is called tidal energy. Tidal energy can be harnessed by building dams at narrow openings of the
sea. During high tide the energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam to produce electricity. Russia,
France and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms.

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Low tidal energy is used to produce electricity

Tidal Energy

BIOGAS:
Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel
called biogas. The organic waste is decomposed by bacteria in biogas digesters to emit biogas which is essentially a mixture
of methane and carbon dioxide. Biogas is an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting and produces huge amount of organic
manure each year.

Biogas

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is Photovoltaic technique?

2. What are metallic minerals?

3. Why are coal, mineral oil and natural gas called fossil fuels?

4. List three alternative source of energy?

5. What are minerals?

6. Name the source of power?

7. What is a mine?

8. Which countries are the largest consumer of copper, Aluminium and Nickel.

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SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. What is geothermal energy? Where is the geothermal plant set up in India?

10. Describe the three basic ways through which energy is obtained.

11. What is solar energy? How can it be trapped?

12. Explain what is meant by placer deposits?

13. Distinguish between biogas and natural gas.

14. What are conventional sources of energy?

15. Give reasons-Petroleum is referred to as “black gold”.

16. Quarrying can become a major environmental concern-comment.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. How can we conserve the mineral and power resources?

18. Write in brief the conservation of mineral and power resources.

19. Write a note on non conventional sources of energy.

20. Distinguish between metallic and nonmetallic minerals.

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4
Agriculture
TYPES OF ACTIVITIES
All those activities which gives us income are called economic activities. There are three types of economic activities. These
are primary, secondary and Tertiary activities.

(i) Primary activities: It includes all those connected with extraction and production of natural resources. Such as
agriculture, fishing and gathering.

(ii) Secondary activities: Such activities are concerned with the processing of these resources. Manufacturing of steel,
baking of breadand weaving.

(iii) Tertiary activities: These activities provide support to the primary and secondary sector through services, transport,
trade, banking, insurance and advertising.

AGRICULTURE:
(i) The word agriculture is derived from Latin words ‘ager’ or ‘agri’ meaning soil and ‘culture’ meaning, cultivation or
tilling of soil. Agriculture is a primary activity. It includes growing crops, fruits, vegetables, flowers and rearing of
livestock. In the world, 50 percent of persons are engaged in agricultural activity. Two thirds of India’s population
is still dependent on agriculture.

(ii) Favorable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural activity. The land on which the crops are gown is
known as arable land. Agricultural activity is concentrated in those regions of the world where suitable factors for
the growing of crops exist.

World Distribution of Arable Land

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FARM SYSTEM
Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system. The important inputs are seeds, fertilisers, machinery and labour. Some
of the operations involved are ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding and harvesting. The outputs from the system include
crops, wool, dairy and poultry products.

The farm system of an arable farm Physical and human farm inputs

TYPES OF FARMING
SUBSISTENCE FARMING:
This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the farmer’s family. Traditionally, low levels of technology and
household labour are used to produce on small output. Subsistence farming can be further classified as intensive subsistence
and primitive subsistence farming.

In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour. Climate
with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permit growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot.
Rice is the main crop. Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds. Intensive subsistence agriculture is prevalent
in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia.

Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.

Shifting cultivation is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia and
Northeast India. These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation. A plot of land is cleared by
felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize, yam, potatoes and cassava
are grown. After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting cultivation
is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.

Nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like Rajasthan
and Jammu and Kashmir.

In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and water, along defined routes.
This type of movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain. Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly
reared. They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products to the herders and their families.

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COMMERCIAL FARMING:
In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market. The area cultivated and the amount of
capital used is large. Most of the work is done by machines. Commercial farming includes commercial grain farming, mixed
farming and plantation agriculture.

In commercial grain farming crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are common commercially grown
grains. Major areas where commercial grain farming is pracised are temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and
Asia. These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares. Severe winters restrict the
growing season and only a single crop can be grown.

In mixed farming the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock. It is practised in Europe, eastern
USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton
are grown. Large amount of labour and capital are required. The produce may be processed on the farm itself or in nearby
factories. The development of a transport network is thus essential for such farming.

Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world. Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri
Lanka are some examples.

A Sugarcane plantation

MAJOR CROPS:
Major food crops are wheat, rice, maize and millets. Jute and cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and
coffee.

1. Rice: Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Rice
needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water.
China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and Egypt. In favourable climatic conditions
as in West Bengal and Bangladesh two to three crops are grown in a year.

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Rice Cultivation
2. Wheat: Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine at the time of
harvest. It thrives best in well drained loamy soil. Wheat is grown extensively in USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia,
Ukraine, Australia and India. In India it is grown in winter.

Wheat Harvesting
3. Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It is a hardy crop
that needs low rainfall and high to moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in
India. Other countries are Nigeria, China and Niger.

Bajra Cultivation

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4. Maize: Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine. It needs well-drained fertile soils.
Maize is grown in North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.

Maize Cultivation
5. Cotton: Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-free days and bright sunshine
for its growth. It grows best on black and alluvial soils. China, USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil and Egypt are the
leading producers of cotton. It is one of the main raw materials for the cotton textile industry.

Cotton Cultivation
6. Coffee: Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well- drained loamy soil. Hill slopes are more suitable for
growth of this crop. Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.

Coffee Plantation

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7. Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations. This requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall
throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves.

Tea Plantation
8. Jute: Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’. It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy
rainfall and humid climate. This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the leading producers
of jute.

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT
Agricultural Development refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of
increasing population. This can be achieved in many ways such as increasing the cropped area, the number of crops grown,
improving irrigation facilities, use of fertilisers and high yielding variety of seeds. Mechanisation of agriculture is also
another aspect of agricultural development. The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security.
Agriculture has developed at different places in different parts of the world. Developing countries with large populations
usually practise intensive agriculture where crops are grown on small holdings mostly for subsistence. Larger holdings are
more suitable for commercial agriculture as in USA, Canada and Australia. With the help of two case studies of farms — one
from India and the other from the USA.
A FARM IN INDIA
(i) The size of an average farm is very small. This is chiefly due to the repeated division of a plot among the heirs of the
cultivator generation after generation.
(ii) The land is intensively cultivated. Double cropping and multiple cropping are common.
(iii) The farm produce is used mainly for self sustenance and there is very little surplus.
(iv) The use of machines is very limited. Most farmers are too poor to afford expensive farm machinery. As the density
of population is high, manual labour is cheap and is widely used in farm operations.
(v) There is limited use of chemical fertilisers, pesticides, improved seeds and modern methods of farming. This is partly
due to lack of awareness and partly due to poverty.
(vi) There has been limited development of pastoral farming and mixed farming. The farm is used mainly for growing
food. As the land is usually not used for growing fodder, farm animals are fed on farm wastes. No special provisions
are made for housing these animals of caring for them.
(vii) The farm is usually managed by illiterate farmers. Schemes are now being introduced to raise their level of awareness.

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(viii) The yield of crops are generally low.

Farmers ploughing a field

A FARM IN USA:
(i) The average size of a farm in the USA is much larger than that of an Indian farm. A typical farm size in the USA is
about 250 hectares. This is because land is abundant and cheap.
(ii) The extensive type of agriculture is practised. Single-cropping is the usual practise, with scope for growing fodder
crops.
(iii) Agriculture is commercial. Most of the produce is sold. As the local demand is small, there is a large surplus, which
is exported.
(iv) Farms are highly mechanised, most operations being performed by machines. As farms are large, the use of machines
is a necessity. Also, manual labour is scarce and hence expensive.
(v) High-yielding varieties of seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides and modern methods of farming are used. As the
farmers are wealthy, they can easily afford these. However, due to the adverse effects of chemicals, farmers are now
switching to ecofriendly methods.
(vi) Animals are reared using scientific methods, both on ranches and on dairy farms. Mixed farming is common, which
is a boon to farmers in the event of a crop failure. Fodder crops are grown to feed farm animals.
(vii) Tech farm is managed by well-educated farmers, who are aware of the latest techniques and development in the
field of agriculture and the conditions prevailing in the market.
(viii) The yield per acre is lower than in many other countries, but the yield per worker is high.
(ix) The farmer in USA works like a businessman and not like a peasant farmer.

INTERSTING FACT
1. Organic farming is a type of farming in which organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of chemicals.
No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.

2. Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different types of the world. For e.g. Jhumming in North-East
India, Milpa in Mexico and Ladang in Malaysia.

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3. Maize is also known as corn. Various colourful varieties of maize are found across the world.

4. There are different versions about the discovery of coffee. In about AD 850. Kaldi, an Arab goat-herder, who was
puzzled by the queer antics of his flock, tasted the berris of the evergreen bush on which the goats were feeding. On
experiencing a sense of exhilaration, he proclaimed his discovery to the world.

5. Food security exists when all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is agriculture?
2. Name the factors influencing agriculture?
3. What is Jhum?
4. Name the supplementary forms of farming.
5. What climatic conditions are required in tea plantation.
6. Name three major rice producing countries.
7. What is commercial farming?
8. What is mixed farming?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. Mention the climatic conditions and types of soils required for wheat and cotton.
10. Write in brief about commercial grain farming.
11. What are the reasons for higher production of wheat in the U.S.A.?
12. Write about nomadic herding.
13. What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages?
14. What is plantation agriculture?
15. Name the beverage crops. Discuss the climatic conditions required for their growth.
16. Differentiate between
(i) Subsistence farming and commercial farming
(ii) Extensive farming and intensive farming

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. Compare the agricultural development of developed and developing countries with the help of case study of farms from
U.S.A. and India.
18. Name the major agricultural types and explain any one of them.

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5
Industries
SECONDARY OR MANUFACTURING ACTIVITIES
Secondary activities or manufacturing change raw materials into products of more value to people. As you have seen pulp
was changed into paper and paper into a note book. These represent the two stages of the manufacturing process.
The paper made from pulp and cloth made from cotton have had value added to them at each stage of the manufacturing
process. In this way the finished product has more value and utility than the raw material that it is made from.
Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the provision of
services. Thus we have iron and steel industry (production of goods), coal mining industry (extraction of coal) and tourism
industry (service provider).

CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES
Classification of Industries

On the basis of On the basis On the basis

raw material of size of ownership

Agro based Marine

Small scale Large scale
industries based Private Public Joint Co-operative
industries industries
sector sector sector sector
Mineral based Forest
industries based

ON THE BASIS OF RAW MATERIALS:

(i) Agro based industries use plant and animal based products as their raw materials. Food processing, vegetable oil,
cotton textile, dairy products and leather industries are examples of agro based industries.
(ii) Mineral based industries are primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw materials. The products of these
industries feed other industries. Iron made from iron ore is the product of mineral based industry. This is used as raw
material for the manufacture of a number of other products, such as heavy machinery, building materials and
railways coaches.
(iii) Marine based industries use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials. Industries processing sea food or
manufacturing fish oil are some examples.
(iv) Forest based industries utilise forest produce as raw materials. The industries associated with forests are pulp and
paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture and buildings.

ON THE BASIS OF SIZE:

This classification refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the volume of production.
(i) Small scale industries: Cottage or household industries are a type of small scale industry where the products are
manufactured by hand, by the artisans. Basket weaving, pottery and other handicrafts are examples of cottage
industry. Small scale industries use lesser amount of capital and technology as compared to large scale industries.
Silk weaving and food processing industries are small scale industries.

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(ii) Large Scale industries: Produce large volumes of products. Investment of capital is higher and the technology
used is superior. Production of automobiles and heavy machinery are large scale industries.

ON THE BASIS OF OWNERSHIP:

Industries can be classified into private sector, state owned or public sector, Joint sector and cooperative.
(i) Private Sector Industries: Are owned and operated by individuals of a group of individuals.
(ii) Public sector Industries: Are owned and operated by the government, such as Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and
Steel Authority of India Limited.
(iii) Joint Sector Industries: Are owned and operated by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. Maruti
Udyog Limited is an example of joint sector industry.
(iv) Co-operative Sector Industries: Are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers of
both. Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha Dairy are success stories of a co-operative venture.

FACTORS AFFECTING LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES

The factors affecting the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport
and market.

Industries are situated where some or all of these factors are easily available. Sometimes, the government provides incentives
like subsidised power, lower transport cost and other infrastructure so that industries may be located in backward areas.
Industrialisation often leads to development and growth of towns and cities.

Raw Material

Power Labour

Land Capital

Transport Market

INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM
An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs. The inputs are the raw materials, labour and costs of land,
transport, power and other infrastructure. The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw material into
finished products.
The outputs are the end product and the income earned from it. In case of the textile industry the inputs may be cotton, human
labour, factory and transport cost. The processes include ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing and printing. The output is the
shirt you wear.

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INDUSTRIAL REGIONS
Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern
Asia. Major industrial regions tend to be located in the temperate areas, near sea ports and especially near coal fields.

India has several industrial regions like Mumbai- Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil Nadu region, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-
Baroda region, Chottanagpur industrial belt, Vishakhapatnam-Guntur belt, Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut region and the Kollam-
Thiruvanathapuram industrial cluster.

World’s Industrial Regions

DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIES

The world’s major industries are the iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the information technology industry. The
iron and steel and textile industry are the older industries while information technology is an emerging industry.

The countries in which iron and steel industry is located are Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia. Textile industry is
concentrated in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan. The major hubs of Information technology industry are
the Silicon valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India.

IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES:

This is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries. Steel is tough and it can easily be
shaped, cut, or made into wire. Special alloys of steel can be made by adding small amounts of other metals such as
aluminium, nickel, and copper. Alloys give steel unusual hardness, toughness or ability to resist rust. Steel is often called the
backbone of modern industry. Almost everything we use is either made of iron of steel or has been made with tools and
machinery of these metals.

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Manufacturing of steel
The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial development in India. Almost all sectors
of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic infrastructure.

The Indian iron and steel industry consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. It also includes second-
ary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.

In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport and market. All the
important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in a region
that spreads over four states - West Bengal, Jharkhand Orissa and Chhattisgarh, Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka,
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. Salem in Tamil Nadu are other important steel centres utilising local resources. India’s
steel production increased from one million tonne in 1947 to 30 million tonnes in 2002.

TATA IRON AND STEEL COMPANY, JAMSHEDPUR

Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO). It was
privately owned.

After Independence, the government took the initiative and set up several iron and steel plants. TISCO was started in 1907
at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai in Jharkhand. Later on Sakchi was renamed as
Jamshedpur. Geographically, Jamshedpur is the most conveniently situated iron and steel centre in the country.

Sakchi was chosen to set up the steel plant for several reasons. This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the
Bengal-Nagpur railway line. It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which provided
a large market. TISCO, gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese from Odisha and
Chhattisgarh. The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient water supply. Government initiatives provided ad-
equate capital for its later development.

The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial development in India. Almost all sectors
of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic infrastructure. The Indian iron and steel
industry consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. It also includes secondary producers, rolling mills
and ancillary industries.

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World: Major Iron Ore Producing Areas

PITTSBURGH:
The processing of iron in Pittsburgh began in the late eighteenth century, and by 1850 Pittsburgh came to be known as the
‘Iron City’. The first steel plants in the USA were set up here in the 1870s. The steel industry at Pittsburgh enjoys locational
advantages.

(i) Some of the raw material such as coal is available locally, while the iron ore comes from the iron mines at Minne-
sota; about 1500 km from Pittsburgh.

(ii) Between these mines and Pittsburgh is one of the world’s best routes for shipping ore cheaply the famous Great
Lakes waterway. Trains carries the ore from the Great Lakes to the Pittsburgh area.

(iii) The Ohio, the Monogahela and Allegheny rivers provide adequate water supply.

(iv) Today, very few of the large steel mills are in Pittsburgh itself. They are located in the valleys of the Monogahela
and Allegheny rivers above Pittsburgh and along the Ohio River below it.

(v) Finished steel is transported to the market by both land and water routes.

(vi) The Pittsburgh area has many factories other than steel milles. These use steel as their raw material to make many
different products such as railroad equipment, heavy machinery and rails.

COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The textile industry can be divided on the basis of raw materials used in them. Fibres are the raw material of textile industry.
Fibres can be natural or man-made. Natural fibres are obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute. Man made fibres
include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.

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The cotton textile industry is one of the oldest industries in the world. Till the industrial revolution in the 18th century, cotton
cloth was made using hand spinning techniques (wheels) and looms. In 18th century power looms facilitated the develop-
ment of cotton textile industry, first in Britain and later in other parts of the world. Today India, China, Japan and the USA
are important producers of cotton textiles.

India has a glorious tradition of producing excellent quality cotton textiles. Before the British rule, Indian hand spun and
hand woven cloth already had a wide market. The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and
Gold-wrought cotton of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design.

The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854. The warm, moist climate, a port for
importing machinery, availability of raw material and skilled labour resulted in rapid expansion of the industry in the region.

Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable humid climate. But today,
humidity can be created artificially, and raw cotton is a pure and not weight losing raw material, so this industry has spread
to other parts of India. Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Puducherry and Panipat
are some of the other important centres.

World : Major cotton textile manufacturing regions

AHMEDABAD:
It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati river. The first mill was established in 1859. It soon became the second
largest textile city of India, after Mumbai. Ahmedabad was therefore often referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.

Ahmedabad is situated very close to cotton growing area. This ensures easy availability of raw material. The climate is ideal
for spinning and weaving. The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the mills. The
densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both skilled and semi-skilled labour. Well developed road and
railway network permits easy transportation of textiles to different parts of the country, thus providing easy access to the
market. Mumbai port nearby facilitates import of machinery and export of cotton textiles.

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OSAKA:
It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’. The textile industry developed in Osaka
due to several geographical factors.

The extensive plain around Osaka ensured that land was easily available for the growth of cotton mills. Warm humid climate
is well suited to spinning and weaving. The river Yodo provides sufficient water for the mills. Labour is easily available.
Location of port facilitates import of raw cotton and for exporting textiles.

The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials. Cotton is imported from Egypt, India, China
and USA. The finished product is mostly exported and has a good market due to good quality and low price. Though it is one
of the important textile cities in the country, of late, the cotton textile industry of Osaka has been replaced by other industries,
such as iron and steel, machinery, shipbuilding, automobiles, electrical equipment and cement.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT)

The information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution of information. Today, this industry
has become global. This is due to a series of technological, political, and socio-economic events. The main factors guiding
the location of these industries are resource availability, cost and infrastructure. The major hubs of the IT industry are the
Silicon Valley, California and Bengaluru, India.

Bengaluru is located on the Deccan Plateau from where it gets the name ‘Silicon Plateau’. The city is known for its mild
climate throughout the year. Silicon Valley, is a part of Santa Clara Valley, located next to the Rocky Mountains of North
America.

There are other emerging information technology hubs in metropolitan centres of India such as Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad
and Chennai. Other cities such as Gurgaon, Pune, Thiruvanthapuram, Kochi and Chandigarh are also important centres of
the IT industry. However, Bengaluru has always had a unique advantage, as a city with highest availability of middle and top
management talent.

A View of an IT industry

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by Cottage Industries?

2. Name the major industrial regions of the world.

3. Name the countries where iron and steel industry is located.

4. Classify the industries on the basis of ownership.

5. In which countries do the major hubs of Information Technology industry lie?

6. Which countries are the important producers of cotton textiles?

7. Where are the technological hubs situated?

8. Write the names of great lakes of North America.

9. Which material is the back bone of modern industry.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. Name the major industrial regions of India.

11. Mention the inputs of iron and steel industry.

12. Why Pittsburgh become the centre for industries?

13. What do you understand by secondary activities? Explain with the help of example.

14. What is the difference between public sector and private sector industry?

15. Why has the cotton textile industry spread to different parts of the country?

16. Why have been textile mills been closed down in Ahmedabad?

17. Write a few characteristic of steel.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

18. How can industries be classified on the basis of raw materials? Explain each one of them.

19. Why was Sakchi chosen to set up the steel plant (TISCO)? Give reasons.

20. Describe the locational advantages of Pittsburgh steel city in the United States of America.

21. Describe the favourable locational factors that were responsible for the development of the Information Technology industry
in Silicon valley and Bangalore.

22. Distinguish between large scale and small scale industries.

23. What do you understand by Industrial System? Explain with the help of an example.

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6
Human Resources
INTRODUCTION
Human resources is used to describe both the people who work for a company or organization and the department responsible
for managing resources related to employees. People are a nation’s greates resource. A country may have abundant and
varied natural resources such as minerals, water and fertile soil. But it needs people to utilise these resources. Nature’s
bounty becomes significant only when people find it useful. It is people with their demands and abilities that turn them into
‘resources’. People are, therefore considered to be the most important resource of a country. This resource is known as
Human resource. The all-round development of a country depends not so much on the size of the population as on the skills,
awareness, technical knowledge, health, etc., of the people. Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources as
per their requirements. Human resources like other resources are not equally distributed over the world. They differ in their
educational levels, age and sex. Their numbers and characteristics also keep changing.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
The way in which people are spread across the earth surface is known as the pattern of population distribution. More than 90
per cent of the world’s population lives in about 30 per cent of the land surface.

World population by continents

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Some areas are very crowded and some are sparely populated. The crowded areas are south and south east Asia, Europe and
north eastern North America. Very few people live in high latitude areas, tropical deserts, high mountains and areas of
equatorial forests.

Almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in two continents Asia and Africa. Sixty per cent of the world’s people stay
in just 10 countries. All of them have more than a 100 million people.

DENSITY OF POPULATION
Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface. It is normally expressed as per square
km. The average density of population in the whole world is 51 persons per square km. South Central Asia has the highest
density of population followed by East and South East Asia.

World’s most populous countries

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

GEOGRAPHICAL FACTORS:
1. Topography: People always prefer to live on plains rather than mountains and plateaus because these areas are
suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities. The Ganga plains are the most densely populated areas
of the world while mountains like Andes, Alps and Himalayas are sparsely populated.

2. Climate: People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold like Sahara desert, polar regions of
Russia, Canada and Antarctica.

3. Soil: Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture. Fertile plains such as Ganga and Brahmaputra in India,
Hwang-He, Chang Jiang in China and the Nile in Egypt are densely populated.

4. Water: People prefer to live in the areas where fresh water is easily available. The river valleys of the world are
densely populated while deserts have spare population.

5. Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated. Diamond mines of South Africa and discovery of oil in
the Middle east lead to settling of people in these areas.

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SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS:

1. Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated e.g., Pune.

2. Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance attract people. Varanasi, Jerusalem and Vatican city are
some examples.

3. Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number of people are attracted to these
areas. Osaka in Japan and Mumbai in India are two densely populated areas.

POPULATION CHANGE
The population change refers to change in the number of people during a specific time. The world population has not been
stable because it is the result of changing in number of Births and Deaths.

Until the 1800s, the world’s population grew steadily but slowly. Large numbers of babies were born, but they died early too.
This was as there were no proper health facilities. Sufficient food was not available for all the people. Farmers were not able
to produce enough to meet the food requirements of all the people. As a result the total increase in population was very low.

In 1804, the world’s population reached one billion. A hundred and fifty five years later, in 1959, the world’s population
reached 3 billion. This is often called population explosion. In 1999, 40 years later, the population doubled to 6 billion. The
main reason for this growth was that with better food supplies and medicine, deaths were reducing, while the number of
births still remained fairly high.

World: Differing rates of population growth

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Births are usually measured using the birth rate i.e. the number of live births per 1,000 people. Deaths are usually measured
using the death rate i.e. the number of deaths per 1,000 people. Migrations is the movement of people in and out of an area.
Births and deaths are the natural causes of population change. The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a
country is called the natural growth rate.

Migration is another way by which population size changes. People may move within a country or between countries.
Emigrants are people who leave a country; Immigrants are those who arrive in a country.

Countries like the United States of America and Australia have gained in-numbers by in-migration or immigration. Sudan is
an example of a country that has experienced a loss in population numbers due to out-migration or emigration.

PATTERNS OF POPULATION CHANGE

Rates of population growth vary across the world. Although, the world’s total population is rising rapidly, not all countries
are experiencing this growth. Some countries like Kenya have high population growth rates. They had both high birth rates
and death rates. Now, with improving health care, death rates have fallen, but birth rates still remain high leading to high
growth rates.
In other countries like United Kingdom, population growth is slowing because of both low death and low birth rates.

POPULATION COMPOSITION
Population composition refers to the structure of the population. The composition of population helps us to know how many
are males or females, which age group they belong to, how educated they are and what type of occupations they are employed
in, what their income levels and health conditions are.
1. Sex Ratio: Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per thousand males in the population. In our country, sex
ratio has remined favourable to the makes. The sex ratio in India was 933(2001).
2. Age Composition: Age composition of population is usually expressed in terms of three broad age-groups, children
below the working age (below 15 years), persons in the working age (15 to 59 years) and old person above the
working age (above 59 years).
3. Occupational Structure: The occupational structure of a country refers to the distribution of its people according
to different occupations. These are primary, secondary and tertiary activities. Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry,
fishery etc. are collectively known as primary activities. They are primary because, here production is carried on
with the help of nature. Manufacturing industries are known as secondary activities. Transport, Communications,
Banking Services, etc. are called tertiary activities. There is a close relationship between development of economy
and occupational structure. The higher the proportion of population in secondary and tertiary activities, the higher
is level of inocme. Higher dependence of population on agriculture or primary activities results in lower levels of
income.
4. Literacy: A person, who is able to read and write with certain understanding and is of seven years of age and above,
is called literate. The term literacy is generally related to schooling - formal and non - formal. The literacy level in
India was around 65.35 per cent (2001). Around 75 per cent of males and 54 per cent of females are literate in our
country today.

POPULATION PYRAMID
An interesting way of studying the population composition of a country is by looking at the population pyramid, also called
an age-sex pyramid.

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Population Pyramid

Population Pyramid of Kenya Population Pyramid of India Population Pyramid of Japan

A POPULATION PRYAMID SHOWS:

1. The shape of the population pyramid tells the story of the people living in that particular country.

The numbers of children (below 15 years) are at the bottom and reflect the level of births. The size of the top shows
the numbers of aged people (above 65 years) and reflects the number of deaths. The population pyramid also tells
us how many dependents are there in a country.

2. The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates both are high is broad at the base and rapidly
narrows towards the top. This is because although, many children are born, a large percentage of them die when
they are infant, relatively few become adults and there are very few old people. This situation is typified by the
pyramid shown for Kenya.

3. In countries where death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreaisng, the pyramid is broad in the
younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood. Such populations contain a relatively large number
fo young people and which means a strong and expanding labour force. This type of situation is found in India.

4. In countries like Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base. Decreased death rates allow numbers
of people to reach old age.

Skilled, spirited and hopeful young people endowed with a positive outlook are the future of any nation. We in India are
fortunate to have such a resource. They must be educated and provided skills and opportunities to become able and productive.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is HDI?

2. What is the average density of population in India?

3. What is migration?

4. Which are the most crowded areas of the world?

5. What is natural growth rate?

6. Which are the two groups of dependents in a population?

7. Which type of population do the countries like Japan have?

8. Why do people prefer to live on plains?

9. Distinguish between birth rate and death rate.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. Which aspects of population do the composition of population help us to know?

11. Which type of population pyramid does India have?

12. What is the average density of population of the world? Which part of the world have the highest density of population?

13. What are the factors responsible for the population growth?

14. Are population composition and economic development related to each other. Give an example in support of your answer.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

15. Until the 1800s, the world’s population grew steadily but slowly. Give reasons.

16. What are the patterns of population change?

17. What are the geographical factor which affects the growth of population?

18. Explain how social, cultural and economic factors affect the distribution of population?

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1
The Indian Constitution

MEANING OF CONSTITUTION
The Constitution lays down the basic structure of the government under which its people are to be governed. The Constitution
is a fundamental legal document according to which the government of a country functions. A Constitution is superior to all
the laws of a country. Every law enacted by the government machinery has to be in conformity with the Constitution.

FARMING OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION:

The Cabinet Mission came to India in 1945 and discussed the framework for the Constitution and laid down some details of
the procedure to be followed by the constitution making body. Elections for the 296 seats assigned to the British Indian
provinces were completed by July-August 1946. With the independence of India, the Constitutent Assembly became a fully
sovereign body. The Assembly started working from the ningth-day of December 1946. The Assembly had the benefit of a
galaxy of outstanding leaders. Their farsightedness and visionary statesmanship found expression in the Constitution which
is the supreme law of the land. Dr. Rajendra prasad was elected President of the Constitutent Assembly. A drafting Committee
was appointed to draft the Constitution. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was appointed the Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The
Constituent Assembly met for 166 days spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days. The Constitution was passed
by the Assembly on 26 November 1949. It came into being on 26 January 1950.

In 1934, the Indian National Congress made

the demand for a Constituent Assembly

WHY DOES A COUNTRY NEED A CONSTITUTION?

Today most countries in the world have a Constitution. While all democratic countries are likely to have a Constitution, it is
not necessary that all countries that have a Constitution are democratic.

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The Constitution serves several purposes. First, it lays out certain ideals that form the basis of the kind of country that we as
citizens aspire to live in. Or, put another way, a Constitution tells us what the fundamental nature of our society is. A country
is usually made up of different communities of people who share certain beliefs but may not necessarily agree on all issues.
A Constitution helps serve as a set of rules and principles that all persons in a country can agree upon as the basis of the way
in which they want the country to be governed. This includes not only the type of government but also an agreement on
certain ideals that they all believe the country should uphold.

WHAT HAPPENED IN NEPAL?

Until quite recently, Nepal was a monarchy. The previous Constitution of Nepal, which had been adopted in 1990, reflected
the fact that the final authority rested with the King. A people’s movement in Nepal fought for several decades to establish
democracy and in 2006 they finally succeeded in putting an end to the powers of the King.

Now the people have to write a new Constitution to establish Nepal as a democracy. The reason that they do not want to
continue with the previous Constitution is because it does not reflect the ideals of the country that they want Nepal to be, and
that they have fought for.

Nepal, by moving from a monarchy to a democratic government, needs to change all its constitutive rules in order to usher
in a new society. This is why, the people of Nepal are in the process of writing a new Constitution for the country. The caption
alongside elaborates Nepal’s struggle for democracy.

The second important purpose of a Constitution is to define the nature of a country’s political system. For example, Nepal’s
earlier Constitution stated that the country was to be ruled by the King and his council of ministers. In countries that have
adopted a democratic form of government or polity, the Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out certain important
guidelines that govern decision-making within these societies.

In a democracy, we choose our leaders so that they can exercise power responsibly on our behalf. However, there is always
the possibility that these leaders might misuse their authority and the Constitution usually provides safeguards against this.
This misuse of authority can result in gross injustice.

In democratic societies, the Constitution often lays down rules that guard against this misuse of authority by our political
leaders. the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to equality to all persons and says that no citizen can be discriminated
against on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender, and place of birth. The Right to Equality is one of the Fundamental Rights
guaranteed by the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution usually contains rules that ensure that minorities are not excluded from anything that is routinely available
to the majority. Another reason why we have a Constitution is precisely to prevent this tyranny or domination by the majority
of a minority. This can refer to one community dominating another, i.e. inter-community domination, or members of one
community dominating others within the same community, i.e. intra-community domination.

The third significant reason why we need a Constitution is to save us from ourselves. This may sound strange but what is
meant by this is that we might at times feel strongly about an issue that might go against our larger interests and the Constitution
helps us guard against this.

The Constitution helps to protect us against certain decisions that we might take that could have an adverse effect on the
larger principles that the country believes in. For example, it is possible that many people who live in a democracy might
come to strongly feel that party politics has become so acrimonious that we need a strong dictator to set this right. Swept by
this emotion, they may not realise that in the long run, dictatorial rule goes against all their interests. A good Constitution

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does not allow these whims to change its basic structure. It does not allow for the easy overthrow of provisions that
guarantee rights of citizens and protect their freedom.

Baba Saheb
Dr Ambedkar

THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION: KEY FEATURES

The long experience of authoritarian rule under the colonial state convinced Indians that free India should be a democracy in
which everyone should be treated equally and be allowed to participate in government. What remained to be done then was
to work out the ways in which a democratic government would be set up in India and the rules that would determine its
functioning. This was done not by one person but by a group of around 300 people who became members of the Constituent
Assembly in 1946 and who met periodically for the next three years to write India’s Constitution.

1. Federalism: This refers to the existence of more than one level of government in the country. In India, we have
governments at the state level and at the centre.

The vast number of communities in India meant that a system of government needed to be devised that did not
involve only persons sitting in the capital city of New Delhi and making decisions for everyone. Instead, it was
important to have another level of government in the states so that decisions could be made for that particular area.
While each state in India enjoys autonomy in exercising powers on certain issues, subjects of national concern
require that all of these states follow the laws of the central government. The Constitution contains lists that detail
the issues that each tier of government can make laws on.

In addition, the Constitution also specifies where each tier of government can get the money from for the work that
it does. Under federalism, the states are not merely agents of the federal government but draw their authority from
the Constitution as well. All persons in India are governed by laws and policies made by each of these levels of
government.

2. Parliamentary Form of Government: The Constitution of India guarantees universal adult suffrage for all citizens.
When they were making the Constitution, the members of the Constituent Assembly felt that the freedom struggle
had prepared the masses for universal adult suffrage and that this would help encourage a democratic mindset and
break the clutches of traditional caste, class and gender hierarchies. This means that the people of India have a
direct role in electing their representatives. Also, every citizen of the country, irrespective of his/her social background,
can also contest in elections. These representatives are accountable to the people.

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Austin, G. 1966. The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a

Nation. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
3. Separation of Powers: According to the Constitution, there are three organs of government. These are the legislature,
the executive and the judiciary. The legislature refers to our elected representatives. The executive is a smaller
group of people who are responsible for implementing laws and running the government.

In order to prevent the misuse of power by any one branch of government, the Constitution says that each of these
organs should exercise different powers. Through this, each organ acts as a check on the other organs of government
and this ensures the balance of power between all three.

4. Fundamental Rights: The section on Fundamental Rights has often been referred to as the ‘conscience’ of the
Indian Constitution. Colonial rule had created a certain suspicion of the State in the minds of the nationalists and
they wanted to ensure that a set of written rights would guard against the misuse of State power in independent
India.

Fundamental Rights, therefore, protect citizens against the arbitrary and absolute exercise of power by the State.
The Constitution, thus, guarantees the rights of individuals against the State as well as against other individuals.

Moreover, the various minority communities also expressed the need for the Constitution to include rights that
would protect their groups. The Constitution, therefore, also guarantees the rights of minorities against the majority.
As Dr Ambedkar has said about these Fundamental Rights, their object is two-fold. The first objective is that every
citizen must be in a position to claim those rights. And secondly, these rights must be binding upon every authority
that has got the power to make laws.

In addition to Fundamental Rights, the Constitution also has a section called Directive Principles of State Policy.
This section was designed by the members of the Constituent Assembly to ensure greater social and economic
reforms, and to serve as a guide to the independent Indian State to institute laws and policies that help reduce the
poverty of the masses.

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5. Secularism: A secular state is one in which the state does not officially promote any one religion as the state
religion.

The Constitution plays a crucial role in laying out the ideals that we would like all citizens of the country to adhere
to, including the representatives that we elect to rule us. Just like in the game of football, a change of constitutive
rules will affect the game. Indian Constitution has been amended over the years to reflect new concerns of the polity.
Often a major change in the Constitution means a change in the fundamental nature of the country. We saw this in
the case of Nepal and how it needs to adopt a new Constitution after it has recently become a democratic society.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Who was the first President of Constitutent Assembly? 14. What is the importance of Fundamental Rights for the
2. How many freedoms are given in the right to freedom? citizens?
3. What is the majority group? 15. What is the meaning of secular state?
4. How many fundamental rights are given to Indian
16. What are cultural and educational rights?
citizen?
5. In how many lists the powers are divided in the Indian 17. Write about the democratic nature of Indian
Constitution? government.
6. How many subject are there in concurrent list?
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
7. What is Adult Franchise?
8. What was the aim of the people’s movement in Nepal? 18. What are the Federal features of Indian Constitution?

9. What is the right against exploitation? 19. Write about separation of powers in Indian
Constitution?
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
20. Explain briefly the right to equality.
10. How India protects the minority?
21. Why do we need a Cosntitution?
11. Write about the Nepal’s struggle for democracy.
12. What are fundamental rights?
13. How the right to freedom of religion is protected in
India?

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2
Understanding Secularism

WHAT IS SECULARISM?
Indian constitution contains fundamental rights that protect us against state power as well as against the tyranny of the
majority.

The Indian Constitution allows individuals the freedom to live by their religious beliefs and practices as they interpret these.
In keeping with this idea of religious freedom for all, India also adopted a strategy of separating the power of religion and the
power of the State. Secularism refers to this separation of religion from the State.

The three drawings

in this chapter were
done by students of
your age. They were
asked to draw on
religious tolerance.

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO SEPARATE RELIGION FROM THE STATE?

The most important aspect of secularism is its separation of religion from State power. This is important for a country to
function democratically. Almost all countries of the world will have more than one religious group living in them. Within
these religious groups, there will most likely be one group that is in a majority.

If this majority religious group has access to State power, then it could quite easily use this power and financial resources to
discriminate against and persecute persons of other religions. This tyranny of the majority could result in the discrimination,
coercion and at times even the killing of religious minorities.

The majority could quite easily prevent minorities from practising their religions. Any form of domination based on religion
is in violation of the rights that a democratic society guarantees to each and every citizen irrespective of their religion.
Therefore, the tyranny of the majority and the violation of Fundamental Rights that can result is one reason why it is
important to separate the State and religion in democratic societies.

Another reason that it is important to separate religion from the State in democratic societies is because we also need to
protect the freedom of individuals to exit from their religion, embrace another religion or have the freedom to interpret
religious teachings differently.

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WHAT IS INDIAN SECULARISM?

The Indian Constitution mandates that the Indian State be secular. According to the Constitution, only a secular State can
realise its objectives to ensure the following:

That one religious community does not dominate another;

That some members do not dominate other members of the same religious community;

That the State does not enforce any particular religion nor take away the religious freedom of individuals.

The Indian State works in various ways to prevent the above domination. First, it uses a strategy of distancing itself from
religion. The Indian State is not ruled by a religious group and nor does it support any one religion. In India, government
spaces like law courts, police stations, government schools and offices are not supposed to display or promote any one
religion.

The second way in which Indian secularism works to prevent the above domination is through a strategy of noninterference.
This means that in order to respect the sentiments of all religions and not interfere with religious practices, the State makes
certain exceptions for particular religious communities.

The third way in which Indian secularism works to prevent the domination listed earlier is through a strategy of intervention.
This is a good example where members of the same religion (‘upper-caste’ Hindus) dominate other members (some ‘lower
castes’) within it. In order to prevent this religion-based exclusion and discrimination of ‘lower castes’, the Indian Constitution
bans untouchability. In this instance, the State is intervening in religion in order to end a social practice that it believes
discriminates and excludes, and that violates the Fundamental Rights of ‘lower castes’ who are citizens of this country.
Similarly, to ensure that laws relating to equal inheritance rights are respected, the State may have to intervene in the
religion-based ‘personal laws’ of communities.

The intervention of the State can also be in the form of support. The Indian Constitution grants the right to religious communities
to set up their own schools and colleges. It also gives them financial aid on a nonpreferential basis.

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IN WHAT WAY IS INDIAN SECULARISM DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF OTHER DEMOCRATIC COUNTRIES?
The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution prohibits the legislature from making laws “respecting an establishment of
religion” or that “prohibit the free exercise of religion”. What is meant by the word ‘establishment’ is that the legislature
cannot declare any religion as the official religion. Nor can they give preference to one religion. In the U.S.A. the separation
between State and religion means that neither the State nor religion can interfere in the affairs of one another.

There is one significant way in which Indian secularism differs from the dominant understanding of secularism as practised
in the United States of America. This is because unlike the strict separation between religion and the State in American
secularism, in Indian secularism the State can intervene in religious affairs.

In Indian secularism, though the State is not strictly separate from religion it does maintain a principled distance vis-à-vis
religion. This means that any interference in religion by the State has to be based on the ideals laid out in the Constitution.
These ideals serve as the standard through which we can judge whether the State is or is not behaving according to secular
principles.

The Indian State is secular and works in various ways to prevent religious domination. The Indian Constitution guarantees
Fundamental Rights that are based on these secular principles.

However, this is not to say that there is no violation of these rights in Indian society. Indeed it is precisely because such
violations happen frequently that we need a constitutional mechanism to prevent them from happening. The knowledge that
such rights exist makes us sensitive to their violations and enables us to take action when these violations take place.

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In the United States of America, most children

in government schools have to begin their
school day reciting the ‘Pledge of Allegiance'

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. How India is a Secular Country?
2. What is discrimination of religion?
3. Who protects the freedom of religion?
4. What is a majority group?
5. What is minority group?
6. Give one example of inter -community religious discrimination.
7. What is the strategy of non-interference?
8. Indian state recognises the wearing of Pugri for Sikhs. What does it indicate?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. Explain religious discrimination in various countries of world.
10. Write in brief about the secular state.
11. Why there is a need to separate religion from state?
12. What is the type of secularism in the U.S.A.?
13. How minorities are maltreated in Muslim countries?
14. What is secularism?
15. Write features of Indian secularism.
16. What is the meaning of establishment of religion in the U.S.A.?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

17. Write in brief the comparison of secularism in various societies of the world.
18. Write in brief the measures taken for protection of secularism in India?
19. What is the role of majority?
20. How India has intervened in the field of inter religious discriminating practices?

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3
Why do we need a parlimaent

INTRODUCTION
The ideas of participation in decision making and the need for all democratic governments to have the consent of their
citizens are the elements which make us a democracy and this is best expressed in the institution of the Parliament. The
Parliament enables citizens of India to participate in decision making and control the government, thus making it the most
important symbol of Indian democracy and a key feature of the Constitution.

WHY SHOULD PEOPLE DECIDE?

India, as we know, became independent on 15 August 1947. Preceding this was a long and difficult struggle in which many
sections of society participated. People from various backgrounds joined the struggle and they were inspired by the ideas of
freedom, equality and participation in decision– making.

Under colonial rule, the people had lived in fear of the British government and did not agree with many of the decisions that
they took. But they faced grave danger if they tried to criticise these decisions. The freedom movement changed this situation.
The nationalists began to openly criticise the British government and make demands. As far back as 1885, the Indian
National Congress demanded that there be elected members in the legislature with a right to discuss the budget and ask
questions. The Government of India Act 1909, allowed for some elected representation. While these early legislatures under
the British government were in response to the growing demands of the nationalists, they did not allow for all adults to vote
nor could people participate in decision making.

The participation of different people in the struggle for freedom left little doubt in the minds of the nationalists that all
persons in independent India would be able to participate in making decisions. With the coming of independence, we were
going to be citizens of a free country. This did not mean that the government could do what it felt like, it meant that the
government had to be sensitive to people’s needs and demands. The dreams and aspirations of the freedom struggle were
made concrete in the Constitution of independent India that laid down the principle of universal adult franchise, i.e. that all
adult citizens of the country have the right to vote.

PEOPLE AND THEIR REPRESENTATIVES

The take-off point for a democracy is the idea of consent, i.e. the desire, approval and participation of people. It is the
decision of people that creates a democratic government and decides about its functioning. The basic idea in this kind of
democracy is that the individual or the citizen is the most important person and that in principle the government as well as
other public institutions need to have the trust of these citizens.

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The above photo

shows a voter reading
instructions on how to
use an Electronic
Voting Machine (EVM).

Election is the way by which the individual give approval to the government. People would elect their representatives to the
Parliament, then, one group from among these elected representatives forms the government. The Parliament, which is made
up of all representatives together, controls and guides the government. In this sense people, through their choosen
representatives, form the government and also control it.

This photo shows election staff using an elephant to carry polling material and
EVMs to polling stations located in difficult terrain

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The Parliament of India (Sansad) is the supreme law-making

institution. It has two Houses, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.

Lok Sabha (House of the People), Rajya Sabha (Council of States), with
with a total membership of 545, a total strength of 245 members, is
is presided over by the Speaker. chaired by the Vice-President of India.

THE ROLE OF THE PARLIAMENT

Created after 1947, the Indian Parliament is an expression of the faith that the people of India have in principles of democracy.
These are participation by people in the decision-making process and government by consent. The Parliament in our system
has immense powers because it is the representative of the people. Elections to the Parliament are held in a similar manner
as they are for the state legislature.

The Lok Sabha is usually elected once every five years. The country is divided into numerous constituencies. Each of these
constituencies elects one person to the Parliament. The candidates who contest elections usually belong to different political
parties.

Once elected, these candidates become Members of Parliament or MPs. These MPs together make up the Parliament. Once
elections to the Parliament have taken place, the Parliament needs to perform the following functions:

1. To Select the National Government: Parliament of India consists of the President, the Rajya Sabha and the Lok
Sabha. After the Lok Sabha elections, a list is prepared showing how many MPs belong to each political party. For
a political party to form the government, they must have a majority of elected MPs. Since there are 543 elected
(plus 2 Anglo-Indian nominated) members in Lok Sabha, to have a majority a party should have at least half the
number i.e. 272 members or more. The Opposition in Parliament is formed by all the political parties that oppose
the majority party/coalition formed. The largest amongst these parties is called the Opposition party.

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One of the most important functions of the Lok Sabha is to select the executive. The executive, is a group of persons
who work together to implement the laws made by the Parliament. This executive is often what we have in mind
when we use the term government.

The Prime Minister of India is the leader of the ruling party in the Lok Sabha. From the MPs who belong to her party,
the Prime Minister selects ministers to work with her to implement decisions. These ministers then take charge of
different areas of government functioning like health, education, finance etc.
Often times in the recent past it has been difficult for a single political party to get the majority that is required to form
the government. They then join together with different political parties who are interested in similar concerns to
form what is known as a coalition government.
The Rajya Sabha functions primarily as the representative of the states of India in the Parliament. The Rajya Sabha
can also initiate legislation and a bill is required to pass through the Rajya Sabha in order to become a law. It,
therefore, has an important role of reviewing and altering (if alterations are needed) the laws initiated by the Lok
Sabha. The members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of various
states. There are 233 elected members plus 12 members nominated by the President.
2. To Control, Guide and Inform the Government: The Parliament, while in session, begins with a question hour. The
question hour is an important mechanism through which MPs can elicit information about the working of the
government. This is a very important way through which the Parliament controls the executive.
By asking questions the government is alerted to its shortcomings, and also comes to know the opinion of the
people through their representatives in the Parliament, i.e. the MPs. Asking questions of the government is a crucial
task for every MP. The Opposition parties play a critical role in the healthy functioning of a democracy. They
highlight drawbacks in various policies and programmes of the government and mobilise popular support for their
own policies.
The government gets valuable feedback and is kept on its toes by the questions asked by the MPs. In addition, in
all matters dealing with finances, the Parliament’s approval is crucial for the government. This is one of the several
ways in which the Parliament controls, guides and informs the government. The MPs as representatives of the
people have a central role in controlling, guiding and informing Parliament and this is a key aspect of the functioning
of Indian democracy.
3. Law Making: Framing of laws and amendment in previous laws is the important function of the legislative. The
proposal for a law is called a bill. It is of two kinds - ordinary bill and money bill. Until a bill is passed through a
proper procedure, it cannot be a law or an act.

WHO ARE THE PEOPLE IN PARLIAMENT?

The parliament now has more and more people from different backgrounds. For example, there are more rural members as
also members from many regional parties. Groups and peoples that were till now unrepresented are beginning to get elected
to Parliament.

There has also been an increase in political participation from the Dalits and backward castes and the minorities.

Representative democracy cannot produce a perfect reflection of society. There is a realisation that when interests and
experiences separate us it is important to ensure that communities that have been historically marginalised are given adequate
representation. With this in mind, some seats are reserved in Parliament for SCs and STs. This has been done so that the MPs
elected from these constituencies will be familiar with and can represent Dalit and Adivasi interests in Parliament.

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Similarly, it has more recently been suggested that there should be reservation of seats for women. This issue is still being
debated. Sixty years ago, only four per cent of MPs were women and today it is just above nine per cent. This is a small share
when you consider the fact that half the population are women.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is the effective strength of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?

2. How the people control the government?

3. Why the Parliament in our system has immense power?

4. What do you mean by a constituency?

5. Which party forms the opposition party?

6. How many members are elected in the Rajya Sabha?

7. What are the elements that together makes us a democracy?

8. When the Indian National Congress demanded elected members in the legislature?

9. How a government is formed in a democratic government?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. What is the importance of elections in a democratic country?

11. Describe the procedure of electing the member of Lok Sabha.

12. Define Opposition Party and their role in a democracy.

13. Under Colonial rule the people never criticised government’s decision. Why?

14. Why the Cosntitution of independent India laid down the principle of universal adult franchise?

15. Who selects various ministers to work in the government? How they are selected?

16. Define coalition government.

17. Narrate the procedure of ‘No-confidence motion’.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

18. Why do we need a Parliament?

19. Why universal adult franchise is been adopted in democratic countries?

20. Define the role of the Parliament.

21. “The Parliament now has more and more people from different backgrounds.” How we can say that?

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4
Understanding Laws

DO LAWS APPLY TO ALL?

Members of the Constituent Assembly were agreed there should be no arbitrary exercise of power in independent India.
They, therefore, instituted several provisions in the Constitution that would establish the rule of law. The most important of
these was that all persons in independent India are equal before the law.

The law cannot discriminate between persons on the basis of their religion, caste or gender. What the rule of law means is
that all laws apply equally to all citizens of the country and no one can be above the law. Neither a government official, nor
a wealthy person nor even the President of the country is above the law. Any crime or violation of law has a specific
punishment as well as a process through which the guilt of the person has to be established.

In ancient India, there were innumerable and often overlapping local laws. Different communities enjoyed different degrees
of autonomy in administering these laws among their own. In some cases, the punishment that two persons received for the
same crime varied depending on their caste backgrounds, with lower castes being more harshly penalised. This slowly began
to change as this system of law began to further evolve during the colonial period.

It is often believed that it was the British colonialists who introduced the rule of law in India. Historians have disputed this
claim on several grounds, two of which include: first that colonial law was arbitrary, and second that the Indian nationalists
played a prominent role in the development of the legal sphere in British India. One example of the arbitrariness that
continued to exist as part of British law is the Sedition Act of 1870. The idea of sedition was very broadly understood within
this Act. Any person protesting or criticising the British government could be arrested without due trial.

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Indian nationalists began protesting and criticising this arbitrary use of authority by the British. They also began fighting for
greater equality and wanted to change the idea of law from a set of rules that they were forced to obey, to law as including
ideas of justice.

By the end of the nineteenth century, the Indian legal profession also began emerging and demanded respect in colonial
courts. They began to use law to defend the legal rights of Indians. Indian judges also began to play a greater role in making
decisions. Therefore, there were several ways in which Indians played a major role in the evolution of the rule of law during
the colonial period.

With the adoption of the Constitution, this document served as the foundation on which our representatives began making
laws for the country.

HOW DO NEW LAWS COME ABOUT?

The Parliament has an important role in making laws. There are many ways through which this takes place and it is often
different groups in society that raise the need for the particular law. An important role of Parliament is to be sensitive to the
problems faced by people.

Let us understand how the issue of domestic violence was brought to the attention of the Parliament and the process adopted
for this issue to become law. Domestic violence against women is a major concern for our society. Throughout the 1990s, the
need for a new law was raised in different forums demanding protecting of women against being beaten, the right to continue
living is a shared household and often temporary relief. In 1999, Lawyers Collective, a group of lawyers, law students and
activities, after nation-wide consultations took the lead in drating the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Bill.
This draft bill was widely circulated, meeting were held with different organisations. Finally, the Bill was introduced in
parliament in 2002 but the women organisations were not satisfied with the bill in its present form. Several women’s
organisations, National Commission for Women made submissions to the Parliamentry Standing Committee asking for a
change in the format of the present bill. In December 2002, the Standing Committee submitted its recommendations to the
Rajya Sabha and these were also tabled in the lok Sabha. The Committee’s report accepted most of the demands of the
women’s groups. Finally a new bill, was reintroduced in Parliament in 2005. After being passed in both houses of Parliament,

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it was sent to the President for his assent. The protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act came into effect in 2006.
The Act recognises the right of women to live in a shared household, women can get a protection order against any further
violence, women can get monetary relief to meet their expenses including medical costs.

The role of citizens is crucial in helping Parliament frame different concerns that people might have into laws. From establishing
the need for a new law to its being passed, at every stage of the process the voice of the citizen is a crucial element. This voice
can be heard through TV reports, newspaper editorials, radio broadcasts, local meetings - all of which help in making the
work that parliament does more accessible and transparent to the people.

The role as citizens does not end with electing the representatives. Rather, it is the duty of the citizen to use newspapers and
the media carefully chart the work that is being done by our MPs and criticise their actions when we feel it is required.

In the following poster, what

do you understand by the
phrase ‘Equal Relationships are
Violence Free’?

UNPOPULAR AND CONTROVERSIAL LAW

Sometimes a law can be constitutionally valid and hence legal, but it can continue to be unpopular and unacceptable to
people because they feel that the intention behind it is unfair and harmful. Hence, people might criticise this law, hold public
meetings, write about it in newspapers, report to TV news channels etc. In a democracy like ours, citizens can express their
unwillingness to accept repressive laws framed by the Parliament. When a large number of people begin to feel that a wrong
law has been passed, then there is pressure on the Parliament to change this.

For example, various municipal laws on the use of space within municipal limits often make hawking and street vending
illegal. No one will dispute the necessity for some rules to keep the public space open so that people can walk on the
pavements easily. However, one also cannot deny that hawkers and vendors provide essential services cheaply and efficiently
to the millions living in a large city. This is their means of livelihood. Hence, if the law favours one group and disregards the
other it will be controversial and lead to conflict.

Hence, if the law is not fair can approach the court to decide on the issue. The court has the power to modify or cancel laws
if it finds that they don’t adhere to the Constitution.

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Our role as citizens does not end with electing our representatives. Rather, it is then that we begin to use newspapers and the
media to carefully chart the work that is being done by our MPs and criticise their actions when we feel it is required. Thus,
what we should bear in mind is that it is the extent, involvement and enthusiasm of the people that helps Parliament perform
its representative functions properly.

PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by Sedition Act?

2. Give some examples of new laws?

3. What are controversial laws?

4. What do you mean by equality before law?

5. What is the violation of law?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. How the law discriminated amongst people in ancient India?

7. How the historians have disputed the claim that it was the British colonialists who introduced the rule of law in India?

8. Why many of laws become unpopular?

9. What was the arbitrary use of law in British India.

10. What was the attitude of Indian Nationalists towards the arbitrary use of authority by the British?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

11. Write about law and equality in British India.

12. What people can do if the government forms unpopular and controversial laws?

13. Write in brief about law in independent India.

14. Write the role of parliament in framing new laws?

15. What is role of citizens in framing the new laws?

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5
Judiciary
INTRODUCTION
In India we have the rule of law. What this means is that laws apply equally to all persons and that a certain set of fixed
procedures need to a followed when a law is violated. To enforce this rule of law, we have a judicial system that consists of
the mechanisms of courts that a citizen can approach when a law is violated. As an organ of the State, the judiciary plays a
crucial role in the functioning of India’s democracy.

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE JUDICIARY?

Courts take decisions on a very large number of issues. Broadly speaking, the work that the judiciary does can be divided into
the following:

1. Dispute Resolution: The judicial system provides a mechanism for resolving disputes between citizens, and the
government, between two state governments and between the centre and state governments.

2. Judicial Review: As the final interpreter of the Constitution, the judiciary also has the power to strike down
particular laws passed by the Parliament if it believes that these are a violation of the basic structure of the
Constitution. This is called judicial review.

3. Upholding the Law and Enforcing Fundamental Rights: Every citizen of India can approach the Supreme Court or
the High Court if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.

WHAT IS AN INDEPENDENT JUDICIARY?

1. Separation of power: One aspect of this independence is the ‘separation of power’. The other branches of the State
like the legislature and the executive cannot interfere in the work of the judiciary. The courts are not under the
government and do not act on their behalf.

2. Little interference in the appointment of Judges: All judges in the High Courts as well as the Supreme Court are
appointed with very little interference from other branches of government. Once appointed to this office, it is also
very difficult to remove a judge.

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3. Once appointed the Judges cannot be removed easily, as impeaching a Judge is as difficult as impeachment a
President.

4. They are appointed for a fixed period and their salaries, emoluments, service conditions and other allowances
cannot ordianrily be changed or reduced.
Independence of the judiciary allows the courts to play a central role in ensuring that there is no misuse of power by
the legislature and the executive. It also plays a crucial role in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens because
anyone can approach the courts if they believe that their rights have been violated.

WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF COURTS IN INDIA?

There are three different levels of courts in our country. There are several courts at the lower level while there is only one at
the apex level. The courts that most people interact with are what are called subordinate or district courts. These are usually
at the district or Tehsil level or in towns and they hear many kinds of cases. Each state is divided into districts that are
presided over by a District Judge. Each state has a High Court which is the highest court of that state. At the top is the
Supreme Court that is located in New Delhi and is presided over by the Chief Justice of India. The decisions made by the
Supreme Court are binding on all other courts in India.
In India, we have an integrated judicial system, meaning that the decisions made by higher courts are binding on the lower
courts. Another way to understand this integration is through the appellate system that exists in India. This means that a
person can appeal to a higher court if they believe that the judgment passed by the lower court is not just.

High Court of Madras

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WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF THE LEGAL SYSTEM?

No. C rim inal Law C iv il Law

Deals with co n d u ct o r acts that th e law Deals with an y h arm o r in ju ry to rig h ts o f
d efin es as o ffen ces . Fo r examp le, th eft, in d iv id u als . Fo r examp le, d is p u tes relatin g to
1 h aras s in g a woman to b rin g mo re d o wry , s ale o f lan d , p u rch as e o f g oo d s , ren t matters ,
mu rd er. d iv o rce cas es .

It u s u ally b eg in s with th e lo d g in g o f an Firs t A p etitio n h as to b e filed b efo re th e relev an t

In fo rmatio n Rep o rt (FIR) with th e p olice wh o co u rt b y th e affected p arty o n ly . In a ren t
2 in v es tig ate th e crime after which a cas e is matter, eith er th e lan d lo rd o r ten an t can file a
filed in th e co u rt. cas e.

If fo u n d g u ity , th e accu s ed can b e s en t to Th e co u rt g iv es th e s p ecific relief as ked fo r. Fo r

jail an d als o fined . in s tance, in a cas e b etween a lan d lo rd an d a
3 ten an t, th e co u rt can o rd er th e flat to b e
v acated an d p en d in g ren t to b e p aid .

DOES EVERYONE HAVE ACCESS TO THE COURTS?

In principle, all citizens of India can access the courts in this country. This implies that every citizen has a right to justice
through the courts.

The courts play a very significant role in protecting our Fundamental Rights. If any citizen believes that their rights are being
violated, then they can approach the court for justice to be done. While the courts are available for all, in reality access to
courts has always been difficult for a vast majority of the poor in India. Legal procedures involve a lot of money and
paperwork as well as take up a lot of time. For a poor person who cannot read and whose family depends on a daily wage, the
idea of going to court to get justice often seems remote.

The Supreme Court in the early 1980s devised a mechanism of Public Interest Litigation or PIL to increase access to justice.
It allowed any individual or organisation to file a PIL in the High Court or the Supreme Court on behalf of those whose rights
were being violated. The legal process was greatly simplified and even a letter or telegram addressed to the Supreme Court
or the High Court could be treated as a PIL. In the early years, PIL was used to secure justice on a large number of issues such
as rescuing bonded labourers from inhuman work conditions; and securing the release of prisoners in Bihar who had been
kept in jail even after their punishment term was complete.

Article 21 of the Constitution on the Right to Life to include the Right to Food. They, therefore, ordered the State to take
certain steps to provide food for all including the mid-day meal scheme.

However, inspite of this there is no denying that the judiciary has played a crucial role in democratic India, serving as a check
on the powers of the executive and the legislature as well as in protecting the Fundamental Rights of citizens. The members
of the Constituent Assembly had quite correctly envisioned a system of courts with an independent judiciary as a key feature
of our democracy.

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District Court in Raipur, Chhattisgarh.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is the present strength of Supreme Court Judges?
2. Which states share a common High Court?
3. What is a PIL?
4. When was the Supreme Court of India established?
5. Who presides over the Supreme Court?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. What are subordinate courts? At which level do they work?
7. By which different names are the subordinate courts known?
8. What is dispute resolution?
9. What is judicial review?
10. Public Interest Litigation was used to secure justice on a large number of issues. Name two of them.
11. There are certain judgements that people believe work against the best interests of the common person. Give one example of
it.
12. With reference to independence for judiciary what does the separation of powers mean?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

13. Write the difference between criminal law and civil law.
14. In India, we have an integrated judicial system. What does it mean?
15. Why was the Public Interest Litigation introduced by the Supreme Court?
16. Why do you think an independent judiciary is necessary to carry out the important function of ‘upholding the law and
Enforcing Fundamental Rights’?
17. How do you think the Right to Constitutional Remedies connects to the idea of judicial review?

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6
Understanding our Criminal Justice System

INTRODUCTION
When we see someone violating the law, we immediately think of informing the police. You might have seen, either in real
life or in the movies, police officers filing reports and arresting persons. Because of the role played by the police in arresting
persons, we often get confused and think that it is the police who decide whether a person is guilty or not. This, however, is
far from true. After a person is arrested, it is a court of law that decides whether the accused person is guilty or not. According
to the Constitution, every individual charged of a crime has to be given a fair trial.

Most cases go through a process that is similar to the one discussed in our fictional case. Therefore, understanding these
processes as well as the role that different persons should play within the criminal justice system is crucial, so that if ever the
occasion should arise, you are aware of the processes that should be followed.

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE POLICE IN INVESTIGATING A CRIME?

One important function of the police is to investigate any complaint about the commission of a crime. An investigation
includes recording statements of witnesses and collecting different kinds of evidence. On the basis of the investigation, the
police are required to form an opinion. If the police think that the evidence points to the guilt of the accused person, then they
file a chargesheet in the court.

It is not the job of the police to decide whether a person is guilty or innocent, that is for the judge to decide.

The rule of law, which means that everyone is subject to the law of the land. This includes the police. Therefore, police
investigations always have to be conducted in accordance with law and with full respect for human rights. The Supreme
Court has laid down guidelines that the police must follow at the time of arrest, detention and interrogation. The police are
not allowed to torture or beat or shoot anyone during investigation. They cannot inflict any form of punishment on a person
even for petty offences.

Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee to every arrested person the following Fundamental Rights:

• The Right to be informed at the time of arrest of the offence for which the person is being arrested.

• The Right to be presented before a magistrate within 24 hours of arrest.

• The Right not to be ill treated or tortured during arrest or in custody.

• Confessions made in police custody cannot be used as evidence against the accused.

• A boy under 15 years of age and women cannot be called to the police station only for questioning.

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Why do you
think there
is a rule that
confessions
made d uri ng
police custody
cannot be used
as ev i dence
against the
accused?

FIRST INFORMATION REPORT:

It is with the registration of an FIR that the police can begin their investigations into a crime. The law states that it is
compulsory for an officer in charge of a police station to register an FIR whenever a person gives information about a
cognizable offence. This information can be given to the police either orally or in writing. The FIR usually mentions the date,
time and place of the offence, details the basic facts of the offence, including a description of the events. If known, the
identity of the accused persons and witnesses is also mentioned. The FIR also states the name and address of the complainant.
There is a prescribed form in which the police registers an FIR and it is signed by the complainant. The complainant also has
a legal right to get a free copy of the FIR from the police.

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC PROSECUTOR?

In court, it is the Public Prosecutor who represents the interests of the State. The role of the Prosecutor begins once the police
has conducted the investigation and filed the chargesheet in the court. He/she has no role to play in the investigation. The
Prosecutor must conduct the prosecution on behalf of the State. As an officer of the court, it is his/ her duty to act impartially
and present the full and material facts, witnesses and evidence before the court to enable the court to decide the case.

So tell me, Mrs Shinde,

how did the gold chain
go missing?

I had kept my chain in the drawer.

Shanti stole it. No other outsider
except Shanti goes into my room. Mr
Shinde searched her trunk in front of
me and we were shocked to find Rs
10,000 in an envelope. Shanti got
this money from selling my gold
chain. She is a thief.

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WHAT IS THE ROLE OF THE JUDGE?

The judge is like an umpire in a game and conducts the trial impartially and in an open court. The judge hears all the
witnesses and any other evidence presented by the prosecution and the defence. The judge decides whether the accused
person is guilty or innocent on the basis of the evidence presented and in accordance with the law. If the accused is convicted,
then the judge pronounces the sentence. He may send the person to jail or impose a fine or both, depending on what the law
prescribes.

So what you are basically saying is that you did not

see Shanti steal the chain. Nor did you recover
the chain on Shanti. Also, in the three years that
she has worked for you, nothing has been stolen
from the house. You were also regularly paying her
Rs 1,000 as salary each month.

WHAT IS A FAIR TRIAL?

For a trial to be fiar, several different procedures have to be observed. Article 21 of the Constitution that guarantees the
Rights to Life states that a person’s life or liberty can be taken away only by following a reasonable and just legal procedure.
A fair trial ensures that Article 21 of the Constitution is upheld. Firstly, the accused has to be given a copy of the charge-sheet
and all other evidence that the prosecution presented against her. The trial has to be held in an open court, in public view.
Relatives and the well-wishers can attend the court hearings. The trial has to be held in the presence of the accused. The
accused has to be defended by a lawyer. Lawyer of the accused is given opportunity to cross-examine all the prosecution
witnesses. Advocate of the accused is given an opportunity to present witnesses for defence. The judge assumes accused to
be innocent. It is the responsibility of the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable doubt that accused is guilty. Judge decides
the matter only on the basis of the evidence before the court. The judge remians impartial and if the evidence doesn’t proves
to be against the accused, the judge sets the accused free.

The Constitution and the law both state that all of the persons should carry out their roles in a proper manner. They all need
to work to ensure that every citizen, irrespective of their class, caste, gender, religious and ideological backgrounds gets a
fair trial when accused. The rule of law which says that everyone is equal before the law would not make much sense if every
citizen were not guaranteed a fair trial by the constitution.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is highest Criminal Court in District?
2. What functions are included by the police during investigation?
3. What is FIR?
4. In the Article 21 of the Constitution what is stated regarding the Rights to Life?
5. When does the role of Prosecutor begin?
6. When does the police file a charge-sheet in the court?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

7. What informations are included in an FIR?
8. Who represents the interest of the State in the court? Describe his role.
9. How the constitution ensures the rights of an accused to be saved form the charges imposed on him?
10. Who decides whether a person is guity or not? Explain the complete process.
11. Describe the role of police in the investigation of any complaint.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

12. Write the salient features of the law regarding on FIR.
13. What is the role of judge during a trial in an open court?
14. The Supreme Court of India has laid down specific requirements and procedures that the police and other agencies have to
follow for the arrest, detention and interrogation of any person. Mention those guidelines.
15. What are the essential elements of a fair trial? Explain with the help of an example.
16. “Article 22 of the Constitution and criminal law guarantee certain Fundamental Rights to every arrested person”. Write
them.

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7
Understanding Marginalisation

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE SOCIALLY MARGINALISED?

To be marginalised is to be forced to occupy the sides or fringes and thus not be at the centre of things.

in the social environment too, groups of people or communities may have the experience of being excluded. Their
marginalisation can be because they speak a different language, follow different customs or belong to a different religious
group from the majority community. They may also feel marginalised because they are poor, considered to be of ‘low’ social
status and viewed as being less human than others. Sometimes, marginalised groups are viewed with hostility and fear. This
sense of difference and exclusion leads to communities not having access to resources and opportunities and in their inability
to assert their rights. They experience a sense of disadvantage and powerlessness vis-a-vis more powerful and dominant
sections of society who own land, are wealthy, better educated and politically powerful. Thus, marginalisation is seldom
experienced in one sphere. Economic, social, cultural and political factors work together to make certain groups in society
feel marginalised.

WHO ARE ADIVASIS?

Adivasis – the term literally means ‘original inhabitants’ – are communities who lived, and often continue to live, in close
association with forests. Around 8 per cent of India’s population is Adivasi and many of India’s most important mining and
industrial centres are located in Adivasi areas – Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro and Bhilai among others. Adivasis are not a
homogeneous population: there are over 500 different Adivasi groups in India.

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Adivasis are particularly numerous in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and in the north-eastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. A state like Orissa is home to more than 60 different tribal groups. Adivasi societies are
also most distinctive because there is often very little hierarchy among them. This makes them radically different from
communities organised around principles of jati-varna (caste) or those that were ruled by kings.

Adivasis practise a range of tribal religions that are different from Islam, Hinduism and Christianity. These often involve the
worship of ancestors, village and nature spirits, the last associated with and residing in various sites in the landscape –
‘mountain-spirits’, ‘river-spirits’, ‘animal-spirits’, etc.

The village spirits are often worshipped at specific sacred groves within the village boundary while the ancestral ones are
usually worshipped at home. Additionally, Adivasis have always been influenced by different surrounding religions like
Shakta, Buddhist, Vaishnav, Bhakti and Christianity. Simultaneously, Adivasi religions themselves have influenced dominant
religions of the empires around them, for example, the Jagannath cult of Orissa and Shakti and Tantric traditions in Bengal
and Assam. During the nineteenth century, substantial numbers of Adivasis converted to Christianity, which has emerged as
a very important religion in modern Adivasi history.

Adivasis have their own languages (most of them radically different from and possibly as old as Sanskrit), which have often
deeply influenced the formation of ‘mainstream’ Indian languages, like Bengali. Santhali has the largest number of speakers
and has a significant body of publications including magazines on the internet or in e-zines.

ADIVASIS AND STEREOTYPING

In India, we usually ‘showcase’ Adivasi communities in particular ways. Thus, during school functions or other official
events or in books and movies, Adivasis are invariably portrayed in very stereotypical ways – in colourful costumes, headgear
and through their dancing. Besides this, we seem to know very little about the realities of their lives. This often wrongly leads
to people believing that they are exotic, primitive and backward. Often Adivasis are blamed for their lack of advancement as
they are believed to be resistant to change or new ideas.

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ADIVASIS AND DEVELOPMENT

Forests were absolutely crucial to the development of all empires and settled civilisations in India. Metal ores like iron and
copper, and gold and silver, coal and diamonds, invaluable timber, most medicinal herbs and animal products (wax, lac, honey)
and animals themselves (elephants, the mainstay of imperial armies), all came from the forests.

In addition, the continuation of life depended heavily on forests, that help recharge many of India’s rivers and, as is becoming
clearer now, crucial to the availability and quality of our air and water. Forests covered the major part of our country till the
nineteenth century and the Adivasis had a deep knowledge of, access to, as well as control over most of these vast tracts at
least till the middle of the nineteenth century. This meant that they were not ruled by large states and empires. Instead, often
empires heavily depended on Adivasis for the crucial access to forest resources.

In the precolonial world, they were traditionally ranged huntergatherers and nomads and lived by shifting agriculture and
also cultivating in one place. Although these remain, for the past 200 years Adivasis have been increasingly forced – through
economic changes, forest policies and political force applied by the State and private industry – to migrate to lives as
workers in plantations, at construction sites, in industries and as domestic workers. For the first time in history, they do not
control or have much direct access to the forest territories.

From the 1830s onwards, Adivasis from Jharkhand and adjoining areas moved in very large numbers to various plantations
in India and the world - Mauritius, the Caribbean and even Australia. India’s tea industry became possible with their labour
in Assam. Today, there are 70 lakh Adivasis in Assam alone. The story of this migration is full of extreme hardship, torture,
heartbreak and death. For example, in the nineteenth century alone five lakh Adivasis had perished in these migrations. The
song below captures the hopes of the migrants and the reality they faced in Assam.

Forest lands have been cleared for timber and to get land for agriculture and industry. Adivasis have also lived in areas that
are rich in minerals and other natural resources. These are taken over for mining and other large industrial projects. Powerful
forces have often colluded to take over tribal land. Much of the time, the land is taken away forcefully and procedures are not
followed.

Adivasis shows that 79 per cent of the persons displaced from the states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and
Jharkhand are tribals. Huge tracts of their lands have also gone under the waters of hundreds of dams that have been built in
independent India. In the North east, their lands remain highly militarised and war-torn. India has 54 national parks and 372
wildlife sanctuaries covering 1,09,652 sq km. These are areas where tribals originally lived but were evicted from. When
they continue to stay in these forests, they are termed encroachers.

Losing their lands and access to the forest means that tribals lose their main sources of livelihood and food. Having gradually
lost access to their traditional homelands, many Adivasis have migrated to cities in search of work where they are employed
for very low wages in local industries or at building or construction sites. They, thus, get caught in a cycle of poverty and
deprivation. 45 per cent of tribal groups in rural areas and 35 per cent in urban areas live below the poverty line. This leads
to deprivation in other areas. Many tribal children are malnourished. Literacy rates among tribals are also very low.

There exists an interconnectedness between the economic and social dimensions of tribal life. Destruction in one sphere
naturally impacts the other. Often this process of dispossession and displacement can be painful and violent.

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This is a photo of Niyamgiri Hill located in

Kalahandi district of Orissa.

MINORITIES AND MARGINALISATION

The term minority is most commonly used to refer to communities that are numerically small in relation to the rest of the
population. However, it is a concept that goes well beyond numbers. It encompasses issues of power, access to resource and
has social and cultural dimensions.

The Indian Constitution recognised that the culture of the majority influences the way in which society and government
might express themselves. In such cases, size can be a disadvantage and lead to the marginalisation of the relatively smaller
communities. Thus, safeguards are needed to protect minority communities against the possibility of being culturally dominated
by the majority. They also protect them against any discrimination and disadvantage that they may face. Given certain
conditions, communities that are small in number relative to the rest of society may feel insecure about their lives, assets and
well-being. This sense of insecurity may get accentuated if the relations between the minority and majority communities are
fraught. The Constitution provides these safeguards because it is committed to protecting India’s cultural diversity and
promoting equality as well as justice.

The judiciary plays a crucial role in upholding the law and enforcing Fundamental Rights. Every citizen of India can approach
the courts if they believe that their Fundamental Rights have been violated.

MUSLIMS AND MARGINALISATION

Muslims are 13.4 per cent of India’s population and are considered to be a marginalised community in India today because
in comparison to other communities, they have over the years been deprived of the benefits of socioeconomic development.

Literacy Rate by Religion, 2001

All Hindus M uslims Christ ians Sikhs Buddhist s Jains

65% 65% 59% 80% 70% 73% 94%

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Public Employment of Muslims (Percentages)

Central Public
Population IAS IPS IFS State PSU Banks & RBI
Sector Unit (PUS)
13.5 3 4 1.8 3.3 10.8 2.2

Recognising that Muslims in India were lagging behind in terms of various development indicators, the government set up
a high-level committee in 2005. Chaired by Justice Rajindar Sachar, the committee examined the social, economic and
educational status of the Muslim community in India. The report discusses in detail the marginalisation of this community.
It suggests that on a range of social, economic and educational indicators the situation of the Muslim community is comparable
to that of other marginalised communities like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. For example, according to the
Report the average years of schooling for Muslim children between the ages of 7-16 is much lower than that of other
socioreligious communities.

This social marginalisation of Muslims in some instances has led to them migrating from places where they have lived, often
leading to the ghettoisation of the community. Sometimes, this prejudice leads to hatred and violence.

The experiences of all these groups point to the fact that marginalisation is a complex phenomenon requiring a variety of
strategies, measures and safeguards to redress this situation. All of us have a stake in protecting the rights defined in the
Constitution and the laws and policies framed to realise these rights. Without these, we will never be able to protect the
diversity that makes our country unique nor realise the State’s commitment to promote equality for all.

Muslim women are an important part of

the women’s movement in India.
CONCLUSION
There are different reasons for each of these communities being marginalised. Each experiences marginalisation in different
ways. We have also seen that marginalisation is linked to experiencing disadvantage, prejudice and powerlessness. In India
there are several more marginalised communities, like Dalits. Marginalisation results in having a low social status and not
having equal access to education and other resources.

Yet, the lives of marginalised people can and do change. Thus, no one is marginalised all the time in exactly the same way.
Each of these groups has a long history of struggle and resistance. Marginalised communities want to maintain their cultural
distinctiveness while having access to rights, development and other opportunities.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. How many seats are reserved for SC and ST in Lok Sabha?

2. What do you understand by the Scheduled Tribe?

3. What do you understand by the word ‘marginalisation’?

4. Who were Adivasis?

5. Into which religion most of the scheduled tribes converted during the nineteenth century.

6. What do you understand by the term minority?

7. Name the important mining and industrial centres where Adivasis are located.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

8. Why are Muslims considered to be a marginalised community in India?

9. How do Adivasis get affected when they lose their land and access to the forest means?

10. Why was a high-level committee set up in 2005 under the Chairmanship of Justice Rajinder Sachar?

11. Write one effect of marginalisation?

12. How have Adivasis been treated by the state and private industrialists for the past 200 years?

13. Why are safeguards required for minorities?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

14. Would you agree with the statement that economic and social marginalisation are interrelated? Why?

15. ‘Economic and social marginalisation experienced by Muslims has other dimensions as well’. What are these other dimensions?

16. Explain how Adivasis are portrayed in sterotypical ways.

17. Why were Adivasis evicted for their lands? Give four reaosns.

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8
Confronting Marginalisation

INTRODUCTION
Marginalised group’s, though powerless, have fought, protested and struggled against being excluded or dominated by
others. They have attempted to overcome their situation by adopting a range of strategies in their long history. Religious
solace, armed struggle, self improvement and education, economic uplift-there appears to be no one way of doing things. In
all cases, the choice of struggle has depended on the circumstances that the marginalised find themselves in.

There are many ways in which groups and individuals challenge existing inequalities. Adivasis, Dalits, Muslims, women and
other marginal groups argue that simply by being citizens of a democratic country, they possess equal rights that must be
respected. Many among them lock up to the Constitution to address their concerns. The constitution of India is something
that marginalised groups invoke in the couse of their struggles. In the Constitution, Rights are translated into laws to protect
groups from continued exloitation. The government’s formulate policies to promote the access of these groups to development.

INVOKING FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

The Constitution, lays down the principles that make our society and polity democratic. They are defined in and through the
list of Fundamental Rights that are an important part of the Constitution. These rights are available to all Indians equally. As
far as the marginalised are concerned, they have drawn on these rights in two ways: first, by insisting on their Fundamental
Rights, they have forced the government to recognise the injustice done to them. Second, they have insisted that the government
enforce these laws. In some instances, the struggles of the marginalised have influenced the government to frame new laws,
in keeping with the spirit of the Fundamental Rights.

Article 17 of the Constitution states that untouchability has been abolished – what this means is that no one can henceforth
prevent Dalits from educating themselves, entering temples, using public facilities etc. It also means that it is wrong to
practise untouchability and that this practice will not be tolerated by a democratic government. In fact, untouchability is a
punishable crime now.

There are other sections in the Constitution that help to strengthen the argument against untouchability – for example, Article
15 of the Constitution notes that no citizen of India shall be discriminated against on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth.

Therefore, Dalits can ‘invoke’ or ‘draw on’ a Fundamental Right (or Rights) in situations where they feel that they have been
treated badly by some individual or community, or even by the government. They have drawn the attention of the government
of India to the Constitution, demanding that the government abide by it and do justice to them.

Likewise, other minority groups have drawn on the Fundamental Rights section of our Constitution. They have particularly
drawn upon the right to freedom of religion and cultural and educational rights. In the case of cultural and educational rights,
distinct cultural and religious groups like the Muslims and Parsis have the right to be the guardians of the content of their
culture, as well as the right to make decisions on how best this content is to be preserved. Thus, by granting different forms
of cultural rights, the Constitution tries to ensure cultural justice to such groups. The Constitution does this so that the culture
of these groups is not dominated nor wiped out by the culture of the majority community.

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LAWS OF THE MARGINALISED

The government then makes an effort to promote such policies in order to give opportunities to specific groups.

PROMOTING SOCIAL JUSTICE:

As part of their effort to implement the Constitution, both state and central governments create specific schemes for
implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population. For example, the government provides for free
or subsidised hostels for students of Dalit and Adivasi communities so that they can avail of education facilities that may not
be available in their localities.

In addition to providing certain facilities, the government also operates through laws to ensure that concrete steps are taken
to end inequity in the system. One such law/policy is the reservation policy that today is both significant and highly contentious.
The laws which reserve seats in education and government employment for Dalits and Adivasis are based on an important
argument- that in a society like ours, where for centuries sections of the population have been denied opportunities to learn
and to work in order to develop new skills or vocations, a democratic government needs to step in and assist these sections.
Governments across India have their own list of Scheduled Castes (or Dalits), Scheduled Tribes and backward and most
backward castes. The central government too has its list. Students applying to educational institutions and those applying for
posts in government are expected to furnish proof of their caste or tribe status, in the form of caste and tribe certificates.
(Many government and educational institutions also ask for candidates to mention their caste/tribe status.) If a particular
Dalit caste or a certain tribe is on the government list, then a candidate from that caste or tribe can avail of the benefit of
reservation.

PROTECTING THE RIGHTS OF DALITS AND ADIVASIS

The term dalit which means ‘broken’ is used deliberetely and actively by groups to highlight the centuries of discrimination
they have experienced within the caste system. Our country also has specific laws that guard against the discrimination and
exploitation of marginalised communities.

THE SCHEDULED CASTES AND THE SCHEDULED TRIBES (PREVENTION OF ATROCITIES) ACT, 1989
This Act was framed in 1989 in response to demands made by Dalits and others that the government must take seriously the
ill treatment and humiliation Dalits and tribal groups face in an everyday sense. While such treatment had persisted for a
long time, it had acquired a violent character in the late 1970s and 1980s. During this period, in parts of southern India, a
number of assertive Dalit groups came into being and asserted their rights – they refused to perform their so-called caste
duties and insisted on being treated equally.

The Act distinguishes several levels of crimes. Firstly, it lists modes of humiliation that are both physically horrific and
morally reprehensible and seeks to punish those who (i) force a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe to drink
or eat any inedible or obnoxious substance; (iii) forcibly removes clothes from the person of a member of a Scheduled Caste
or a Scheduled Tribe or parades him or her naked or with painted face or body or commits any similar act which is derogatory
to human dignity.

Secondly, it lists actions that dispossess Dalits and Adivasis of their meagre resources or which force them into performing
slave labour. Thus, the Act sets out to punish anyone who (iv) wrongfully occupies or cultivates any land owned by, or
allotted to, … a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe or gets the land allotted to him transferred;

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At another level, the Act recognizes that crimes against Dalit and tribal women are of a specific kind and, therefore, seeks to
penalise anyone who (xi) assaults or uses force on any woman belonging to a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled Tribe with
intent to dishonour her…

Members of the Safai

A manual scavenger Karamchari Andolan
at work demolishing a dry latrine.

ADIVASI DEMANDS AND THE 1989 ACT

The 1989 Act is important for another reason – Adivasi activists refer to it to defend their right to occupy land that was
traditionally theirs.

Adivasis are often unwilling to move from their land and are forcibly displaced. Activists have asked that those who have
forcibly encroached upon tribal lands should be punished under this law. They have also pointed to the fact that this Act
merely confirms what has already been promised to tribal people in the Constitution – that land belonging to tribal people
cannot be sold to or bought by non-tribal people. In cases where this has happened, the Constitution guarantees the right of
tribal people to re-possess their land.

The central government passed

the Scheduled Tribes and Other
Traditional Forest Dwellers
(Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006.

CONCLUSION
The existence of a right or a law or even a policy on paper does not mean that it exists in reality. People have had to
constantly work on or make efforts to translate these into principles that guide the actions of their fellow citizens or even
their leaders. The desire for equality, dignity and respect is not new. It has existed in different forms throughout our history.
Similarly, even in a democratic society, similar processes of struggle, writing, negotiation and organising need to continue.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Which part of the constitution lies Fundamental Rights?

2. What is stated in Article 17 of the Constitution?

3. What do you mean by the ‘cut-off’ marks?

4. Other then framing policies, how the government guards the marginalised communities against discrimination and exploitation?

5. Which law prohibits the employment of manual scavengers as well as the construction of dry latrines?

6. Who creates specific shemes for implementation in tribal areas or in areas that have a high Dalit population?

7. List two Fundamental Rights in the Constitution that Dalits can draw upon to insist that they be treated with dignity and as
equals.

8. Which Act was framed in 1989 in response to demands made by Dalits and others?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

9. Why has our constitution provided different forms of cultural rights?

10. A part from Article 17, mention another Article in the Constitution that helps to strengthen the argument against untouchability?

11. What do you understand by cultural and educational rights?

12. Why was the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes Prevention of Atrocities Act 1989 framed?

13. Mention one scheme that our government has implemented for the upliftment of dalits and Adivasis.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

14. How does the reservation policy work?

15. Apart from making law how does government work for the marginalised in our country?

16. “The government operates laws to ensure that concrete steps are taken to end inequality in the society”. Mention one such
law.

17. Why did Adivasi activists, believe that Adivasis can also use the 1989 Act to fight against dispossession? Is there anything
specific in the provisions of the Act that follows her to believe this?

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9
Public Facilities

WATER AND THE PEOPLE OF CHENNAI

Senior government officials like Mr Ramagopal live in Anna Nagar, Chennai. This area looks lush and green with lawns
maintained by a generous spraying of water. Bungalows here have tap water for major part of the day. On days when the
water supply is inadequate, Mr Ramagopal speaks to a senior official whom he knows in the municipal water board and a
water tanker is easily arranged for his house.

Like most areas of the city, Subramanian’s apartments in Mylapore suffers from water shortage. This area gets municipal
water once in two days. A private borewell meets some of the residents’ water needs. Borewell water is, however, brackish
so the residents use it in their toilets and for washing. For other uses, water is purchased from tankers. Subramanian spends
upto Rs 500-600 per month on buying water from the tankers. For drinking water, residents have installed water purification
systems in their homes.

Siva lives on rent on the first floor of a house in Madipakkam and gets water once in four days. Shortage of water is one
major reason why Siva can’t bring his family to Chennai. For drinking, Siva buys bottled water.

Padma works as a domestic help in Saidapet and lives in the nearby slum.

She pays a rent of Rs 650 for the hutment, which has neither a bathroom nor a tap connection. For 30 such hutments there is
a common tap at one corner, in which water comes from a borewell for 20 minutes twice daily. A family gets to fill a
maximum of three buckets within this time. The same water is used for washing and drinking. In summer, the flow becomes
a trickle, so that one family gets water only at the cost of another. People have to wait long hours for water tankers.

WATER AS PART OF THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHT TO LIFE

Water is essential for life and for good health. Not only is it necessary for us to be able to meet our daily needs but safe
drinking water can prevent many water-related diseases. India has one of the largest number of cases of diseases such as
diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera. Over 1,600 Indians, most of them children below the age of five, reportedly die everyday
because of water-related diseases. These deaths can be prevented if people have access to safe drinking water.

The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. This means that
it is the right of every person, whether rich or poor, to have sufficient amounts of water to fulfill his/her daily needs at a price
that he/she can afford. In other words, there should be universal access to water.

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There have been several court cases in which both the High Courts and the Supreme Court have held that the right to safe
drinking water is a

Fundamental Right. More recently, in 2007, the Andhra Pradesh High Court restated this while hearing a case based on a
letter written by a villager of Mahbubnagar district on the contamination of drinking water. The villager’s complaint was that
a textile company was discharging poisonous chemicals into a stream near his village, contaminating ground water, which
was the source for irrigation and drinking water. The judges directed the Mahbubnagar district collector to supply 25 litres
of water to each person in the village.

PUBLIC FACILITIES
Like water, there are other essential facilities that need to be provided for everyone. Last year you read about two other such
facilities: healthcare and sanitation. Similarly, there are things like electricity, public transport, schools and colleges that are
also necessary. These are known as public facilities.

The important characteristic of a public facility is that once it is provided, its benefits can be shared by many people. For
instance, a school in the village will enable many children to get educated. Similarly, the supply of electricity to an area can
be useful for many people: farmers can run pumpsets to irrigate their fields, people can open small workshops that run on
electricity, students will find it easier to study and most people in the village will benefit in some way or the other.

THE GOVERNMENT’S ROLE

One of the most important functions of the government is to ensure that these public facilities are made available to everyone.
Let us try and understand why the government (and only the government) must bear this responsibility.

Private companies operate for profit in the market. In most of the public facilities, there is no profit to be had. A private
company will probably not be interested in undertaking such work. For some public facilities such as schools and hospitals,
private companies may well be interested. In Cities, private companies supply water through tankers or drinking water in
sealed bottles. In such cases, private companies provide public facilities but at a price that only some people can afford. This
facility is not a vailable to all at an affordable rate.

Public facilities relate to people’s basic needs. Any modern society requires that these facilities are provided so that people’s
basic needs are met. The Right to Life that the Constitution guarantees is for all persons living in this country. The responsibility
to provide public facilities, therefore, must be that of the government.

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WATER SUPPLY TO CHENNAI: IS IT AVAILABLE TO ALL?

Water supply in Chennai, as we saw at the beginning, is marked by shortages. Municipal supply meets only about half the
needs of the people of the city, on an average. There are areas which get water more regularly than others. Those areas that
are close to the storage points get more water whereas colonies further away receive less water.
The burden of shortfalls in water supply falls mostly on the poor. The middle class, when faced with water shortages, are able
to cope through a variety of private means such as digging borewells, buying water from tankers and using bottled water for
drinking.
Apart from the availability of water, access to ‘safe’ drinking water is also available to some and this depends on what one can
afford. Once again, the wealthy have more choices, thanks to the booming market in bottled water and water purifiers. People
who can afford it have safe drinking water, whereas the poor are again left out. In reality, therefore, it seems that it is only
people with money who have the right to water – a far cry from the goal of universal access to ‘sufficient and safe’ water.

IN SEARCH OF ALTERNATIVES
The shortage in municipal water is increasingly being filled by an expansion of private companies who are selling water for
profit. Also common are the great inequalities in water use. The supply of water per person in an urban area in India should
be about 135 litres per day (about seven buckets) – a standard set by the Urban Water Commission. Whereas people in slums
have to make do with less than 20 litres a day per person (one bucket), people living in luxury hotels may consume as much
as 1,600 litres (80 buckets) of water per day.

A shortage of municipal water is often taken as a sign of failure of the government. Some people argue that since the
government is unable to supply the amount of water that is needed and many of the municipal water departments are running
at a loss, we should allow private companies to take over the task of water supply. According to them, private companies can
perform better.

1. Throughout the world, water supply is a function of the government. There are very few instances of private water
supply.

2. There are areas in the world where public water supply has achieved universal access.

3. In a few cases, where the responsibility for water supply was handed over to private companies, there was a steep
rise in the price of water, making it unaffordable for many. Cities saw huge protests, with riots breaking out in
places like Bolivia, forcing the government to take back the service from private hands.

4. Within India, there are cases of success in government water departments, though these are few in number and
limited to certain areas of their work. The water supply department in Mumbai raises enough money through water
charges to cover its expenses on supplying water. In Hyderabad, a recent report shows that the department has
increased coverage and improved performance in revenue collection. In Chennai, the department has taken several
initiatives for harvesting rain water to increase the level of groundwater. It has also used the services of private
companies for transporting and distributing water but the government water supply department decides the rate for
water tankers and gives them permission to operate. Hence they are called ‘on contract’.

CONCLUSION
Public facilities relate to our basic needs and the Indian Constitution recognises the right to water, heath, education etc as
being a part of the Right to Life. Thus one of the major roles of the government is to ensure adequate public facilities for
everyone.

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The Census of India,

2001 puts rural household
electrification at 44 per cent,
leaving around 78 million
households still in the dark.

There is a shortage in supply and there are inequalities in distribution. Compared to the metros and large cities, towns and
villages are under-provided. Compared to wealthy localities, the poorer localities are under-serviced. Handing over these
facilities to private companies may not be the answer. Any solution needs to take account of the important fact that every
citizen of the country has a right to these facilities which should be provided to her/him in an equitable manner.

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. What is Sulabh ?
2. What is private industry? Give one examples.
3. How much water should be supplied to per person in an urban area in India?
4. According to the official figures of 2001 how much percent of the households in India have access to drinking water and
sanitation?
5. What alternative methods are used by the middle class to meet the water shortages?
6. What are the major sources of water in rural areas?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

7. Private ocmpanies do not take interest in undertaking the work projects of public interest. Why?
8. Mention the public facilities which are also provided be the private companies. Are they provided at affordable rate?
9. Why did the residents of Mylapore spend up to Rs. 500 - Rs. 600 per month on buying water from the tankers?
10. The Constitution of India recognises the right to water as being a part of the Right to Life under Article 21. What does this
mean?
11. Is the water distributed according to the standard set by the Urban Water Commission in India?
12. Why is it argued that the task of water supply should be handed over to private companies?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

13. Do you thing water in Chennai is available an affordable by all? Discuss.
14. How is the sale of water by farmers to water dealers in Chennai affecting the local people? Do you think local people can
object to such exploitation of gound water? Can the government do anything in this regard?
15. Do you think the distribution of public facilities in out country is adequate and fair? Give an example of you own to explain.
16. Why are most of the private hospitals and private schools located in major cities and not in towns or rural areas?

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10
Laws and Social Justice

INTRODUCTION
A chain of markets links the producer of cotton to the buyer of the shirt in the supermarket. Buying and selling was taking
place at every step in the chain. Many of the people directly or indirectly involved in the production of the shirt - the small
farmer producing cotton, the weavers of Erode or the workers in the garment - exporting factory - faced exploitation or an
unfair situation in the market. Markets everywhere tend to be exploitative of people – whether as workers, consumers or
producers.

To protect people from such exploitation, the government makes certain laws. These laws try to ensure that the unfair
practices are kept at a minimum in the markets.

Private companies, contractors, businesspersons normally want to make as much profit as they can. In the drive for profits,
they might deny workers their rights and not pay them wages, for example. In the eyes of the law it is illegal or wrong to deny
workers their wages. Similarly to ensure that workers are not underpaid, or are paid fairly, there is a law on minimum wages.
A worker has to be paid not less than the minimum wage by the employer. The minimum wages are revised upwards every
few years.

As with the law on minimum wages, which is meant to protect workers, there are also laws that protect the interests of
producers and consumers in the market. These help ensure that the relations between these three parties – the worker,
consumer and producer - are governed in a manner that is not exploitative.

The government has to ensure that these laws are implemented. This means that the law must be enforced. Enforcement
becomes even more important when the law seeks to protect the weak from the strong. For instance, to ensure that every
worker gets fair wages, the government has to regularly inspect work sites and punish those who violate the law. When
workers are poor or powerless, the fear of losing future earnings or facing repraisals often forces them to accept low wages.
Employers know this well and use their power to pay workers less than the fair wage. In such cases, it is crucial that laws are
enforced.

Workers in a textile mill in Ahmedabad.

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Therefore making, enforcing and upholding these laws, the government can control the activities of individuals or private
companies so as to ensure social justice. Many of these laws have their basis in the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the
Indian Constitution.

WHAT IS A WORKER’S WORTH?

One reason why foreign companies come to India is for cheap labour. Wages that the companies pay to workers, say in the
U.S.A., are far higher than what they have to pay to workers in poorer countries like India. For lower pay, companies can get
longer hours of work. Additional expenses such as for housing facilities for workers are also fewer. Thus, companies can
save costs and earn higher profits.

Cost cutting can also be done by other more dangerous means. Lower working conditions including lower safety measures
are used as ways of cutting costs. In the UC plant, every safety device was malfunctioning or was in short supply. Between
1980 and 1984, the work crew for the MIC plant was cut in half from 12 to 6 workers. The period of safety training for
workers was brought down from 6 months to 15 days! The post of night-shift worker for the MIC plant was abolished.

Accidents are common

to construction sites.
Yet, very often, safety
equipment and other
precautions are ignored.

ENFORCEMENT OF SAFETY LAWS

As the lawmaker and enforcer, the government is supposed to ensure that safety laws are implemented. It is also the duty of
the government to ensure that the Right to Life guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution is not violated.

With more industries being set up both by local and foreign businesses in India, there is a great need for stronger laws
protecting workers’ rights and better enforcement of these laws.

NEW LAWS TO PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT

The Bhopal disaster brought the issue of environment to the forefront. Several thousands of persons who were not associated
with the factory in any way were greatly affected because of the poisonous gases leaked from the plant. This made people
realise that the existing laws, though weak, only covered the individual worker and not persons who might be injured due to
industrial accidents.

The Indian government introduced new laws on the environment. Henceforth, the polluter was to be held accountable for the
damage done to environment. The environment is something that people over generations will share, and it could not be
destroyed merely for industrial development.

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The courts also gave a number of judgment upholding the right to a healthy environment as intrinsic to the Fundamental
Right to Life. In Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar (1991), the Supreme Court held that the Right to Life is a Fundamental
Right under Article 21 of the Constitution and it includes the right to the enjoyment of pollution-free water and air for full
enjoyment of life. The government is responsible for setting up laws and procedures that can check pollution, clean rivers
and introduce heavy fines for those who pollute.

Gas victims with the Gas Relief Minister

CONCLUSION
Laws are necessary in many situations, whether this be the market, office or factory so as to protect people from unfair
practices. Private companies, contractors, business persons, in order to make higher profits, resort to unfair practices such as
paying workers low wages, employing children for work. Ignoring the conditions of work, Ignoring the damage to the
environment (and hence to the people in the neighbourhood etc).

A major role of the government, therefore, is to control the activities of private companies by making, enforcing and upholding
laws so as to prevent unfair practices and ensure social justice. This means that the government has to make 'appropriate
laws' and also has to enforce the laws.

While the govemment has a leading role in this respect, people can exert pressure so that both private companies and the
government act in the interests of society. Environment, as we saw, is one example where people have pushed a public cause
and the courts have upheld the right to healthy environment as intrinsic to the Right to Life. People now must demand that
this facility of healthy environment be extended to all. Likewise, workers' rights is an area where the situation is still very
unfair. People must demand stronger laws protecting workers interests so that the Right to Life is achieved for all.

Class 8 183 Social Science

Civics

PRACTICE EXERCISE
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Why did Bhopal Gas tragedy occur?

2. How does the government ensure social justice?

3. Why are laws made to protect the interests of producers and consumers in the market?

4. Mention the health problems faced by the survivors of Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

5. Why does a recent report by Centre for Science and Environment has shown the presence of high levels of toxic substances
in the air?

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

6. Explain with an example that how the safety of workers in industries is disregarded both by the government and by private
companies.

7. Bhopal disaster brought the issue of enviornment to the forefront. Explain how?

8. Was Bhopal Gas Tragedy as accident? If not why?

9. What is the difference between safety systems in industries in India and USA?

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

10. How can laws ensure that markets work in a manner that is fair? Give two examples to support your answer.

11. What do we mean when we speak of law enforcement? Who is responsible for enforcement? Why is enforcement so important?

12. What are the advantages to foreign companies in setting up production in India?

13. Do you think the victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy got justice? Discuss.

Class 8 184 Social Science