GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared by: Engr. Maria Cynthia Donita M. Villasencio

Everyday is an adventure when you are a

Civil Engineer.
 CHAPTER 4
PLASTICITY AND STRUCTURE
OF SOIL

Reference: Principles of Geotechnical Engineering by Braja M. Das and Khaled Sobhan, Eighth Edition, SI
 CHAPTER 4

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Liquid Limit (LL)
4.3 Plastic Limit (PL)
4.4 Shrinkage Limit (SL)
4.5 Liquidity Index and Consistency Index
4.6 Activity
4.7 Plasticity Chart
 CLASSIFICATION OF FINE-
GRAINED SOIL

The classification system uses the term “fines” to

describe everything that passes through a Sieve No. 200
(<0.075 mm).
No attempt to distinguish between silts and clays in
terms of particle sizes since the biggest difference
between silt and clay is not their particle sizes, but their
physical and chemical structures.
The soil consistency is used as a practical and an
inexpensive way to distinguish between silts and clays.
 INTRODUCTION

When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the presence of some
moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water surrounding the
clay particles. In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a method to
describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents.
 INTRODUCTION

At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture content is very high,
the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture
content, the behavior of soil can be divided into four basic states—solid, semisolid, plastic, and
liquid—as shown in Figure 4.1.
 INTRODUCTION

The moisture content, in percent, at which the

transition from solid to semisolid state takes
place is defined as the shrinkage limit.
The moisture content at the point of transition
from semisolid to plastic state is the plastic
limit, and from plastic to liquid state is the
liquid limit.
These parameters are also known as
Atterberg limits.
This chapter describes the procedures to
determine the Atterberg limits.
Also discussed in this chapter are soil
structure and geotechnical parameters, such
as activity and liquidity index, which are
related to Atterberg limits. Plasticity index
 ATTERBERG LIMITS

Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture

content at which soil begins to behave as a
liquid material and begins to flow.
(Liquid limit of a fine-grained soil gives the moisture
content at which the shear strength of the soil is
approximately 2.5 kN/m2)

Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture

content at which soil begins to behave as a
plastic material.
 ATTERBERG LIMITS

Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the

moisture content at which no further volume
change occurs with further reduction in
moisture content.
(Shrinkage limit represents the amount of water
required to fully saturate the soil – 100% saturation)
LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

A. Casagrande Cup Method For LL:

The liquid limit is determined from an
apparatus that consists of a brass cup that is
repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base
from a height of 10 mm by a cam- operated
mechanism. The apparatus was developed by
A. Casagrande (1932) and the procedure for
the test is called Casagrande cup method.

Principle: The liquid limit is defined as the

water content at which the groove cut into the
soil will closed over a distance of 12.5 mm
following 25 blows.
LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

Note: Four or more tests at different

water contents are required ranging
from 10-40 blows. The results are
presented in a plot of water
content (ordinate, arithmetic scale)
versus terminal blows (abscissa,
logarithmic scale).
 LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

B. Plastic Limit Test:

The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads and finding the water
content at which threads approximately 3 mm in diameter will just start to crumble. Two or more
determinations are made, and the average water content is the required PL.
LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

C. Fall Cone Method For LL and PL:

A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears to offer
more accurate method of determining both LL and PL. In this
method, a cone with an apex angle of 30° and total mass of 80
grams is suspended above, but just in contact with the soil
sample. The cone is permitted to fall freely for a period of 5
seconds.

Principle: The water content corresponding to a cone penetration

of 20 mm defines the liquid limit.

Note: Four or more tests at different water contents are required

because of the difficulty of achieving LL from a single test. The
results are presented in a plot of water content (ordinate,
arithmetic scale) versus penetration (abscissa, logarithmic
scale).
 LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

Note: Four or more tests at different water contents are required because of the difficulty of achieving
LL from a single test. The results are presented in a plot of water content (ordinate, arithmetic scale)
versus penetration (abscissa, logarithmic scale).
 LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

Also, the plastic limit is found by repeating the test with a cone of similar geometry, but with a
mass of 240 grams. The penetration depth in the soil for the bigger cone mass at a given water
content will be larger than the smaller cone mass of 80 grams. Thus, the liquid state line for the
240-gram cone will be below the liquid state line for the 80-gram cone. The plastic limit is given as

where:
Δw = vertical separation in terms of water content between the two liquid state lines
M1 = mass of 80-gram cone
M2 = mass of 40-gram cone
 LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

D. Shrinkage Limit Test:

The shrinkage limit (SL) is determined as follows, a mass of wet soil (m1) is placed in a porcelain
dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven-dried. The volume of oven-dried soil is
determined by using Hg to occupy the vacant spaces caused by the shrinkage. The mass of the
Hg is determined, and the volume decrease caused by shrinkage can be calculated from the
known density of Hg ([Link].=13.6). The SL is calculated by the equation:

where:
m1, m2 = mass of wet and dry soil, respectively
V1, V2 = volume of wet and dry soil, respectively
ρW = density of water (1 gm/cc)
 LABORATORY TESTS FOR LL, PL AND SL

Another parameter that can be determined from a

shrinkage limit test is the shrinkage ratio, which is
the ratio of the volume change of soil as a
percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding
change in moisture content, or It can also be shown that

where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids

Where:
ΔV=change in volume
ΔM=corresponding change in the mass of moisture
 PLASTICITY INDEX, LIQUIDITY INDEX AND
CONSISTENCY INDEX

Plasticity Index (PI) is the range of moisture Consistency Index (CI) or relative consistency, is
content at which the soil behaves plastically, related to the LI and is an indicator of the relative
which is equal to the difference in liquid and shear strength. As CI increases, the firmness, or
plastic limit. shear strength of the soil also increases.

Liquidity Index (LI) is an index that describes

the behavior/characteristics of soil in the
natural state. It is a measure of soil strength.
PLASTICITY INDEX, LIQUIDITY INDEX AND
CONSISTENCY INDEX

Characteristics/descriptions of soil
strength based on LI:
when:
LI > 1 → soil is at liquid state
1 > LI > 0 → soil is at plastic state
LI < 0 → soil is at solid state

Also:
when LI = 1, soil is at liquid limit
when LI = 0, soil is at plastic limit
 EXAMPLE 1

Results from liquid and plastic limit tests conducted on a soil are given below.
Liquid limit tests:

Plastic limit tests: PL=13.4%

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.
b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?

Ans. 29.0, 15.6

 EXAMPLE 2

Given the laboratory results of the

Atterberg Limit Tests. Plot the
water content versus the cone
penetration.
a) Determine the Liquid Limit of
the soil.
b) Determine the Plastic Limit of
the soil.
c) Determine the Liquidity Index
of the soil.
d) What would be the nature of
the soil?

Ans. 42%, 30%, -1.033

 PRACTICE PROBLEM

Results from liquid and plastic limit tests conducted on a soil are given below.
Liquid limit tests:

Plastic limit tests: PL=19.1%

a. Draw the flow curve and obtain the liquid limit.
b. What is the plasticity index of the soil?

Ans. 23.6, 4.5

 ACTIVITY

Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular mineralogy, PI is linearly related to the
amount of clay fraction. He coined a term called activity (A) to describe the importance of the clay
fractions on PI.

Criteria for Rate of Volume Change Potential (Potential Swell)

when:
LL > 60 & and PI > 35 → Very high
LL between 50 to 60 and PI between 25 to 35 → Medium
LL < 50 and PI < 25 → Low
 PLASTICITY CHART

Casagrande (1932) studied the relationship of

the plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide
variety of natural soils. On the basis of the test
results, he proposed a plasticity chart as
shown in Figure 4.19.

The important feature of this chart is the

empirical A-line that is given by the equation
PI=0.7(LL-20).

An A-line separates the inorganic clays from

the inorganic silts.
 PLASTICITY CHART

The information provided in the plasticity chart

is of great value and is the basis for the
classification of fine-grained soils in the
Unified Soil Classification System. (See
Chapter 5.)

Note that a line called the U-line lies above

the A-line. The U-line is approximately the
upper limit of the relationship of the plasticity
index to the liquid limit for any currently known
soil. The equation for the U-line can be given
as PI=0.9(LL-8).
PLASTICITY CHART

There is another use for the A-line and

the U-line.

Casagrande has suggested that the

shrinkage limit of a soil can be
approximately determined if its plasticity
index and liquid limit are known (see
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).

This can be done in the following manner

with reference to Figure 4.20.
PLASTICITY CHART

a) Plot the plasticity index against the

liquid limit of a given soil such as
point A in Figure 4.20.
b) Project the A-line and the U-line
downward to meet at point B. Point
B will have the coordinates of
LL=43.5 and PI =46.5.
c) Join points B and A with a straight
line. This will intersect the liquid limit
axis at point C. The abscissa of
point C is the estimated shrinkage
limit.
 EXAMPLE 3

Following are the results of a shrinkage limit test:

Initial volume of soil in a saturated state = 24.6 cm3
Final volume of soil in a dry state = 15.9 cm3
Initial mass in a saturated state = 44.0 g
Final mass in a dry state = 30.1 g

1. Determine the shrinkage limit of the soil.

2. Determine the shrinkage ratio of the soil.
3. Also estimate the specific gravity of the soil solids

Ans. 17.28%, 1.89, 2.81