Lecture 2
Fluid Dynamics
II. Fluid Dynamics
When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as being
one of two main types:
(1) Steady, or laminar flow (2) Turbulent flow
Steady, or laminar flow: The flow is said to be steady, or
laminar, if
• each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, such that the
paths of different particles never cross each other
• the velocity of fluid particles passing any point remains
constant in time.
II. Fluid Dynamics
Laminar flow around an automobile in a test wind tunnel.
II. Fluid Dynamics
Turbulent flow: Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow
becomes turbulent; turbulent flow is irregular flow characterized
by small whirlpool-like regions, as shown in Figure 14.15.
Hot gases from a cigarette made visible
by smoke particles. The smoke first
moves in laminar flow at the bottom
and then in turbulent flow above.
II. Fluid Dynamics
The term viscosity is commonly used in the description of fluid
flow to characterize the degree of internal friction in the fluid. This
internal friction, or viscous force, is associated with the resistance
that two adjacent layers of fluid have to moving relative to each
other. Viscosity causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be
converted to internal energy. This mechanism is similar to the one
by which an object sliding on a rough horizontal surface loses
kinetic energy. The motion of real fluids is very complex and not
fully understood. We Will make some simplifying assumptions in
our approach.
II. Fluid Dynamics
In our model of ideal fluid flow, we make the following four
assumptions:
1. The fluid is nonviscous: In a nonviscous fluid, internal friction is
neglected. An object moving through the fluid experiences no
viscous force.
2. The flow is steady: In steady (laminar) flow, the velocity of the
fluid at each point remains constant.
3. The fluid is incompressible: The density of an incompressible
fluid is constant.
The flow is irrotational. In irrotational flow, the fluid has no
angular momentum about any point. If a small wheel placed
anywhere in the fluid does not rotate about the wheel’s center of
mass, then the flow is irrotational.
II. Fluid Dynamics
Streamline: The path taken by a fluid particle under steady
flow is called a streamline. The velocity of the particle is always
tangent to the streamline, as shown. A set of streamlines like the
ones shown form a tube of flow.
Figure 14.16 A particle in laminar
flow follows a streamline, and at
each point along its path the
particle’s velocity is tangent to the
streamline.
Continuity Equation
Consider an ideal fluid flowing through a pipe of nonuniform size,
as illustrated in Figure. The particles in the fluid move along
streamlines in steady flow.
𝜌 is the (unchanging) density of the ideal fluid
A fluid moving with steady flow through a pipe
of varying cross-sectional area. The volume of
fluid flowing through area
A1 in a time interval Δt must equal
the volume flowing through area A2 in the same
time interval. Therefore, A1v1 = A2v2.
Continuity Equation
At 𝑡 = 0, fluid in the blue
In a time interval Δt, the fluid at the Portion is moving past
bottom end of the pipe moves a Point 1 at velocity 𝑣1
distance Δx1 = v1Δt; while the fluid at
the upper end of the pipe moves a
distance Δ𝑥2 = v2 Δ𝑡 A1
x1
v1
Mass of fluid contained in A2
the left shaded region v2
x2
m1 A1x1 A1v1t
At 𝑡 = Δ𝑡, the fluid in the
Mass of fluid contained in blue Portion is moving past
Point 2 at velocity 𝑣2
the right shaded region
m2 A2 x2 A2 v 2 t
Continuity Equation
As the flow is steady, the mass that crosses A1 in a time interval
Δt must equal the mass that crosses A2 in the same time interval.
m1 m2 A1v1 A2 v 2
This expression is called the equation of continuity for fluids.
The speed is high where the tube is constricted (small A) and low
where the tube is wide (large A).
Volume flow rate: The product 𝐴v, which has the
dimensions of volume per unit time, is called either the
volume flux or the volume flow rate.
Continuity Equation
A1v1 A2 v 2
The condition 𝐴v = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 is equivalent to the statement
that
The volume of fluid that enters one end of a tube in a given
time interval equals the volume leaving the other end of the
tube in the same time interval if no leaks are present.
II. Fluid Dynamics
The speed of water spraying
from the end of a garden hose increases as
the size of the opening is decreased with
the thumb.
Bernoulli’s Equation
As a fluid moves through a region where its speed and/or elevation
above the Earth’s surface changes, the pressure in the fluid varies
with these changes. Consider the flow of a segment of an ideal
fluid through a nonuniform pipe in a time interval Δt.
Figure 14.19 A fluid in laminar flow through
a constricted pipe. The volume of the shaded
portion on the left is equal to the volume of
the shaded portion on the right.
Bernoulli’s Equation
The force exerted by the fluid on
the left end:
The pressure at
F1 P1 A1 Point 1 is 𝑃1
P1 A1 iˆ
The work done by this force on P1 A1 iˆ
v1
The pressure at
the segment in a time interval Δt Point 2 is 𝑃2 v2
P1 A1 iˆ
W1 F1x1 P1 A1x1 P1V1 P1 A1 iˆ
𝑉𝟏 is the volume of portion 1
Bernoulli’s Equation
V is the volume of
The force exerted by the fluid on fluid portion
the right end: → 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉
F2 P2 A2 The pressure at
Point 1 is 𝑃1
The work done by this force on P1 A1 iˆ
the segment in a time interval Δt v1
P1 A1 iˆ
The pressure at
W2 F2 x2 P2 A2 x2 Point 2 is 𝑃2 v2
-P2 A2 iˆ
P2V2
x2
This work is negative because the force on
the segment of fluid is to the left and the
displacement is to the right.
Bernoulli’s Equation
Steady flow V1 V2 V
W1 P1V W2 P2V
Thus, the net work done on the segment by these forces in the
time interval Δt is:
Changing the kinetic energy
of the segment of fluid
W ( P1 P2 )V
Changing the grav. potential
energy of the segment of fluid
Bernoulli’s Equation
The change in the kinetic energy of the segment of fluid is
1 2 1 2
K mv2 mv1
2 2
where m is the mass of both portion 1 and portion 2. (Because the
volumes of both portions are the same)
The change in gravitational potential energy is
U mgy2 mgy1
Bernoulli’s Equation
W ( P1 P2 )V K U
1 2 1 2
( P1 P2 )V mv 2 mv1 mgy2 mgy1
2 2
Dividing by 𝑉
1 2 1 2
P1 v1 gy1 P2 v 2 gy2
2 2
Bernoulli’s Equation
This is Bernoulli’s equation as applied to an ideal fluid. It is
often expressed as
1 2
P v gy constant
2
This expression shows that
• The pressure of a fluid decreases as the speed of the fluid increases.
• The pressure decreases as the elevation increases. This explains why
water pressure from faucets on the upper floors of a tall building is
weak unless measures are taken to provide higher pressure for these
upper floors.
Bernoulli’s Equation
1 2 1 2
P1 v1 gy1 P2 v2 gy2
2 2
When the fluid is at rest, v1 = v2 = 0 and Bernoulli’s
equation becomes
P1 P2 g ( y2 y1 ) gh
Which is the same relation derived for the static case before.
Example 14.9 The Venturi Tube
The horizontal constricted pipe illustrated in Figure 14.20,
known as a Venturi tube, can be used to measure the flow speed
of an incompressible fluid. Determine the flow speed at point 2
if the pressure difference P1 & P2 is known.
Example:The Venturi Tube
Figure 14.20 (Example 14.9) (a) Pressure P1 is greater than pressure P2 because
v1 < v2. This device can be used to measure the speed of fluid flow. (b) A Venturi
tube, located at the top of the photograph. The higher level of fluid in the middle
column shows that the pressure at the top of the column, which is in the constricted
region of the Venturi tube, is lower.
Example:The Venturi Tube
Solution
1 2 1 2
P1 v1 gy1 P2 v2 gy2
2 2
Since the tube is horizontal y2 y1
1 2 1 2
P1 v1 P2 v2
2 2
From the continuity equation:
v1 A1
v1 A1 v 2 A2 v 2
A2
Example:The Venturi Tube
Substituting in Bernoulli's equation
1 2 A1
2
v1 1 P1 P2
2 A2
2( P1 P2 ) 2( P1 P2 )
v1 A2
A1 2
( A12 A22 )
1
A2
Using the continuity equation
2( P1 P2 )
v 2 A1
( A12 A22 )
Example:Torricelli’s Law
An enclosed tank containing a liquid of density ρ has a hole in its
side at a distance y1 from the tank’s bottom (Fig. 14.21). The hole
is open to the atmosphere, and its diameter is much smaller than
the diameter of the tank. The air above the liquid is maintained at
a pressure P. Determine the speed of the liquid as it leaves the
hole when the liquid’s
level is a distance h above the hole.
Figure 14.21 (Example 14.10) A liquid leaves a hole in a tank at speed v1.
Example:Torricelli’s Law
Solution
Because A2 >> A1, the liquid is approximately at rest at the top of
the tank, where the pressure is P. Applying Bernoulli’s equation
to points 1 and 2 and noting that at the hole P1 is equal to
atmospheric pressure P0, we find that
1 2
P gy2 P0 v1 gy1
2
1 2
v1 P P0 g ( y2 y1 )
2
Example:Torricelli’s Law
Solution
2( P P0 )
( y2 y1 ) h v1 2 gh
When P is much greater than P0 and much greater than 2gh,
the exit speed of the water is mainly a function of P.
If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then P = P0 , and
v1 2gh
Example:Torricelli’s Law
Solution
In other words,
For an open tank, the speed of liquid coming out through a
hole a distance h below the surface is equal to that acquired by
an object falling freely through a vertical distance h. This
phenomenon is known as Torricelli’s law.