CHEMISTRY FORM 4 REVISION KIT

METALS

©Edited 2025-2026
 CHEMISTRY PP2
KCSE MAPPING ON METALS 1995-2025

YEAR METALS QUESTION YEAR METALS QUESTION

1995 COPPER Q.4 2014 ALUMINIUM Q.6
1996 ALUMINIUM Q.3 2016 ALUMINIUM Q.5
1999 SODIUM Q.4 2017 LEAD Q.6
2000 LEAD Q.2 2019 ZINC Q.2
2002 COPPER Q.6 2020 IRON Q.3
2003 ALUMINIUM Q.5 2021 - -
2005 SODIUM Q.7 2022 - -
2006 IRON Q.6 2023 ? ?
2009 IRON Q.7
2010 ZINC Q.6
 EXTRACTION OF METALS

General method of extracting metals

❑Metals can be extracted from rocks called Ores. Extraction of metals from their ores involves the
following general processes.
❑Very few metal ores are concentrated enough for the metal to be extracted without first purifying the ore
to concentrate it. The process of concentrating an ore may include:
(i) Removing any magnetic materials with a magnet.
(ii) Dissolving the mineral in a suitable solvent.
(iii) Washing with water to remove earthy matter.
(iv) Froth flotation.
This is one of the methods used in purifying metal ores. The ore is ground into a fine powder. It is then
mixed with water containing special oils such as pine oil as frothing agents and air blown into the
mixture. Separation is possible because of the different densities of the materials. This imparts an oil coat
in every grain of the ore making it hydrophobic (‘water hating’). This creates two layers. A froth forms
on top with most of the minerals and the waste materials or impurities at the bottom. The top layer with
the metal of interest is removed and dried in readiness for further processing. Copper pyrites, zinc blende
and galena one concentrated this way.
❑The method of extraction of a metal depends on the metal’s reactivity. The most reactive
metals such as sodium are obtained by electrolysis. The less reactive metals such as iron
are extracted by reduction of their oxides using
suitable reducing agents.
 SODIUM
Occurrence

❑Sodium naturally occurs as:

(i) Brine-a concentrated solution of sodium chloride (NaCl(aq)) in salty seas and
oceans.
(ii) Rock salt (solid sodium chloride)-NaCl(s)
(ii) Trona sodium (sodium hydrogen carbonate)-(NaHCO3.Na2CO3.2H2O) especially in lake
Magadi in Kenya.
(iv) Chile saltpeter (sodium nitrate)-(NaNO3)
❑The ores from which sodium can be extracted are sodium chloride (NaCl) and Rock salt.
❑The chief ore from which sodium is extracted is rock salt because it is the most abundant
and also requires very little purification.
 Extraction Process

• Sodium is very reactive therefore can only be extracted by electrolysis. It is

extracted by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride in a Down’s cell; hence the process is
commonly referred to as the Down’s process.

The Down’s process

• This process takes place in a Down’s cell as shown in the figure below.
❑The Down’s cell consists of:
I. An iron shell lined with heat bricks forming heat resistant wall, its purpose is to
maintain the high temperature so that the electrolyte does not crystallize . It also
contains the mixture of salts to be electrolyzed.
II. A carbon (graphite) anode: This is where chloride ions are discharged to form the
chlorine gas which escapes through the hood.
III. A circular steel/Iron cathode: This is where sodium ions are discharged to form
molten sodium.
IV. steel diaphragm/gauze: is suspended between the electrodes to prevent
recombination of sodium at the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode back to sodium
chloride.
❑Calcium chloride is added to the sodium chloride to lower the melting point of sodium
chloride from about 800°C to 600°C.
❑The advantage of lowering the melting point of sodium chloride is save the cost of
electricity used in heating since is economical.
❑During electrolysis, sodium metal forms at the cathode whereas chlorine gas forms at the anode.
At the Anode: chloride ions are discharged to form chlorine gas.
2Cl- (l) → Cl2 (g) +2e-
❑Anode is made of graphite because. graphite is inert and does not react with chlorine gas even at
high temperature
At the cathode: Sodium ions are discharged to form molten sodiu
Na+(l) + e- → Na(l)
❑Molten sodium is less dense than molten sodium chloride, hence it rises to the top of the cathode from
where it is periodically removed.
❑The hood is used to collect the chlorine gas and channel it out, where it is tapped to prevent it from
being released to the atmosphere as it is poisonous and hazardous to environment.
❑ Liquid Calcium can also be discharged at the cathode, the calcium is separated from molten sodium
because:
i.) Calcium has a higher melting point compared to sodium so on cooling it crystallises
first leaving liquid sodium which is trapped.
ii. calcium liquid is more dense than molten sodium
• Sodium ion is preferably discharged instead of calcium ion at the cathode because:
i. Sodium ions are lower in electrochemical series than calcium ions.
ii. Sodium ions have higher concentration in the electrolyte than calcium ions.
Advantages of Downs cell.
Sodium metal obtained has high degree of purity (99.5%). The
starting material, sodium chloride is very cheap. Chlorine is obtained
as a useful by-product.

NB:
The industry that can be built next to a sodium extraction plant is industrial manufacture of
hydrochloric acid since choline which a by-product in the extraction of sodium used as a raw material in
the manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
❑A high current of about 35,000 amperes is passed through the electrolyte which is molten sodium
chloride to:
i. To decompose the ore.
ii. Maintain the ore in liquid state due to resistance.

Environmental effects of Downs cell.

I. Chlorine gas produced is poisonous when inhaled.
II. Formation of gullies
III. Noise pollution
 Uses of Sodium

I. Used in sodium vapour lamps to give a yellow light in street lighting.

II. An alloy of potassium and sodium is used as coolant in nuclear reactors because it
has a low melting point and is a good conductor of heat.
III. Used in the manufacture of sodium peroxide which is used as a bleaching agent
and sodium cyanide which is used in the extraction of gold.
IV. Molten sodium is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of titanium from its chloride.
 ALLUMINIUM METAL

Occurrence
❑Aluminium is also a very reactive metal and therefore does not occur freely. It is found in compounds
with other elements.
❑Aluminium is the most common naturally occurring metal. It makes 7% of the earths crust.
❑These are some examples of aluminium ores.

Ores Chemical name Formula

Bauxite Hydrated aluminium oxide Al2 O3 .2H2 O
Mica Potassium aluminium silicate K 2 Al 2 Si 6 O 6
Corundum Anhydrous aluminium oxide Al2O3
China clay Aluminium silicate Al2SiO5
 Extraction of Aluminium

❑ The chief ore from which aluminium is extracted is (Al2O3.2H2O).

❑ Aluminum is extracted by the electrolytic method because it is a reactive metal. The ore is concentrated before it
is electrolysed.
Concentration of the ore
❑ Mining of bauxite is done through open cast method. The bauxite has a lot of impurities which include mud and
other major impurities such as iron (III) oxide and silicon (IV) oxide (sand).
❑ The impurities are removed during the process of concentration through the following steps.
Step 1: Removal of iron (III) oxide:
❑ Bauxite is ground into a fine powder to increase the surface area of ore and then heated to remove water of
crystallization, then dissolved in hot concentrated sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution under
pressure of about 4 atmosphere.
❑ The aluminium oxide dissolve in concentrated sodium hydroxide to form sodium tetrahydroxoaluminate because
it is amphoteric oxide.
❑Silicon(IV) oxide also dissolves in concentrated sodium hydroxide because it is an
acidic in nature to form sodium silicate and water.

❑Iron (III)oxide being insoluble in the base is filtered off as a residue (red mud) to obtain a
filtrate containing aluminate and silicate ions. The filtrated is then cooled.
 Step II: Formation of Aluminium Hydroxide
❑Aluminium hydroxide can be obtained in two ways
i. Treating the filtrate (sodium tetrahydroxo aluminate) with carbon (IV) oxide gas which
precipitates aluminium hydroxide leaving the silicate in solution.
2Na[Al (OH)4] (aq) + CO2(g) → 2Al (OH)3 (s) + NaCO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

i. The filtrate can be diluted with water, then agitated in air to enhance hydrolysis of the
aluminate ions and finally seeded with freshly prepared aluminium hydroxide.

❑The aluminium (III) hydroxide (Al (OH)3) residue is filtered off. Silicon (IV)oxide remain in
the solution as filtrate.
 Step III: Roasting of Aluminium Hydroxide
❑Aluminium hydroxide is then heated at temperatures of about 1000˚C to give aluminium oxide
and water.

1000˚C

Step IV: Electrolysis of Aluminium oxide

❑The aluminium oxide is first melted to allow the ions to move freely towards the electrodes
within the molten electrolyte and then electrolysed. Aluminium oxide is composed of
aluminium ions, Al3+ and oxide ions, O2–.
❑ Pure aluminium (III)oxide (Al2O3) has a very high melting point of 2015 oC. Alot of energy is
required to melt the oxide.
It is therefore dissolved first in molten cryolite /sodium hexafluoro-aluminate (III) (Na3AlF6) to
lower the melting point to about 800oC. - 1000˚C.
❑ Advantage of lowering of melting point is to minimize the cost of electricity hence
economical.
❑The molten electrolyte is put in the Hall cell made up of a steel tank lined with carbon
graphite and an anode suspended into the electrolyte.
❑During electrolysis, aluminium is deposited at the cathode and oxygen is liberated at the anode.
❑The reactions taking place at the electrodes are as follows:

❑Multiply 1st equation by 4 and 2nd by 3 to balance the number of electrons at the cathode and anode:

❑Therefore, the final equations at the cathode and anode are:

❑Aluminium is denser than the electrolyte therefore sink to the bottom of the Hall cell and it
is tapped off at intervals.
❑At the high temperature of about 800°C, the oxygen evolved reacts with the carbon
electrode to form carbon (IV) oxide. This corrodes the carbon anode which should be
replaced from time to time.
Aluminium ore + impurjties 1 Crushing I
Powdered alu-
{bauxite, Al10r2H20) ... I
m•mum ore
Fc Ois) and Si02(s)
Heat lng to
rCIJ'II O'VC
water

Impure
bauxite (AI.,0 1)
Fc 03, Sib:!

Hea ting
wi th cone.
NaOH

Sodium a l uminatc
a[Al(OH).s](aq) with
impurities. N Si0 1(aq)
and Fc.,O (s)
- I

Filter to
rcmo"·c
impun tics
Sodium aumina c(IU)
soluion Na.,SiO{aq)
Treat with
carbon(IV)
S i 3(aq)l• I oxide to
preci pitate
Aluminium
hydroxide
and fihcr

Alr(OH 3)
Heat ooo·c
Molten I- di ssolvc in
A l101(1) cryolite I Pure bauxite (A 20)
m. crvoljtc

Electrolysis

Pure
alumin i um
 Uses of Aluminium
I. Used in making aeroplane parts, buses, tankers, furniture because aluminium is very light.
II. Used making duralumin-an alloy which is harder and has a higher tensile strength. Duralumin is
used in the construction of aircraft and car window frames.
III. Used making utensils, sauce pans, spoons because it is light, good conductor of electricity and
Malleable.
❑Malleability means metal can be hammered into a thin sheet
IV. Used making overhead electric cables because it is light, ductile and good conductor of electricity
and is light.
❑ Ductile means that the metal can be made into thin wires.
V. Used in the thermite process as a reducing agent for production of Manganese, Chromium and
Titanium.
VI. Some aluminium compounds are used in sewage treatment.
VII. Manufacture of aluminium paint. This is used in coating radiators, storage tanks and other metal
works.
[Link] the manufacture of explosives e.g. a mixture of ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder is
explosive.
 Environmental effects of extracting Aluminium from Bauxite

❑Carbon (IV)oxide gas that escape to the atmosphere is a green house gas that causes
global warming.
❑Bauxite is extracted by open caste mining that causes land degradation.

Test for presence of Al3+

❑If an ore is suspected to contain Al3+ it is;
i. Crushed and added hot Nitric (V) acid to free the ions present.
ii. the free ions are then added a precipitating reagent like 2M sodium hydroxide
or 2M aqueous ammonia.
Observation Inference
White precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Pb2+ , Al3+, Zn2+
White precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Pb2+ , Al3+
No black precipitate on adding Na2S(aq) Al3+

No white precipitate on adding either Al3+

NaCl(aq),HCl(aq), H2SO4(aq),Na2SO4(aq)
 IRON
Occurrence
❑Iron is the second most common naturally occurring metal. It makes 4% of the
earths crust. Below are the ores when iron can be extracted.

❑The most abundant ores which are normally used for extracting iron are magnetite
and haematite. With the chief ore being haematite.
❑The ores of iron contain silica (SiO2) and aluminium (II) oxide as impurities.
 Extraction Process
❑Iron is usually extracted from its oxides or siderite. The following are the raw materials:
(i) Haematite(Fe2O3)
(ii) Coke/charcoal/ carbon
(iii) Limestone

❑Iron extraction involves the following steps.

Step I: Preparation of the Ore

❑The chief ore can be prepared by heating either iron pyrites (FeS2) or siderite (FeCO3) in air.
❑The iron pyrites (FeS2) or siderite (FeCO3) is first crushed after which it is heated in air. The process
of heating removes water and other impurities with low melting points. This gives iron ore with about
30 – 95% of iron(III) oxide depending on the quality of the ore. The other remaining percentage are
impurities such as silica (SiO2 ) and alumina (Al2O3 ). These are the main impurities.
❑Sulphide and carbonate ores are converted to chief ore (haematite) by roasting in air as
follows:

Step II: Preparation of the Ore

❑This is carried out in the blast furnace as shown in figure below;

 C02, CO

3000c

5000C

6000C

16000C
❑The raw materials are fed into the blast furnace. This is done through hoppers at the top of
the furnace. The raw materials are:
• iron ore –(mainly haematite, iron(III) oxide).
• coke –which is a cheap form of carbon made from coal.
• limestone –which is used to remove wastes.
❑The furnace is covered with inverted double cap to reduce amount of any gases escaping .
❑Near the base, blast of hot air at about 827 oC is driven into the furnace through small holes
called Tuyeres. As the air enters ,it reacts with coke to form carbon(IV)oxide gas. This
reaction is highly exothermic, hence raises the temperature of the furnace to 1600°C.
❑As the carbon(IV) oxide rises up the middle of the furnace, it reacts with more coke
reducing it to carbon(II) oxide gas. This reaction is endothermic and hence the temperature
drops to about 1000°C.

❑The carbon(II) oxide gas formed then reduces the chief ore (Iron(III) oxide) to iron metal
and it being oxidized to carbon(IV) oxide . This reaction takes place at the upper part of the
furnace at temperatures of about 5000 – 700oC. Both carbon and carbon (II) oxide ac as
reducing agents.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe (s) + CO2(g)
❑Carbon(II) oxide is the main reducing agent because of the large surface that is in
contact with the iron(III) oxide.
❑The carbon (II) oxide gas produced is recycled.
❑The iron produced denser than iron ore hence falls to the lower part of the furnace where the
temperatures are high enough to keep it molten. The temperature at this region is about
15350C – 30000C.
❑The limestone fed into the furnace alongside coke and iron (II) oxide is decomposed by heat
in the furnace to form calcium oxide and carbon (IV) oxide.
CaCO3(s) Heat CaO(s) + CO2(s)
❑The limestone helps in the removal of the sandy impurities which include acidic
impurities in the ore to form a liquid slag.
❑Calcium oxide (Quicklime)being basic reacts with the amphoteric oxide impurities
silicon (IV) oxide (SiO2) and aluminium (III) oxide (Al2O3) in the ore to form slag
which are calcium silicate and calcium aluminate.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) → CaAl2O3(l)
❑ Note: The main component of the slag is calcium silicate.
❑The role of the slag is to prevent Iron from being oxidized by hot air.
❑ The slag formed is tapped off at a higher level of the furnace because of its lower density
and also it is immiscible with molten iron. The iron obtained from the blast furnace is 90–
95% pure and it is called “pig Iron”. The main impurity in pig iron is carbon. Other
impurities are silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus, depending on the composition of
the original ore.
❑The 5% of carbon can be reduced by blowing oxygen into molten iron which converts
carbon into carbon (iv) Oxide.
Effect of the impurities on the Iron
i. Impurities make iron less hard and brittle.
ii. Impurities lowers the melting point of iron.
USES OF THE SLAG

❑The slag tapped can be used in; (i) tarmacking roads

(ii)cement manufacture
(iii)As building construction material
 USES OF IRON

❑Iron is mainly used to make:

i. Gates ,pipes, engine blocks, rails, charcoal iron boxes, lamp posts because it is cheap

ii. Nails, cutlery, scissors, sinks, vats, spanners, steel rods, and railway points from steel.
 Environmental effects of extracting iron from blast furnace.

i. Carbon(IV)oxide (CO2) gas is a green house gas that causes global warming if allowed to
escape from the furnace.
ii. Carbon (II)oxide (CO)gas is a highly poisonous odourless gas that can kill on leakage. It is
preferentially absorbed by the haemoglobin in mammals instead of Oxygen to form a stable
compound that reduce free hemoglobin in the blood.
iii. Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Siderite (FeCO 3) are
extracted through open cast mining that cause soil degradation.
 TEST FOR THE PRESENCE OF IRON

❑Iron naturally exist in its compound as Fe2+ /Fe3+ .

The ore is first ground into fine powder then hot concentrated sulphuric (VI)or Nitric(V)acid is
added to free the ions present. The free ions are then added a precipitating reagents such as 2M
sodium hydroxide or 2M aqueous ammonia which forms;
i. an insoluble green precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide or 2M
aqueous ammonia if Fe2+ ions are present.
ii. an insoluble brown precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide or 2M
aqueous ammonia if Fe3+ ions are present.
Observation Inference

green precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Fe2+

green precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Fe2+

brown precipitate in excess 2M NaOH(aq) Fe3+

brown precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Fe3+

 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

KCSE CHEMISTRY PAPER 2

2006 Q.6,
2009 Q.7 and
2020 Q.3
 ZINC
OCCURRENCE
❑Zinc is a transition element whose valence electron is 2. it occurs mainly as calamine (zinc carbonate),
zinc blende (zinc sulphide). In Kenya the zinc blende is found at Kaloleni near Mombasa.
❑The chief ores of Zinc are;

Common name Chemical name Formula

Zinc blende Zinc sulphide ZnS

Calamine Zinc carbonate

ZnCO3

❑Zinc blende is often found mixed with galena (PbS).

 Extraction Process of Zinc
❑ The chief ore from which zinc is extracted is zinc blende (zinc sulphide). Zinc blende
generally contains quite considerable amount of impurities e.g. lead(II) sulphide, silica etc.

Step 1: concentration of the ore

❑This is done to increase the percentage of zinc in the ore. The ore is concentrated by froth flotation.
In froth flotation, the Zinc blende ore is ground into a fine powder. It is then mixed with water
containing pine oil and air is blown into the mixture. A
froth form at the top with most of the ore and the impurities at the bottom. Top layer with the zinc
blende is removed and dried.
Step 2: Roasting of the ore in air
❑The concentrated ore is then roasted in air to obtain Zinc oxide which is easily
reduced by Carbon (II) oxide to zinc.
❑Zinc blende is roasted in presence of air to form Zinc oxide and
sulphur(IV) oxide gas.

❑ lead (II) Sulphide (galena) as a useful impurity also reacts with air to form Lead (II) oxide and
Sulphur (IV) oxide gas.
Step 3: Reduction of zinc oxide using coke or carbon and carbon (II) oxide
❑ The oxides from the roaster is mixed with coke and limestone are fed into the furnace then
heated at about 1300◦C. This temperature has to be maintained to prevent re-oxidation to
zinc oxide. The metal oxides are reduced to their respective metals.
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(g) + CO(g)
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(g) + CO2(g)
PbO(s) + C(s) → Pb(l) + CO(g)
PbO(s) + CO(s) → Pb(l) + CO2(g)
❑At the furnace temperature which is maintained above 1,000°C;
i. Zinc has a boiling point of 913°C. It is a vapour and is collected at the top of the furnace. It is
cooled very rapidly to 600°C by mixing it with a spray of molten lead. The
lead spray condenses the zinc and prevents it from being re-oxidised.
 At this temperature liquid zinc separates and settles above the molten lead since it is less dense and
is run off.
ii. Lead is a liquid and is able trickle to the bottom of the furnace from where it can be taped off.

❑At the furnace temperatures limestone decomposes to quicklime/CaO and produce Carbon (IV)oxide
gas.
Heat

❑The carbon(IV) oxide is reduced by coke to carbon(II) oxide.

❑Calcium Oxide combines with silica and is removed as slag.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)

Step 3: Electrolytic Extraction of Zinc.

❑The zinc oxide obtained from the roaster is converted to zinc sulphate.

❑Any lead oxide present reacts with the acid to form lead (II) sulphate which is insoluble and is
therefore precipitated.
▪ The zinc sulphate is then dissolved in water and the solution electrolysed. The cathode is made of
lead containing 1% silver and the anode is made of aluminium sheets. The electrode reactions are:
Cathode
▪ Zinc ions are discharged.

▪ If graphite electrode were used, hydrogen gas would have been evolved instead. Zinc is
stripped off the cathode regularly. The metal is about 99.5% pure.
Anode
▪ Hydroxide ions are discharged in preference to sulphate ions.
 Flow chart on extraction of Zinc
from Calamine ,Zinc blende. CO2 from SO2 from
calamine zinc blende

Zinc ore (zinc blende or Oil Water

calamine) Powdered ore

Froth flotation Roasting chamber

Limestone
Water Filtration
Coke/carbon Roasting chamber

Granulating tank Condenser

Slag
Granulated Zinc Liquid Lead Calcium silicate
 Uses of Zinc

i. Zinc is used to galvanise iron to prevent it from rusting.

ii. To make brass, an alloy of copper and zinc.
ii. Making of outer casing in dry batteries.
 Environmental Effects of Extracting Zinc

i. Carbon (IV)oxide produced is a green house gas that causes global warming.
ii. Carbon (II)oxide formed is a colourless and odourless poisonous gas that combines with
haemoglobin in the blood to form stable carboxyhaemoglobin reducing free haemoglobin
leading to death.
iii. Sulphur (IV)oxide is a gas that has a pungent poisonous smell that causes headache to
human if in high concentration.
iv. Any leakages in Sulphur (IV)oxide gas escapes to the water bodies to form weak
sulphuric(VI)acid lowering the pH of the water. This causes marine pollution /death of
aquatic life, accelerated rusting/corrosion of metals/roofs and breathing problems to human
beings.
 Revision Exercise

CHEMISTRY PAPER 2
KCSE
2010 Q.6
2019Q.2
 LEAD
Occurrence
▪ Its chief ore is galena (PbS). Other ores of less industrial importance are cerussite (PbCO3)
and anglesite (PbSO 4).
Extraction
▪ The ore is first ground into a fine powder and then concentrated through froth floatation. The
concentrated ore is then roasted in air to obtain lead (II) oxide and Sulphur (IV) oxide.
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2PbO(s) +2SO2(g)
▪ The lead (II) oxide from the roaster is mixed with coke and calcium carbonate (limestone).
The mixture is then heated in a blast furnace.
▪ The lead (II) oxide is reduced by the coke to lead.
2PbO(s) +C(s) → Pb(s) +CO 2(g)
▪ Iron is added to the blast furnace to reduce any remaining lead sulphide to lead.
Fe(s) + PbS(s) → FeS(l) + Pb(s)
▪ Calcium oxide combine with silica to form calcium silicate which is a slag.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO 3(l)
▪ The iron (II) sulphide and calcium silicate form slag which is tapped off separately from the lead.
▪ The lead produced by the method is not pure. Pure lead is obtained by blowing a blast of air
through the molten impure lead. Oxygen in the air oxidises the impurities into compounds
which are less dense than lead. These compounds float on the molten lead and are skimmed
off.
▪ More pure lead can be obtained by electrolysis.
▪ The cathode is made of a pure strip of lead while the impure lead is made the anode as
shown in figure below. At the cathode, lead is deposited while at the anode lead dissolves.
At the cathode: Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s)
At the anode: Pb(s) → Pb2+(aq) + 2e-
 Uses of Lead

▪ Lead is used in:

i. Making gun-burettes.

ii. Making protective clothes against nuclear (alpha rays/particle) radiation in a nuclear
reactor.
iii. Mixed with tin (Sn) to make solder alloy.
 TEST FOR ZINC OR LEAD

▪ Crush the ore suspected to contain Zin or Lead and add hot concentrated Nitric (IV)
acid to free the ions present.
Note: Concentrated Sulphuric(VI)acid forms insoluble PbSO4 thus cannot be used to
free the ions in Lead salts.
▪ The free ions are then added a precipitating reagent mostly 2M sodium hydroxide or 2M
aqueous ammonia with the formation of;
i. a soluble precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide if Zn2+ ,Pb2+ , Al3+ions are present.
ii. a white precipitate that dissolves to form a colorless solution in excess 2M aqueous ammonia if
Zn2+ions are present.
iii. an insoluble white precipitate in excess 2M aqueous ammonia if Pb2+ , Al3+ions are present.
iv. Pb2+ ions form a white precipitate when any soluble SO4 2- , SO3 2- , CO3 2- , Cl- , is added
while Al 3+ ions do not form a white precipitate.
v. Pb2+ ions form a yellow precipitate when any soluble I- (e.g. Potassium/sodium Iodide) is
added while Al3+ ions do not form a yellow precipitate.
vi. Pb2+ ions form a black precipitate when any soluble S- (e.g. Potassium/sodium sulphide) is
added while Al3+ ions do not form a black precipitate.i.e;
Observation Inference

White precipitate in excess 2M NaOH (aq) Zn 2+ , Pb2+ , Al 3+ ions

White precipitate that dissolves to form a colourless solution in excess 2M NH3(aq) Zn 2+ ions

White precipitate in excess 2M NH3(aq) Pb2+ , Al 3+ ions

White precipitate on adding about 4 drops of either Na 2CO3(aq), Na2SO3(aq), Na2SO4(aq), Pb2+ ions
H2SO4(aq), HCl(aq), NaCl(aq)

Yellow precipitate on adding about 4 drops of of KI(aq), NaI (aq) Pb2+ ions
Black precipitate on adding aout 4 drops of Na2S(aq)/K2S(aq) Pb2+ ions
 REVISION EXERCISE

CHEMISTRY PAPER 2
KCSE
2000 Q.2
2017 Q.6
 COPPER
Occurrence
▪ Copper is also a transition element. It combines with other elements in which it exhibits two oxidation
states, copper(I) and copper (II) compounds. Table below shows a list of copper ores.

Common name Chemical name formula

Copper pyrites Copper iron disulphide CuFeS2
Cuprite Copper (II) oxide CuO
Malachite Basic copper carbonate [Link](OH)2
chalcocite Copper sulphide Cu2 S
 Extraction Process of Copper

▪ Most of copper that we use is extracted from copper pyrites CuFeS2

▪ The extraction process involves the following steps.
i. Concentration of the
ore. ii. Reduction of
copper ore.
iii. Refining of copper by electrolysis
Step 1: Concentration of copper ore
▪ Copper is mostly extracted from copper pyrites which is the chief ore. Copper pyrites are
first crushed into fine powder. The powdered ore is then added water and oil. The purpose of
water is to dissolve hydrophilic substances. The purpose of oil is to make cover copper ore particle
so as to make it hydrophobic. Air is blown through the mixture. Air creates bubbles that stick
around hydrophobic copper ore. The air bubbles raise through buoyancy small hydrophobic copper
ore particles to the surface. A concentrated ore floats at the top as froth. This is called froth
flotation. The concentrated ore is then skimmed off. Most of the rocky impurities, including silicon
(IV)oxide settle at the bottom of the tank.
Step 2: Reduction of copper ore
▪ The concentrated ore is then roasted in a limited supply of air to obtain copper(I) sulphide, iron
(II) oxide and sulphur (IV) oxide. This process is carried out in large flat furnaces to create large
surface area.

▪ Silicon (IV)oxide (silica) is then added and the mixture is heated in the absence of air. The silica
reacts with iron (II) oxide to form iron (II) silicate which separates out as a slag leaving behind the
copper(I) sulphide.
FeO(l) + SiO2 (l) FeSiO 3(l)
▪ Copper(I)sulphide is then heated in a regulated supply of air where some of it is converted to
copper (I) oxide.
2Cu2S (s) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(l) + 2SO2(g)

▪ The mixture then undergo self - reduction in which copper(I)oxide is reduced by

copper(I)sulphide to copper metal.
Cu2S(l) + 2Cu2O(l) 6Cu(l) + SO 2(g)
▪ The Sulphur (IV) oxide produced in the process is either fed into adjacent Sulphuric (IV) acid plant or
scrubbed using calcium hydroxide.
SO2(g) + Ca (OH)2(aq) CaSO3(s) + H2O(l)
▪ NB: The industry that can be built next to a copper extraction plants is industrial manufacture of
Sulphuric (VI) acid since sulphur(IV) oxide which a by-product in the extraction of copper used as a
raw material in the manufacture of Sulphuric (VI) acid (contact process).
▪ The copper produced in this process is called blister copper. This is because when the liquid copper
metal formed is cooled, it starts to solidify and in the process, release bubbles of sulphur (IV) oxide
gas which gives it a blistered appearance. The blister copper produced is
95% to 97% pure. The copper produced by this method can be used for making boilers and pipes
only. For copper to be used for electrical wiring, it must be refined or purified by electrolysis.
Step 3: Refining copper by electrolysis
▪ To obtain 99.98% pure copper , the refining is done through electrolysis. A cell is set up using
copper electrodes. The impure copper is made the anode and the pure copper the cathode. The
electrolyte is copper(II) sulphate solution to which sulphuric acid has been [Link] passing the
current, electrolysis takes place and the impure copper (anode) dissolves. Copper(II) ions, Cu 2+
are formed. These ions are discharged on the pure copper cathode. The cathode gains mass as
copper is deposited on it as shown in the figure below.
 BaUery
.....-+-.... - .....

Impure copper
---++--... ......_-++- Pu re copper
as a n ode as cathod e
_
:-coppe r sulphate
Sludge solution
(Go ld,si'lve r '
a nd Pl atinum)

• The cathode gets bigger as the anode gets smaller and smaller. This is because of the
reactions shown below.
 At the cathode At the anode

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) Cu (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Note: The copper
Note: Cu2+ ions are discharged to anode gets dissolved to form copper(II)
form copper metal. The cathode ions, Cu2+ . The anode loses mass as
therefore gains mass as copper is copper dissolves. Impurities are dropped
deposited in it. below the electrode.

▪ The blue colour of the copper (II) sulphate solution does not fade because the
concentration of the Cu2+ ions remains the same. This is because as they get used up at
the cathode, they are replenished at the anode.
 Flow Char t For Extraction of Copper

Chief Ore Crush Froth

Powdered ore Concentrated ore
(Copper pyrite) Floatation
Roasting in air
SO2 released

Cu2S + FeO
Strongly heated in FeSiO3(l)
furnance with air slag
Separation Copper (I) Oxide (Cu2O) (controlled)
Blister Copper (I) sulphide
+
copper Cu2S
Blister copper
Purification Cu2 O reacts with
by remaining Cu2 S SO2 released
electrolysis Purification by
electrolysis
Blister
Pure copper
copper
 chart summary of extraction of copper
I \Vater I Oil

Copper pyrites(GuFeS2) ore \villi 1

impurities Fe103 and Si02 , Froth flotation
stu·face area)
l
I F-=r m I
,
I Rock)• impurities I
oxide Limestone
I 1sl roasting chamber
r- Concentration
chamber

Cu2S

Smelting firu:nace-
/ I Sulphm(l\l)Oxide
I

I Limit·ed air I
,
Calciillm
aluminate
Iron Silicate
(FeSiOJ )Sag n [Link]
2"d :roasting furnace

(Ca.l\.hO")slag ..
I
I Impur·e copper Self redtJction
I .Sulphw{IV)Oxide
l
Eled:rolysis using Coppe r electrod es
J.
I
+ l
Cathode; Pure Copper deposited.
Anod!e; Impure Copper 'eroded.
- . .. - .. -.
 Uses of Copper
▪ Copper is mainly used in:
(i) making low voltage electric cables, contact switches, cockets and plugs because it is a
good conductor of electricity.
(ii) Making solder because it is a good thermal conductor.
(iii)Making useful alloys e.g.
▪ Brass is an alloy of copper and Zinc (Cu/Zn)
▪ Bronze is an alloy of copper and Tin (Cu/Sn)
▪ German silver is an alloy of copper ,Zinc and Nickel (Cu/Zn/Ni)
iv. Making coins and ornaments.
 Environmental Effects of Extracting Copper from Copper Pyrites

(i) Sulphur (IV)oxide is a gas that has a pungent poisonous smell that causes head ache to human
in high concentration.
(ii) Sulphur (IV)oxide gas if allowed to escape dissolves in water /rivers/rain to form weak sulphuric
(IV)acid lowering the pH of the water leading to marine pollution, accelerated corrosion/rusting of
metals/roofs and breathing problems to human beings.
(iii) Copper is extracted by open caste mining leading to land /environmental /soil
degradation.
 Test for the Presence of Copper in an Ore

▪ Copper naturally exist in its compound as Cu2+ /Cu+ .

▪ Copper (I) / Cu+ is readily oxidized to copper(II)/ Cu 2+
If an ore is suspected to contain Cu 2+ /Cu+ it is;
(i) added hot concentrated sulphuric(VI)/Nitric(V)acid to free the ions present.
(ii) the free ions are then added a precipitating reagent; 2M sodium hydroxide /2M
aqueous ammonia which forms;
I. an insoluble blue precipitate in excess of 2M sodium hydroxide if Cu2+ ions are
present.
II. an insoluble blue precipitate in 2M aqueous ammonia that dissolve to deep blue solution
in excess if Cu2+ ions are present.
Observation Inference
cu-+

blu percip
itate,dis olve ot oyaVde p
solution im exces 2 NH3(a )
 REVISION EXERCISE

CHEMISTRY PAPER 2
KCSE
1995 Q.4,
2002 Q.6