CH.

17 INHERITANCE IGCSE Biology

 Nathan has inherited his
father’s curly hair’
Jaeden has inherited her

17. INHERITANCE mother’s brown eyes’

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic

information from generation to generation.
The Inheritance of such characteristics is
called heredity and the branch of biology that
studies how heredity works is called genetics.
 17. INHERITANCE
Inheritance

7.2 Mitosis 7.3 Meiosis

7.1 Chromosomes, 7.4 Monohybrid

genes and proteins inheritance
17.2 MITOSIS
● Describe mitosis as nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells (details
of the stages of mitosis are not required)
● State the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of cells
and asexual reproduction
● State that the exact replication of chromosomes occurs before mitosis
● State that during mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, maintaining the
chromosome number in each daughter cell
● Describe stem cells as unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce
daughter cells that can become specialised for specific functions
 ?
1. How do you think your body grows from a baby into an adult?

○ Where do all the new cells come from?

2. When you get a cut, how does your skin heal itself?

○ What must your body do to repair the damaged tissue?

3. Your hair and nails keep growing. How does your body make new cells
for this?
17.2 MITOSIS
How do our bodies grow and heal?

Observe between the two

images.
write at least one
difference
 17.2 MITOSIS
▪nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
▪mitosis is needed for processes of growth repair, replacement and asexual reproduction in some
organism.
 17.2 MITOSIS
▪nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
▪mitosis is needed for processes of growth repair, replacement and asexual reproduction in some
organism.
 17.2 MITOSIS
▪When an organism grow their cells increase in
number by dividing.
▪Each cell divides to produce two daughter cells.
▪One of the cells will grow and changes its shape
and structure and becomes adapted to do one
particular job, it becomes specialised
▪At the same time it loses its ability to divide any
more.
▪The other cell is still able to divide and so continue
the growth of the tissue.
 Chromosomes consist of double-stranded DNA and are single molecules during certain
cell cycle stages but consist of two chromatids (each with double-stranded DNA) after
DNA replication. Chromatids are the identical halves of a duplicated chromosome,
17.2 MITOSIS joined at the centromere

PROCESS

mitosis produces two genetically identical cells in which the number of chromosomes is the same as
in the original cell

[Link]
17.2 MITOSIS
ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL DIVISION
 17.2 MITOSIS
SQUASH PREPARATION OF CHROMOSOMES
USING ACETIC ORCEIN

[Link]
[Link]
 17.2 MITOSIS
STEM CELLS
Stem cells are those cells in the
body that have retained their
power of division
Examples:
the basal cells of the skin, which keep
dividing to make new skin cells
cells in the red bone marrow, which
constantly divide to produce the
whole range of blood cells
 17.2 MITOSIS
STEM CELLS
Cells taken from early
embryos (embryonic stem
cells) can be induced to
develop into almost any kind
of cell, but there are ethical
objections to using human
embryos for this purpose.
microtubules
(Spindle fibre)
17.3 MEIOSIS
▪nuclear division, which gives rise to cells
that are genetically different.
▪takes place in the gonads of animals (eg.
the testes and ovaries of mammals)
▪forms gametes (sperm and egg cells in
mammals). Gametes are different from
other cells because they have half the
normal number of chromosomes (they
are haploid).
 17.3 MEIOSIS
PROCESS

▪ Meiosis produces four genetically different haploid cells. Unlike mitosis, meiosis is a reduction division – the
chromosome number is halved from diploid
▪ As a result of meiosis and fertilisation, the maternal and paternal chromosomes meet in different combinations in the
zygotes. Consequently, the offspring will differ from their parents and from each other in a variety of ways.

[Link]
MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS
[Link]
Objectives
● State that chromosomes are made of DNA, which contains genetic information in
the form of genes
● Define a gene as a length of DNA that codes for a protein
● Define an allele as an alternative form of a gene
● Describe the inheritance of sex in humans with reference to X and Y chromosomes
● State that the sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino
acids used to make a specific protein (knowledge of the details of nucleotide
structure is not required)
● Explain that different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein
molecules
● Explain that DNA controls cell function by controlling the production of proteins,
including enzymes, membrane carriers and receptors for neurotransmitters
Objectives
● Explain how a protein is made, limited to:
- the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
- messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
- mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the cytoplasm
- the mRNA passes through ribosomes
- the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules
- the specific sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in
the mRNA (knowledge of the details of transcription or translation is not
required)
● Explain that most body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but many
genes in a particular cell are not expressed because the cell only makes the
specific proteins it needs
● Describe a haploid nucleus as a nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes
● Describe a diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes
● State that in a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of chromosome and in a
human diploid cell there are 23 pairs
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
CHROMOSOME
▪A thread of DNA, made up of a string of genes.
▪Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
▪Number of chromosomes:
▪Haploid nucleus: nucleus containing a single set of
unpaired chromosomes present. Example: gamete cells
(sperm and egg cells)
▪Diploid nucleus: nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes present. Example: somatic cells (body cells)
▪in a diploid cell, there is a pair of each type of
chromosome and in a human diploid cell there are 23
pairs
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES
AND PROTEINS: CHROMOSOME
Chromosomes have a characteristic shape
- They have a fixed length
- The position of the centromere is in a
particular location
● Chromatin refers to a
substance found in the cell
nucleus that's composed
primarily of DNA and
proteins.
● When cells divide,
chromatin condenses to
form chromosomes which
split into two identical
strands called chromatids.
● Each chromatid then
becomes a chromosome in
each new cell that is
formed.
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND
PROTEINS:
CHROMOSOME
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
CHROMOSOME

● Homologous chromosomes:
○ Carry the same genes in
the same positions
(locus)
○ Are the same shape
● the pair consists of similar
chromosomes by shape
and organisation.
A karyogram or idiogram is a graphical depiction of a karyotype, wherein
chromosomes are generally organized in pairs, ordered by size and position
of centromere for chromosomes of the same size.

17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:

CHROMOSOME

Human Karyogram showing homologous chromosomes

17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES
▪There is a fixed number of chromosomes in each species.
▪The number of chromosomes in a species is the same in all of its body cells.
▪The chromosomes are always in pairs, because when the zygote is formed, one of each
pair comes from the male gamete and one from the female gamete.
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
GENES AND LOCUS
▪Genes: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
▪Locus: the position of a gene
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
ALLELE
▪Allelomorphic genes or Allele: The genes that occupy
corresponding positions on homologous chromosomes and
control the same characteristic.
▪a version of a gene.
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
KARYOTYPE

▪the number and appearance

of chromosomes in the nucleus
of a eukaryotic cell.
▪human somatic cell contains
23 pairs of chromosomes.
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
DETERMINATION OF GENDER
▪A pair of chromosomes in human
karyotype controls whether offspring
are male or female:
▪males have two different sex
chromosomes, X and Y / XY
▪females have two X chromosomes,
X and X / XX
▪The ratio of female to male offspring
is 1:1 – on average, half of the
offspring will be girls and half will
be boys.
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
DETERMINATION OF GENDER
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
Inheritance of Sex
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
Inheritance of Sex

PUNNETT
SQUARES
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
THE GENETIC CODE

❑DNA are made of

nucleotides molecules.
❑A nucleotide is a
5-carbon sugar molecule
joined to a phosphate
group (–PO3) and an
organic base. The nucleotides are joined by their
phosphate groups to form a long
chain
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
THE GENETIC CODE
❑Each DNA strand has
chemical bases that pairs
together.
❑A (adenine) always pairs
up with T (thymine)
❑C (cytosine) always pairs
up with G (guanine)
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
THE GENETIC CODE
▪each nucleotide carries one of
four bases (A, T, C or G).
▪a string of nucleotides holds a
sequence of bases that forms a
code which instructs the cell to
make particular proteins.
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS
❑DNA provides instructions for making PROTEIN in cells.
❑Protein perform various functions, such as: acting as enzymes
(catalyze reactions), carrying molecules across the cell membranes
& receiving signals from neurotransmitters.
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS
❑The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids
used to make a specific protein..
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
THE GENETIC CODE
▪proteins are made from amino
acids linked together. The type
and sequence of the amino acids
joined together will determine the
kind of protein formed
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
THE GENETIC CODE
▪the sequence of bases in the DNA
decides which amino acids are
used and in which order they are
joined
▪each group of three bases stands
for one amino acid
▪a sequence of triplets of the four
bases specifies an entire protein
can be called a gene
U = Uracil, nucleotide bases in RNA, pairs with adenine
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
THE GENETIC CODE
▪genetic code of DNA determines which
proteins, particularly enzymes, are
produced in a cell. Hence its also
determines the cell’s structure and
function
▪in this way, the genes also determine the
structure and function of the whole
organism
▪other proteins coded for in DNA include
antibodies and the receptors for
neurotransmitters
Objectives
● Explain how a protein is made, limited to:
- the gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus
- messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
- mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move to the
cytoplasm
- the mRNA passes through ribosomes
- the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules
- the specific sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence
of bases in the mRNA (knowledge of the details of transcription or
translation is not required)
● Explain that most body cells in an organism contain the same genes,
but many genes in a particular cell are not expressed because the
cell only makes the specific proteins it needs
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
▪DNA molecules remain in the nucleus, but
the proteins they carry the codes for are
needed elsewhere in the cell
▪messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to
transfer the information from the nucleus
▪mRNA is much smaller than a DNA
molecule and made up of only one strand.
Also it contains slightly different bases
(A,C,G and U). Base U is uracil.
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
The sequence of bases in DNA is converted into sequence of amino
acids to form proteins.
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
● The gene which codes for protein is used to make an mRNA
● Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of gene (similar to a single
stranded DNA)
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
construct an analogy for protein
synthesis,
- the photocopying of some instructions
(mRNA) from a page in an
encyclopaedia (a gene on a
chromosome) in a library (the nucleus)
to build something in the school’s
technology department (ribosome).
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS
 17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS:
TRANSCRIPTION

▪To pass on the protein code, the double

helix of DNA unwinds to expose the
chains of bases.
▪One strand acts as template.
▪mRNA is formed along part of this
strand, made up of a chain of
nucleotides with complementary bases
to a section of the DNA strand.
17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:
MANUFACTURE OF PROTEIN IN CELLS:
TRANSLATION
▪mRNA carrying the protein code
passes out of the nucleus, through a
nuclear pore to the cytoplasm, then
it attaches itself to a ribosome.
▪ribosomes make proteins. The
mRNA molecule instructs the
ribosomes to put together a chain
of amino acids in a specific
sequence, thus making a protein.
[Link]

17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:

GENE EXPRESSION
➔Most body cells in an organism contain the same
genes, but many genes in a particular cell are
not expressed because the cell only makes the
specific proteins it needs.
➔The genes for all proteins exist in every cell
➔however, not every type of protein is made in
every single cell
➔Depending on the cell’s function, the cell only
makes the proteins it needs.
[Link]

17.1 CHROMOSOMES, GENES AND PROTEINS:

GENE EXPRESSION
➔The genes which are needed are switched on and the genes
which are not needed are switched off.
➔When a gene is switched on, it is expressed, and the
corresponding protein is produced.
➔When the protein is not needed, the gene is switched off.

➔example:
◆ some cells in the stomach is to make the protein
pepsin.
◆ bone marrow cells make the protein haemoglobin, but
do not need digestive enzymes.
 The diagram shows how insulin is made in a pancreatic cell. Name part A, B, C, D, & E!

E D

C
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
Objectives - Core
● Describe inheritance as the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation
● Describe genotype as the genetic make-up of an organism and in terms of the alleles present
● Describe phenotype as the observable features of an organism
● Describe homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene
● State that two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
● Describe heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene
● State that a heterozygous individual will not be pure-breeding
● Describe a dominant allele as an allele that is expressed if it is present in the genotype
● Describe a recessive allele as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant
allele of the gene present in the genotype
● Interpret pedigree diagrams for the inheritance of a given characteristic
● Use genetic diagrams to predict the results of monohybrid crosses and calculate phenotypic
ratios, limited to 1 : 1 and 3 : 1 ratios
● Use Punnett squares in crosses which result in more than one genotype to work out and show
the possible different genotypes
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
Objectives - Supplement
● Explain how to use a test cross to identify an unknown genotype
● Describe codominance as a situation in which both alleles in heterozygous
organisms contribute to the phenotype
● Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups: phenotypes are A, B, AB and
O blood groups and alleles are IA, IB and Io
● Describe a sex-linked characteristic as a feature in which the gene
responsible is located on a sex chromosome and that this makes the
characteristic more common in one sex than in the other
● Describe red-green colour blindness as an example of sex linkage
● Use genetic diagrams to predict the results of monohybrid crosses involving
codominance or sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
TERMS!

Monohybrid inheritance: is a study of

how a single trait or characteristics is
passed from parent to their offspring.
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
TERMS!

Genotype: is the genetic makeup of an

organism in terms of the alleles
present.
Phenotype: is the observable features
of an organism.
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
TERMS!
Homozygous: two identical alleles of a particular
gene. Two identical homozygous individuals that
breed together will be pure-breeding. Read: “capital A, capital A”

Heterozygous: two different alleles of a particular

gene. A heterozygous individual will not be
pure-breeding.
Dominant: is an allele that is expressed if it is Read: “capital A, simple a”
present.
Recessive: is an allele that is only expressed when
there is no dominant allele of the gene present.
Read:“simple a, simple a”
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
TERMS!
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
SINGLE FACTOR INHERITANCE

▪alleles are represented by letters

▪alleles controlling the same characteristic
are given the same letter, and
▪the dominant allele is given the capital
letter.
▪For example the dominant allele for brown
eyes is labelled B. The recessive allele for
blue eyes is labelled b to show that it
corresponds to B for brown eyes. There is a pair of alleles for each characteristic, one allele from each
parent. Although the allele pairs control the same characteristic, e.g.
eye colour, they may have different effects.
One tries to produce blue eyes, the other tries to produce brown
eyes. Often one allele is dominant over the other.
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
BREEDING TRUE
▪A true-breeding organism, sometimes
also called a purebred, is an
organism that always passes down
certain phenotypic traits.
▪The two kinds of black rabbit BB and
Bb are said to have the same
phenotype. This is because their coat
colours look exactly the same.
▪However, because they have different
allele pairs for coat colour they are
said to have different genotypes.
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PEDIGREE DIAGRAMS AND INHERITANCE
▪Pedigree diagrams can be used
to demonstrate how genetic
diseases can be inherited
▪They include symbols to indicate
whether individuals are male or
female and what their genotype
is for a particular genetic
characteristic
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PUNNETT SQUARES
square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular
cross or breeding experiment

A monohybrid cross is a cross between two organisms

with different variations at one genetic chromosome of
interest
[Link]
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PUNNETT SQUARES
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PUNNETT SQUARES
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PUNNETT SQUARES
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PUNNETT SQUARES
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
PUNNETT SQUARES

Genetic cross
between
heterozygous and
homozygous
genotype
25% homozygous dominant
50% heterozygous
25% homozygous recessive
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE
THE THREE TO ONE RATIO
▪The result of a mating between a true-breeding (homozygous)
black mouse (BB) and a true-breeding (homozygous) brown
mouse (bb) is shown in Figure 17.23(a).
▪There is no difference between bB and Bb, so there are three
possible genotypes in the offspring – BB, Bb and bb.
▪There are only two phenotypes – black (BB or Bb) and brown
(bb).
▪Mice usually have more than four offspring and what we really
expect is that the ratio (proportion) of black to brown will be
close to 3:1
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
TESTCROSS
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
TESTCROSS
Cross with someone who has blue eye
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
TESTCROSS
 a way to explore
the genotype of
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE: an organism
TESTCROSS

▪if ANY offspring show

the recessive trait, the
unknown genotype is
heterozygous.
▪if ALL the offspring have
the dominant trait, the
unknown genotype is
homozygous dominant.

*large numbers of offspring are

needed for reliable results
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
PEDIGREE DIAGRAMS

● Used to track how

specific trait or
disease is passed
through generation in
a family.
● Help predict the
chances of inheriting
the genetic disorder.
 The gene represented by the letter I.
The superscripts A, B, O represent the
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE: different alleles.
CODOMINANCE
● Codominance, phenomenon in
which two alleles (different
versions of the same gene) are
expressed to an equal degree
within an organism.
● Inheritance of blood group is
an example of codominance.
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
CO-DOMINANCE
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
SEX LINKAGE
Sex-linked characteristic
▪the gene responsible is
located on a sex
chromosome
▪more common in one sex
than the other.
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
SEX LINKAGE

Hemophilia is a rare
disorder in which your
blood doesn't clot
normally because it
lacks sufficient
blood-clotting proteins
(clotting factors)
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
SEX LINKAGE
 17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
Polydactyly
Polydactyly is an inherited
condition in which a person
has extra fingers or toes. It
is caused by a dominant
allele of a gene. This
means it can be passed on
by just one allele from one
parent if they have the
disorder.
17.4 MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE:
Polydactyly