1.
Digestive System – Introduction
Definition
Digestive system is a system of organs that ingests food, digests it, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste.
Main Functions
Ingestion – taking food into mouth
Digestion – breaking food into simple substances
Absorption – nutrients enter blood/lymph
Assimilation – use of absorbed nutrients by body
Defecation – removal of undigested waste
Components
Alimentary canal
Accessory digestive organs
2. Alimentary Canal (Gastrointestinal Tract)
Definition
A long muscular tube extending from mouth to anus.
Parts of Alimentary Canal
Mouth (Oral cavity)
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Large intestine
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal canal
3. Accessory Digestive Organs
Salivary glands
Liver
Gall bladder
Pancreas
(They help in digestion but food does not pass through them.)
4. Physiological Anatomy of Alimentary Canal
Basic Structure (Wall layers) – From inside to outside
Mucosa
Epithelium
Lamina propria
Muscularis mucosa
Function: secretion, absorption, protection
Submucosa
Connective tissue
Blood vessels
Nerves
Function: support and nourishment
Muscular layer (Muscularis externa)
Inner circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
Function: peristalsis and mixing of food
Serosa / Adventitia
Outer protective layer
Serosa present in intraperitoneal organs
Adventitia in retroperitoneal organs
5. Nerve Supply of Alimentary Canal
A. Extrinsic Nerve Supply (Autonomic Nervous System)
1. Parasympathetic Nerves
Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) – up to transverse colon
Pelvic nerves – distal colon and rectum
Function:
Increases motility
Increases secretion
Relaxation of sphincters
2. Sympathetic Nerves
From thoracic and lumbar segments
Function:
Decreases motility
Decreases secretion
Contraction of sphincters
6. Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
Definition
A local nervous system present within the wall of the alimentary canal.
Important Feature
It can function independently without CNS control.
7. Plexuses of Enteric Nervous System
1. Myenteric Plexus (Auerbach’s Plexus)
Location: Between circular and longitudinal muscle layers
Function:
Controls GI motility
Peristalsis
Muscle tone
2. Submucosal Plexus (Meissner’s Plexus)
Location: In submucosa
Function:
Controls secretion
Blood flow
Absorption
8. Functions of Enteric Nervous System
Controls GI movements
Regulates glandular secretion
Coordinates local reflexes
Maintains normal diges
tion
1. Salivary Secretion
Definition
Salivary secretion is the process by which salivary glands produce and release saliva into the oral cavity.
Salivary Glands
Parotid gland – serous secretion
Submandibular gland – mixed (serous + mucous)
Sublingual gland – mainly mucous
Minor salivary glands
Normal Saliva Secretion
About 1–1.5 liters/day
2. Composition of Saliva
A. Water (99.5%)
Makes food moist and easy to swallow
B. Electrolytes
Sodium (Na⁺)
Potassium (K⁺)
Chloride (Cl⁻)
Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻)
Calcium and phosphate
C. Organic Substances
Salivary amylase (ptyalin) – starch digestion
Mucus (mucin) – lubrication
Lysozyme – antibacterial
IgA – immunity
D. pH of Saliva
Slightly acidic to neutral (6.0 – 7.4)
3. Functions of Saliva
Lubrication of food – helps in swallowing
Digestion
Salivary amylase starts digestion of starch
Taste sensation
Dissolves food substances
Protection of oral cavity
Antibacterial action (lysozyme, IgA)
Speech
Keeps mouth moist
Dental health
Washes food particles
Prevents dental caries
4. Regulation of Salivary Secretion
A. Nervous Regulation (Main control)
Parasympathetic Stimulation
Via facial nerve (VII) and glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
Causes:
Large amount of watery saliva
Rich in enzymes
Sympathetic Stimulation
Causes:
Small amount of thick, viscous saliva
B. Stimuli for Salivation
Taste (especially sour food)
Smell of food
Chewing
Sight or thought of food
Nausea
5. Mastication (Chewing) – In Brief
Definition
Mastication is the process of chewing food to break it into small pieces.
Functions of Mastication
Breaks food into small particles
Mixes food with saliva
Forms bolus for swallowing
Increases surface area for enzymes
Muscles Involved
Masseter
Temporalis
Medial pterygoid
Lateral pterygoid
Control
Mainly reflex action
Controlled by medulla oblongata
Can be voluntarily started or stopped
Swallowing (Deglutition)
1. Definition
Swallowing (Deglutition) is the process by which food bolus is transferred from mouth to stomach.
2. Stages of Swallowing
Swallowing occurs in three stages:
I. Oral Stage (Voluntary)
Definition
Food is pushed from mouth to pharynx.
Events
Tongue presses food against hard palate
Bolus is pushed backward into oropharynx
Important Points
This stage is voluntary
Duration: ~ 1 second
II. Pharyngeal Stage (Involuntary)
Definition
Bolus passes from pharynx to esophagus.
Events
Soft palate elevates → closes nasopharynx
Epiglottis closes → prevents food entering trachea
Vocal cords close → airway protected
Upper esophageal sphincter relaxes
Important Points
This stage is involuntary
Controlled by swallowing center in medulla oblongata
Very rapid (less than 1 second)
III. Esophageal Stage (Involuntary)
Definition
Bolus moves from esophagus to stomach.
Events
Peristaltic waves push bolus downward
Lower esophageal sphincter relaxes
Food enters stomach
Important Points
Completely involuntary
Duration: 5–10 seconds
3. Functions of Swallowing
Helps in safe transport of food to stomach
Prevents aspiration into respiratory tract
Coordinates digestion process
Allows passage of solid and liquid food
STOMACH – PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
1. Functions of Stomach
Reservoir for food
Mechanical mixing → forms chyme
Chemical digestion of proteins
Secretion of HCl, enzymes, mucus
Kills bacteria (acidic pH)
Regulates rate of gastric emptying
Absorption (limited): water, alcohol, some drugs
2. Gastric Juice
Definition
Secretion produced by gastric glands of stomach
Daily Volume
About 1.5–2 liters/day
pH
Highly acidic: pH 1–2
3. Gastric Glands (Types)
Cardiac glands
Near cardiac end
Mainly mucus secretion
Fundic (Oxyntic) glands
Body & fundus
Secrete HCl, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor
Pyloric glands
Antrum & pylorus
Secrete mucus & gastrin
4. Cells of Gastric Glands & Secretions
Parietal cells → HCl, Intrinsic factor
Chief cells → Pepsinogen
Mucous cells → Mucus
G cells → Gastrin
ECL cells → Histamine
5. Composition of Gastric Juice
Water
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Pepsinogen
Intrinsic factor
Mucus
Electrolytes
6. Functions of Gastric Juice
HCl:
Activates pepsinogen → pepsin
Kills bacteria
Provides acidic medium
Pepsin:
Digests proteins
Intrinsic factor:
Absorption of Vitamin B12
Mucus:
Protects stomach lining
7. Regulation of Gastric Secretion
Phases of Gastric Secretion
1. Cephalic Phase (≈30%)
Stimulus: sight, smell, taste of food
Via vagus nerve
2. Gastric Phase (≈60%)
Stimulus: food in stomach
Stretch + gastrin release
3. Intestinal Phase (≈10%)
Stimulus: chyme in intestine
Mild stimulation then inhibition
8. Gastrointestinal Hormones (Production, Function, Regulation)
1. Gastrin
Produced by: G cells (stomach)
Function:
↑ HCl secretion
↑ gastric motility
Stimulated by: proteins, stomach distension
Inhibited by: low pH
2. Secretin
Produced by: Duodenum
Function:
↓ gastric secretion
↑ bicarbonate from pancreas
Stimulated by: acidic chyme
3. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Produced by: Duodenum & jejunum
Function:
Gall bladder contraction
↓ gastric emptying
Stimulated by: fats & proteins
9. Gastric Motility
Includes:
Receptive relaxation
Mixing movements
Peristaltic waves
Controlled by:
Enteric nervous system
Gastrin hormone
10. Gastric Emptying
Definition
Passage of chyme from stomach to duodenum
Factors increasing emptying
Liquids
Carbohydrates
Small particle size
Factors delaying emptying
Fats
Proteins
High acidity
Duodenal distension
11. Vomiting
Definition
Forceful expulsion of gastric contents through mouth
Vomiting Center
Located in medulla oblongata
Causes
Gastric irritation
Motion sickness
Drugs
Increased intracranial pressure
Mechanism
Deep inspiration
Relaxation of LES
Strong abdominal contraction
12. Peptic Ulcer
Definition
Break in mucosal lining of stomach or duodenum
Causes
H. pylori infection
Excess acid secretion
NSAIDs
Stress
Symptoms
Burning epigastric pain
Pain related to meals
Nausea
Pancreatic Secretion
1. Definition
Pancreatic secretion is the juice secreted by the exocrine pancreas into the duodenum, which helps in digestion
of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
2. Quantity & Nature
Volume: 1–1.5 liters/day
pH: Alkaline (7.8–8.4)
Reason: Presence of bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻)
3. Composition of Pancreatic Juice
A. Water & Electrolytes
Water
Sodium (Na⁺)
Potassium (K⁺)
Chloride (Cl⁻)
Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) → neutralizes gastric acid
B. Enzymes
1. Proteolytic Enzymes (Protein digestion)
Trypsinogen
Chymotrypsinogen
Procarboxypeptidase
(secreted in inactive form)
2. Amylolytic Enzyme
Pancreatic amylase → digests starch
3. Lipolytic Enzymes
Pancreatic lipase
Phospholipase
Cholesterol esterase
4. Nucleases
RNase
DNase
4. Production of Pancreatic Secretion
Cells Involved
Acinar cells
Secrete digestive enzymes
Duct cells
Secrete bicarbonate-rich fluid
5. Functions of Pancreatic Secretion
Digestion of proteins
Proteins → peptides & amino acids
Digestion of carbohydrates
Starch → maltose
Digestion of fats
Fats → fatty acids & monoglycerides
Neutralization of gastric acid
Bicarbonate protects intestinal mucosa
Provides optimal pH for enzyme action
6. Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
A. Nervous Regulation
Parasympathetic (Vagus nerve)
Increases enzyme secretion
B. Hormonal Regulation (Most Important)
1. Secretin
Source: Duodenum
Stimulus: Acidic chyme
Action:
↑ Bicarbonate secretion
↑ watery pancreatic juice
2. Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Source: Duodenum & jejunum
Stimulus: Fats & proteins
Action:
↑ Enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
7. Phases of Pancreatic Secretion
Cephalic phase
Sight, smell of food
Via vagus nerve
Gastric phase
Food in stomach
Mild stimulation
Intestinal phase (Most important)
Chyme in duodenum
Via secretin & CCK
LIVER
1. Functions of Liver
A. Metabolic Functions
Carbohydrate metabolism
Glycogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Protein metabolism
Deamination
Urea formation
Plasma protein synthesis
Fat metabolism
Fatty acid oxidation
Cholesterol synthesis
Lipoprotein formation
B. Secretory Function
Secretion of bile
C. Storage Function
Glycogen
Vitamins: A, D, E, K, B₁₂
Iron & copper
D. Detoxification
Drugs
Alcohol
Toxins
Hormone inactivation
E. Hematological Function
Formation of plasma proteins
Fetal RBC production
Breakdown of old RBCs (bilirubin formation)
BILE SECRETION
2. Definition
Bile is a yellow-green alkaline fluid secreted by liver cells (hepatocytes).
Quantity
About 600–1000 ml/day
pH
Alkaline (7.6–8.6)
3. Composition of Bile
A. Water (97%)
Major component
B. Bile Salts
Sodium glycocholate
Sodium taurocholate
C. Bile Pigments
Bilirubin (main pigment)
Biliverdin
D. Other Components
Cholesterol
Lecithin
Fatty acids
Electrolytes
4. Functions of Bile
Fat digestion
Emulsification of fats
Fat absorption
Helps absorption of fatty acids & vitamins A, D, E, K
Neutralizes gastric acid
Alkaline bile
Excretion
Bilirubin
Excess cholesterol
Stimulates intestinal motility
5. Regulation of Bile Secretion
A. Hormonal Regulation (Most Important)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Source: Duodenum
Stimulus: Fats in intestine
Action:
Gallbladder contraction
Release of bile into duodenum
B. Nervous Regulation
Parasympathetic (vagus nerve)
Increases bile flow
C. Bile Salt Circulation
Enterohepatic circulation
Reabsorption of bile salts from ileum
Strong stimulus for bile secretion
GALLBLADDER
6. Functions of Gallbladder
Storage of bile
Concentration of bile
Absorbs water & electrolytes
Release of bile
During digestion of fatty food
Regulates bile flow
Prevents continuous bile flow into intestine
INTESTINE – PHYSIOLOGY
1. Succus Entericus (Intestinal Juice)
Definition
Succus entericus is a digestive juice secreted by intestinal glands (crypts of Lieberkühn) of the small intestine.
Quantity
About 1–2 liters/day
pH
Slightly alkaline (7.5–8.0)
2. Composition of Succus Entericus
A. Water
Major component
B. Electrolytes
Sodium (Na⁺)
Potassium (K⁺)
Chloride (Cl⁻)
Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻)
C. Enzymes (Brush border enzymes)
Enterokinase
Peptidases
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
Lipase (minor role)
D. Mucus
Secreted by goblet cells
3. Functions of Succus Entericus
Completes digestion
Proteins → amino acids
Carbohydrates → monosaccharides
Activation of enzymes
Enterokinase activates trypsinogen → trypsin
Neutralizes acidic chyme
Lubrication
Mucus helps movement of chyme
Provides medium for absorption
4. Regulation of Intestinal Secretion
A. Local Reflexes
Presence of chyme stimulates secretion
B. Hormonal Regulation
Secretin
Increases alkaline secretion
CCK
Increases enzyme secretion
C. Nervous Regulation
Parasympathetic stimulation increases secretion
INTESTINAL MOTILITY
5. Types of Intestinal Movements
1. Segmentation Movements
Mixing movements
Helps in digestion & absorption
2. Peristalsis
Propulsive movement
Pushes chyme forward
3. Peristaltic Rush
Strong peristalsis
Seen in diarrhea & irritation
4. Movements of Large Intestine
Haustral movements
Mass movements
6. Functions of Intestinal Motility
Mixing of food with digestive juices
Brings chyme in contact with mucosa
Helps absorption
Propels contents forward
Prevents stagnation of food
7. Regulation of Intestinal Motility
A. Enteric Nervous System
Myenteric plexus
Controls motility
B. Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic → ↑ motility
Sympathetic → ↓ motility
C. Hormonal Regulation
Gastrin → increases motility
CCK → decreases gastric emptying but increases intestinal activity
Secretin → decreases motility
Mechanism of Defecation
Definition
Defecation is the process by which feces are expelled from the rectum through the anus.
Step-by-Step Mechanism
1. Entry of Feces into Rectum
Mass movements of colon push feces into rectum
Rectal wall gets distended
2. Initiation of Defecation Reflex
Stretch receptors in rectum are stimulated
Signals sent to spinal cord (S2–S4)
3. Rectosphincteric Reflex
Internal anal sphincter relaxes (involuntary)
Feces move toward anal canal
4. External Anal Sphincter Control
External anal sphincter is skeletal muscle
Under voluntary control
Person can:
Relax it → defecation occurs
Contract it → defecation delayed
5. Role of Abdominal Muscles
Voluntary contraction of:
Abdominal muscles
Diaphragm
Increases intra-abdominal pressure
Helps expel feces
Types of Defecation Reflex
1. Intrinsic Reflex
Mediated by enteric nervous system
Weak reflex
2. Parasympathetic Reflex (Important)
Via pelvic nerves (S2–S4)
Strong reflex
Essential for normal defecation
Control of Defecation
Involuntary
Internal anal sphincter
Voluntary
External anal sphincter
Abdominal muscles
Functions of Defecation
Removal of undigested waste
Maintains normal bowel function
Prevents toxin accumulation