Research notes
1. Research
Definition of Research
Research is a systematic, organized, and scientific process of
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to discover new and reliable
knowledge.
It is:
A systematic and orderly approach (follows specific steps)
A planned and managed process
Data-based and critical inquiry
Conducted to find answers and solutions
Important Points
Purpose is to generate new and reliable knowledge
Includes synthesis and analysis
Literature review alone is not research
May include accidental discoveries during structured process
Always involves data collection
2. Types of Research
A. Applied Research
Conducted to solve practical problems.
Used to cure illness and improve services.
Example: Study to reduce hospital infection rate.
B. Correlational Research
Studies relationship between two or more variables.
Does not prove cause and effect.
Example: Relationship between stress and blood pressure.
C. Descriptive Research
Describes characteristics of individuals or groups.
Also called statistical research.
Example: Survey of patient satisfaction.
D. Ethnographic Research
In-depth study of culture and behavior.
Used to understand beliefs and traditions.
Example: Study of cultural beliefs about childbirth.
E. Experimental Research
Controlled investigation.
Examines cause and effect.
Involves manipulation of variables.
Example: Testing effectiveness of new drug.
3. Qualitative and Quantitative Research
A. Qualitative Research
Definition
Research dealing with beliefs, meanings, experiences, and behaviors
which cannot be measured numerically.
Focus
Why and how things happen
In-depth understanding
Advantages
Detailed information
Participants express in own words
Good for exploratory studies
Disadvantages
Time-consuming
Difficult to test reliability
Subjective analysis
Data overload
B. Quantitative Research
Definition
Systematic investigation using statistical, mathematical, and numerical
data.
Focus
Measurement
Testing hypotheses
Statistical analysis
Advantages
Objective
Measurable data
Can test hypothesis
Disadvantages
Requires large sample
Does not explore deep meanings
Not natural setting
4. Evidence Based Practice (EBP)
Definition
Evidence-Based Practice is the integration of:
Best research evidence
Clinical expertise
Patient preferences
Steps of EBP
1. Ask clinical question
2. Search evidence
3. Appraise evidence
4. Apply evidence
5. Evaluate results
5. Sources of EBP
Research journals
Systematic reviews
Clinical guidelines
Hospital records
Textbooks
Online databases
Expert opinion
6. Barriers to EBP
Lack of time
Lack of knowledge
Limited access to research
Resistance to change
Lack of institutional support
7. Tools to Check Questionnaire
To ensure questionnaire quality, we check:
Validity – Does it measure what it should measure?
Reliability – Is it consistent?
Pilot study
Expert review
Cronbach’s alpha (internal consistency)
Test-retest method
8. Hypothesis
Definition
A hypothesis is a clear, testable statement predicting relationship
between variables.
Types of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis (H₀)
States no relationship between variables.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁)
States there is a relationship.
3. Directional Hypothesis
Predicts direction of relationship.
(e.g., Increased stress increases BP)
4. Non-Directional Hypothesis
Predicts relationship but not direction.
5. Simple Hypothesis
One independent and one dependent variable.
6. Complex Hypothesis
More than two variables.
9. Analysis
Definition
Process of organizing and interpreting data.
Types:
Descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode)
Inferential statistics (t-test, chi-square)
Thematic analysis (qualitative)
10. Generalizability
Generalizability is the ability to apply research findings from a sample to
the larger population. It depends on proper sampling method and
adequate sample size.
11. Precision
Precision refers to the accuracy and exactness of measurement. Less
variation in results indicates higher precision.
12. Specificity
Specificity is the ability of a test to correctly identify individuals who do
not have the disease (true negatives).
13. Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ability of a test to correctly identify individuals who have
the disease (true positives).
14. Intuition
Intuition is knowledge gained from experience or instinct without
scientific testing. It is not considered reliable unless supported by
research evidence.
Knowledge gained through experience without scientific testing.
Not reliable unless supported by research
15. Reliability
Reliability is the consistency and stability of a measurement tool. It
produces the same results under the same conditions.
Types of Reliability
Test-retest reliability: Consistency over time
Inter-rater reliability: Agreement between different observers
Internal consistency: Consistency of items within a tool
16. Validity
Validity is the accuracy of a research instrument. It measures whether
the tool measures what it is intended to measure.
Types of Validity
Content validity: Measures full content of the concept
Construct validity: Measures theoretical concept
Criterion validity: Compares with a standard or benchmark
17. Other Common Research Terms
Variable
A characteristic that can change or vary in a study.
Independent variable: The factor that is manipulated.
Dependent variable: The outcome that is measured.
Population
The entire group of individuals or subjects under study.
Sample
A small portion of the population selected for study.
Sampling
The method used to select participants from the population.
Bias
A systematic error that affects the accuracy of research results.
Data
Information collected during research for analysis.
Ethical Considerations
Principles followed to protect participants:
Informed consent: Participant agrees after full information.
Confidentiality: Participant information is kept private.
Beneficence: Do good for participants.
Non-maleficence: Do no harm.
18. Criteria for Selecting Research Topic
Interest: Topic should interest researcher.
Relevance: Important to society or profession.
Feasibility: Can be completed with available resources.
Avoid duplication: Should not repeat existing research.
Ethical acceptability: Must follow ethical principles.
Cost-effectiveness: Affordable within budget.
Political acceptability: Should not create unnecessary conflict.
19. Title of Research Project
Definition
The title is a brief statement that clearly describes the main focus of the
study.
Characteristics
Short and concise
About 10 words
Clear and informative
Reflects study content
Avoids unnecessary words
Priority Ratings for Research Proposals
Priority rating is the process of evaluating and ranking research
proposals based on their importance, feasibility, scientific merit, and
usefulness. It helps funding agencies and institutions decide which
proposals should be approved first.
Priority Ratings Criteria
[Link] Criteria Description Why It Is Important
Determines whether the
Ensures research
Significance / research problem is
1 addresses real and
Importance important for health care
serious problems.
or society.
Checks if the study is Makes research
2 Relevance relevant to current clinical useful in practical
practice or policy. settings.
Evaluates whether the Prevents repetition
3 Originality study is new and not and promotes
duplicated. innovation.
Assesses availability of Ensures study can be
4 Feasibility time, budget, equipment, completed
and participants. successfully.
Examines appropriateness Ensures scientific
5 Research Design of methodology and study accuracy and
design. reliability.
Evaluates adequacy and Affects
Sample Size &
6 method of selecting generalizability and
Sampling
participants. validity of results.
Checks informed consent, Protects rights and
Ethical
7 confidentiality, and safety well-being of
Considerations
of participants. participants.
Reviews researcher’s
Investigator Ensures study is
8 qualification and
Competence conducted properly.
experience.
9 Budget Examines if funds Prevents misuse of
Justification requested are reasonable financial resources.
[Link] Criteria Description Why It Is Important
and justified.
Determines whether
Supports Evidence-
results can improve
10 Applicability Based Practice
nursing practice or patient
(EBP).
care.
11 Ensures maximum
Cost- Evaluates benefits in
benefit with minimum
effectiveness relation to cost.
resources.
12 Assesses whether Prevents conflict and
Political & Social
research is socially and promotes
Acceptability
culturally acceptable. cooperation.
Example of Priority Rating Scale
Sometimes proposals are rated using a scoring system:
Score Priority Level Meaning
1 – 2 High Priority Very important, should be funded immediately
3 – 4 Moderate Priority Important but may wait
5 Low Priority Less important or needs revision
Priority rating is a systematic evaluation process used to select the best
research proposals. It ensures that only scientifically sound, ethical,
feasible, and beneficial studies receive approval and funding.
Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Aspect Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Research that explores Research that measures
Definition meanings, experiences, variables using numerical
beliefs, and behaviors. data and statistics.
To measure, test, and
To understand why and
Purpose predict relationships
how phenomena occur.
between variables.
Non-numerical (words, Numerical (numbers,
Nature of Data
interviews, observations). statistics, measurements).
In-depth understanding of Measurement and testing
Focus
human behavior. of hypotheses.
Research Closed-ended, specific
Open-ended questions.
Question questions.
Sample Size Small sample. Large sample.
Sampling Method Purposive or non- Random or probability
Aspect Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
probability sampling. sampling.
Data Collection Interviews, focus groups, Surveys, questionnaires,
Methods observation. experiments.
Thematic analysis, Statistical analysis (mean,
Data Analysis
content analysis. t-test, chi-square).
Research Setting Natural setting. Controlled setting
(especially in
experiments).
Researcher is involved
Role of Researcher remains
and interacts with
Researcher objective and detached.
participants.
Rich, detailed Generalizable and
Outcome
descriptions. measurable results.
High generalizability (if
Generalizability Limited generalization.
sample is large).
Detailed data, explores Objective, precise, and
Advantages
complex issues. reliable measurement.
Time-consuming, Does not explain deeper
Disadvantages
subjective. meanings.
Qualitative research focuses on understanding experiences and
meanings, while quantitative research focuses on measurement and
statistical analysis. Both methods are important in nursing research and
Evidence-Based Practice.
Research Methodology
Definition
Research methodology refers to the systematic, logical and scientific
process used to conduct research.
It explains how the study will be carried out to solve the research
problem.
It includes research design, sampling, data collection, analysis, and
ethical considerations.
Components of Research Methodology
1. Research Design
Research design is the overall plan or blueprint of the study.
Types:
Descriptive design
Correlational design
Experimental design
Quasi-experimental design
Qualitative design
It ensures validity, reliability, and control of bias.
2. Research Setting
It refers to the place where the study is conducted.
Example:
Hospital
Community
School
Clinic
The setting should be suitable for the research problem.
3. Population
Population is the total group of individuals who meet the criteria for the
study.
Example:
All diabetic patients in a hospital.
4. Sample
Sample is a subset of the population selected for the study.
A good sample should be:
Representative
Adequate in size
5. Sampling Technique
Method used to select participants.
Types:
A. Probability Sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Systematic sampling
B. Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience sampling
Purposive sampling
Quota sampling
Sampling method affects generalizability.
6. Variables
A variable is a characteristic that can change.
Independent Variable (cause)
Dependent Variable (effect)
Confounding Variable (interfering factor)
7. Data Collection Methods
A. Tools
Questionnaire
Interview schedule
Observation checklist
Rating scale
B. Process
Obtain permission
Take informed consent
Collect data systematically
8. Validity and Reliability of Tool
Validity
Ensures the tool measures what it is supposed to measure.
Reliability
Ensures consistency of results.
Methods:
Pilot study
Expert validation
Cronbach’s alpha
9. Pilot Study
A small-scale trial run of the study.
Purpose:
Test feasibility
Identify problems
Improve tool
10. Ethical Considerations
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Anonymity
Beneficence
Non-maleficence
Ethical approval must be obtained before conducting study.
11. Data Analysis
A. Descriptive Statistics
Mean
Median
Mode
Percentage
B. Inferential Statistics
t-test
Chi-square
ANOVA
Qualitative data uses thematic analysis.
12. Presentation of Data
Data can be presented in:
Tables
Graphs
Charts
Diagrams
13. Limitations of Study
Weaknesses or constraints that may affect results.
Example:
Small sample size
Limited time
Lack of resources
Steps of Research Methodology
1. Identify research problem
2. Review literature
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Select research design
5. Select population and sample
6. Develop tool
7. Collect data
8. Analyze data
9. Interpret results
10. Report findings
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Methods of Research
Definition
Research methods are the specific techniques and procedures used to
collect and analyze data in a study.
They explain how the research is conducted.
Major Methods of Research
Research methods are broadly classified into:
1. Quantitative Methods
2. Qualitative Methods
3. Mixed Methods
1. Quantitative Research Methods
These methods collect numerical data and use statistical analysis.
A. Descriptive Method
Describes characteristics of a population.
No manipulation of variables.
Example: Survey on patient satisfaction.
B. Correlational Method
Studies relationship between variables.
Does not prove cause and effect.
Example: Relationship between stress and blood pressure.
C. Experimental Method
Researcher manipulates independent variable.
Has control group and experimental group.
Determines cause and effect.
Example: Effect of new drug on recovery rate.
D. Quasi-Experimental Method
Similar to experimental but lacks full control or randomization.
Example: Study of teaching method in one classroom only.
2. Qualitative Research Methods
These methods explore experiences, meanings, and behaviors.
A. Phenomenological Method
Studies lived experiences of individuals.
Example: Experience of cancer patients undergoing
chemotherapy.
B. Ethnographic Method
Studies culture and social groups.
Example: Cultural beliefs about childbirth.
C. Grounded Theory
Develops theory from collected data.
Data collection and analysis occur together.
D. Case Study Method
In-depth study of one individual or group.
E. Historical Method
Studies past events using records and documents.
3. Mixed Method Research
Combines both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Provides more comprehensive understanding.
Example: Survey (quantitative) + interview (qualitative).
Other Common Research Methods
Survey Method
Uses questionnaires.
Common in nursing research.
Observation Method
Researcher observes behavior.
Can be structured or unstructured.
Interview Method
Face-to-face or telephone conversation.
Structured or unstructured.
Focus Group Discussion
Group interview to collect opinions.
Comparison of Methods (Short Table)
Method Data Type Purpose
Descriptive Numerical Describe situation
Correlational Numerical Find relationship
Experimental Numerical Test cause-effect
Phenomenology Words Explore experience
Ethnography Words Study culture
Case Study Detailed data In-depth analysis
Research methods are techniques used to conduct research. They may
be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed. The choice of method depends on
the research problem, objectives, and available resources. Proper
selection of research method ensures valid and reliable results.