Class 12 Maths

Vector Algebra
Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
2. Scalar and Vector Quantities .......................................................................................... 1
3. Types of Vectors ............................................................................................................ 3
4. Position Vector of a Point in Space ................................................................................ 5
5. Direction Cosines ........................................................................................................... 6
6. Rectangular Resolution of a Vector in 2D and 3D Systems ............................................ 8
7. Arithmetic of Vectors & Section Formula ...................................................................... 9
8. Collinearity and Coplanarity of Vectors ....................................................................... 26
9. Linear Independence and Dependence of Vectors ........................................................ 37
10. Product of Two Vectors ............................................................................................ 39
11. Angle between Two Vectors ..................................................................................... 54
12. Right Handed System and Left Handed System of Vectors ....................................... 57
13. Area of Parallelogram and Triangle .......................................................................... 59
14. Moment of a Force ................................................................................................... 62
15. Scalar Triple Product ................................................................................................ 64
16. Vector Triple Product ............................................................................................... 72
17. Lagrange's Identity ................................................................................................... 73
18. Reciprocal System of Vectors ................................................................................... 76

1. Introduction
Vectors represent one of the most important mathematical systems, which is used to handle
certain types of problems in Geometry, Mechanics and other branches of Applied
Mathematics, Physics and Engineering.

2. Scalar and Vector Quantities

Physical quantities are divided into two categories-Scalar quantities and Vector quantities.
Those quantities which have only magnitude and which are not related to any fixed direction
in space are called scalar quantities or briefly scalars. Examples of scalars are mass, volume,
density, work, temperature etc.

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A scalar quantity is represented by a real number along with a suitable unit. Second kind of
quantities are those which have both magnitude and direction, such quantities are called
vectors. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, weight, force etc., are examples of
vector quantities.

Example. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors

(i) 20 m north-west (ii) 10 Newton
30 km
(iii) (iv) 50 m/s towards north
h

(v) 10−19 coloumb

Sol. (i) Directed distance -Vector
(ii) Force-Vector
(iii) Speed-Scalar
(iv) Velocity-Vector
(v) Electric charge-Scalar

Representation of Vectors
Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment.
For example, a = AB. Here, 𝐴 is called the initial point and 𝐵 is called the terminal point or
tip.

A directed line segment with initial point 𝐴 and terminal point 𝐵 is denoted hy 𝐀𝐁 or 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
Vectors are also denoted by small letters with an arrow above it or by small bold letters, e.g.
a, b, c etc. or 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 etc.

Here, in the figure 𝑎 = 𝐴𝐵 and magnitude or modulus of 𝐚 is expressed as |𝐚| = |𝐀𝐁| = 𝐴𝐵

(Distance between initial and terminal points).

Remarks
1. The magnitude of a vector is always a non negative real number.
2. Every vector 𝐀𝐁 has the following three characteristics
Length The length of 𝑨𝑩 will he denoted by |𝑨𝑩| or 𝐴𝐵.

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Support The line of unlimited length of which 𝐴𝐵 is a segment is called the support of the
vector 𝑨𝑩.
Sense The sense of 𝐀𝐁 is from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and that of BA is from 𝐵 to 𝐴. Thus. the sense of a
directed line segment is from its initial point to the terminal point.

Example. Represent graphically

(i) A displacement of 60 km, 40∘ east of north
(ii) A displacement of 50 km south-east
Sol. (i) The vector OP represent the required vector.

(ii) The vector OQ represent the required vector.

3. Types of Vectors
1. Zero or null vector A vector whose magnitude is zero is called zero or null vector and it is
represented by 0.
The initial and terminal points of the directed line segment representing zero vector are
coincident and its direction is arbitrary.
2. Unit vector A vector whose modulus is unity, is called a unit vector. The unit vector in the
direction of a vector a is denoted by 𝐚ˆ, read as ‘’a cap". Thus,
|𝐚ˆ| = 1.
𝐚 Vector
𝐚ˆ = |𝐚| = Magnitude of 𝑎

3. Like and unlike vectors Vectors are said to be like when they have the same sense of
direction and unlike when they have opposite directions.
4. Collinear or parallel vectors Vectors having the same of parallel supports are called
collinear vectors.
5. Coinitial vectors Vectors having the same initial point are called coinitial vectors.
6. Coplanar vectors A system of vectors is said to be coplanar, if they lie in the same plane
or their supports are parallel to the same plane.

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7. Coterminous vectors Vectors having the same terminal points are called coterminous
vectors.
8. Negative of a vector The vector which has the same magnitude as the given vector a but
opposite direction, is called the negative of 𝐚 and is denoted by −𝐚. Thus, if 𝐏𝐐 = 𝐚, then
𝐐𝐏 = −𝐚.
9. Reciprocal of a vector A vector having the same direction as that of a given vector 𝑎 but
magnitude equal to the reciprocal of the given vector is known as the reciprocal of 𝑎 and is
denoted by 𝑎−1 . Thus, if |a| = 𝑎, then |a−1 | = 1/𝑎.
Remark
A unit vector is self reciprocal.
10. Localised vector A vector which is drawn parallel to a given vector through a specified
point in space is called a localised vector. For example, a force acting on a rigid body is a
localised vector as its effect depends on the line of action of the force.
11. Free vectors If the value of a vector depends urdy on its length and direction and is
independent of its position in the space, it is called a free vector.
Remark
Unless otherwise stated all vectors will be considered as free vectors.
12. Equality of vectors Two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 are said to be equal, if
(i) |𝑎| = |𝑏|
(ii) they have the same or parallel support.
(iii) they have the same sense.
Two unit vectors may not be equal unless they have the same direction.

Example. In the following figure, which of the vectors are:

(i) Collinear
(ii) Equal
(iii) Co-initial
(iv) Collinear but not equal

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Sol. (i) 𝑎, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are collinear vectors.

(ii) 𝑎 and 𝑐 are equal vectors
(iii) 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are co-initial vectors
(iv) 𝑎 and 𝑑 are collinear but they are not equal, because their directions are not same.

4. Position Vector of a Point in Space

Let 𝑂 be the fixed point in space and 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋, 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌 and 𝑍 ′ 𝑂𝑍 be thiee lines perpendicular to
each other at 𝑂. Then, these three lines called 𝑋-axis, 𝑌-axis and 𝑍-axis which constitute the
rectangular coordinate system. The planes 𝑋O𝑌, 𝑌𝑂𝑍 and 𝑍𝑂𝑋, called respectively, the 𝑋𝑌-
plane, the 𝑌𝑍-plane and the 𝑍𝑋-plane.

Now, let 𝑃 be any point in space. Then, position of 𝑃 is given by triad (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) where 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
are perpendicular distance from 𝑌𝑍-plane, 𝑍𝑋-plane and 𝑋𝑌-plane respectively.
The vector 𝑂𝑃 is called the position vector of point 𝑃 with respect to the origin 𝑂 and written
as
ˆ
OP = 𝑥𝐢ˆ + 𝑦𝐣ˆ + 𝑧𝐤
ˆ are unit vectors parallel to 𝑋-axis, 𝑌-axis and 𝑍-axis. We usually denote
where 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
position vector by 𝐫.

Remarks
1. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are any two points in space having coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
respectively, then distance between the points 𝐴 and 𝐵=
√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 .
2. Using distance formula, the magnitude of OP (or ) is given by |𝐎𝐏| =
√(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
ˆ and 𝐛 =
3. Two vectors are equal if they have same components. i.e. if 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ are equal, then 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 and 𝑎3 = 𝑏3 .
𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏𝟑 𝐤

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Example. Find a unit vector parallel to the vector −3𝑖ˆ + 4𝑗ˆ.

Sol. Let 𝐚 = −3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ

Then, |𝑎| = √(−3)2 + (4)2 = 5

1
∴ Unit vector parallel to 𝐚 = 𝐚ˆ = |𝐚| ⋅ 𝐚
−3𝑖ˆ+4𝑗ˆ −3 4
= = 𝑖ˆ + 5 𝑗ˆ
5 5

Example. Let 𝐚 = 12𝐢ˆ + 𝑛𝐣ˆ and |𝐚| = 13, find the value of 𝑛.
Sol. Here, 𝑎 = 12𝑖ˆ + 𝑛𝑗ˆ

⇒ |𝐚| = √122 + 𝑛2 = 13
⇒ 144 + 𝑛2 = 169
⇒ 𝑛2 = 25 or 𝑛 = ±5
ˆ , then the area of
Example. If one side of a square be represented by the vectors 3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤
the square is
(a) 12 (b) 13
(c) 25 (d) 50

ˆ then |𝐚|
Sol. (d) Let 𝐚 = 3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤

= √32 + 42 + 52 = √9 + 16 + 25 = 5√2

Thus, the length of a side of square = 5√2

Hence, area of square = (5√2)2 = 25 × 2 = 50

5. Direction Cosines
Let 𝐫 be the position vector of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Then, direction cosines of 𝐫 are the cosines
of angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 that the vector 𝐫 makes with the positive direction of 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍-axes
respectively. We usually denote direction cosines by 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 respectively.
In the figure, we may note that ∆𝑂𝐴𝑃 is right angled triangle and in it we have
𝑥
cos 𝛼 = 𝑟 (𝑟 stands for |𝐫|)

Similarly, from the right angled triangles 𝑂𝐵𝑃 and 𝑂𝐶𝑃, we get
𝑦 𝑧
cos β = and cos γ =
𝑟 𝑟

Thus, we have the following

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𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝛼 = 𝑙 = = |𝐫| = 𝑟
√𝑥 2+𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
cos β = 𝑚 = = =
√𝑥 2+𝑦 2+𝑧 2 |𝑟| 𝑟

𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
and cos γ = 𝑛 = = |𝐫| = 𝑟
√𝑥 2+𝑦 2+𝑧 2

Clearly, 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1.
ˆ are the unit vectors along 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌 and
Here, α = ∠𝑃𝑂𝑋, β = ∠𝑃𝑂𝑌, γ = ∠𝑃𝑂𝑍 and 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
𝑂𝑍 respectively.

Remarks
1. The coordinates of point 𝑃 may also be expressed as (𝐼𝑟, 𝑚𝑟, 𝑛𝑟).
2. The numbers 𝑙𝑟, 𝑚𝑟 and 𝑛𝑟, proportional to the direction cosines, are called the direction
ratios of vector 𝐫 and are denoted by 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 respectively.
ˆ , then 𝑎, b and 𝑐 are direction ratios of the given vector.
3. If 𝐫 = 𝑎𝐢ˆ + 𝑏𝐣ˆ + 𝑐𝐤
Also, if 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 1, then 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 will be direction cosines of given vector.
ˆ is equally inclined to the axes 𝑂𝑋, 𝑂𝑌 and 𝑂𝑍.
Example. Show that the vector 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
Sol. Let a = î + ĵ + k̂
If a makes angles α, β, γ with 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍-axes respectively, then
1 1
cos α = √12 =
+12 +12 √3
1
cos β =
√3
1
and cos γ =
√3

Thus, we have cos α = cos β = cos γ, i.e. 𝛼 = β = γ

Hence, a is equally inclined to the axes.

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6. Rectangular Resolution of a Vector in 2D and 3D Systems

In Two Dimensional System
Any vector 𝑟 in two dimensional system can be expressed as 𝐫 = 𝑥𝐢ˆ + 𝑦𝐣ˆ. The vectors 𝑥𝐢ˆ and
𝑦𝑗ˆ are called the perpendicular component vectors of 𝐫.
The scalars 𝑥 and 𝑦 are called the components or resolved parts of 𝑟 in the directions of 𝑋-
axis and 𝑌-axis, respectively and the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) is known as coordinates of point
whose position vector is 𝑟.

Also, the magnitude of 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and if θ is the inclination of 𝑟 with the 𝑋-axis, then
𝑦
θ = tan−1 (𝑥 ).

In three Dimensional System

Any vector 𝑟 in three dimensional system can be expressed as
ˆ
𝐫 = 𝑥𝐢ˆ + 𝑦𝐣ˆ + 𝑧𝐤

ˆ are called the right angled components of 𝐫.

The vectors 𝑥𝑖ˆ, 𝑦𝑗ˆ and 𝑧𝐤
The scalars 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are called the components or resolved parts of 𝐫 in the directions of 𝑋-
axis, 𝑌-axis and 𝑍-axis, respectively and ordered triplet (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is known as coordinates of 𝑃
whose position vector is 𝐫. Also, the magnitude or modulus of

𝐫 = |𝐫| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 .

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Example . Let AB be a vector in two dimensional plane with the magnitude 4 units and
making an angle of 30∘ with 𝑋-axis and lying in the first quadrant. Find the components of
𝐀𝐁 along the two axes of coordinates. Hence, represent 𝐀𝐁 in terms of unit vectors 𝐢ˆ and 𝐣ˆ.
Sol. Let us consider 𝐴 as origin. From the diagram, it can be seen that the component of AB
along 𝑋-axis

= 𝐴𝐵cos 30∘ = 4cos 30∘

√3
=4× = 2√3
2

and the component of AB along 𝑌-axis

1
= 𝐴𝐵sin 30∘ = 4 × 2 = 2

Hence, 𝐀𝐁 = 2√3𝐢 + 2𝐣ˆ

7. Arithmetic of Vectors & Section Formula
Addition of Vectors
1. Triangle Law of Addition
If two vectors are represented by two consecutive sides of a triangle, then their sum is
represented by the third side of the triangle, but in opposite direction. This is known as the
triangle law of addition of vectors. Thus, if AB= 𝒂, 𝐁𝐂 = 𝐛 and 𝐀𝐂 = 𝐜, then 𝐀𝐁 + 𝐁𝐂 =
𝐀𝐂 i.e. 𝐚 + 𝐛 = 𝐜.

2. Parallelogram Law of Addition

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their sum is
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose initial point is the same as the initial
point of the given vectors. This is known as parallelogram law of vector addition.
Thus, if 𝐎𝐀 = a, 𝐎𝐁 = b and 𝐎𝐂 = c
Then, 𝐎𝐀 + 𝐎𝐁 = 𝐎𝐂 i.e. 𝐚 + 𝐛 = 𝐜, where 𝑂𝐶 is a diagonal of the parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐵.

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Remarks
1. The magnitude of 𝐚 + 𝐛 is not equal to the sum of the magnitudes of 𝐚 and 𝐛.
2. From the figure, we have 𝐎𝐀 + 𝐀𝐂 = 𝐎𝐂 (By triangle law of vector addition)
or OA + OB = OC (∵AC = OB), which is the parallelogram law. Thus, we may say that the
two laws of vector addition are equivalent to each other.

3. Polygon law of addition

If the number of vectors are represented by the sides of a polygon taken in order, the resultant
is represented by the closing side of the polygon taken in the reverse order.

In the figure, AB + BC + CD + DE + EF = AF
4. Addition in Component Form
ˆ , i.e. if 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
If the vectors are defined in terms of 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤 ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ +
ˆ , then their sum is defined as
𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
ˆ.
𝐚 + 𝐛 = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝐢ˆ + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝐣ˆ + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝐤

Properties of Vector Addition

Vector addition has the following properties
(i) Closure The sum of two vectors is always a vector.
(ii) Commutativity For any two vectors 𝐚 and 𝐛, ⇒ 𝒂+𝒃 =𝒃+𝒂
(iii) Associativity For any three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, ⇒ 𝐚 + (𝐛 + 𝐜) = (𝐚 + 𝐛) + 𝐜
(iv) Identity Zero vector is the identity for addition. For any vector a.
⇒ 𝟎+𝒂=𝒂=𝒂+𝟎

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(v) Additive inverse For every vector a its negative vector −𝐚 exists such that 𝐚 + (−𝐚) =
(−𝐚) + 𝐚 = 𝟎 i.e. (−𝒂) is the additive inverse of the vector a.

ˆ and 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ +
Example. Find the unit vector parallel to the resultant vector of 2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤
ˆ.
3𝐤
ˆ ) + (𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
Sol. Resultant vector, 𝐫 = (2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ
= 3𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤
1
Unit vector parallel to 𝐫 = |𝐫| 𝐫

1
= ˆ)
(3𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤
√32 + 62 + (−2)2
1
ˆ)
= 7 (3𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤

Example. If a, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are the vectors represented by the sides of a triangle, taken in order,
then prove that 𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜 = 0.
Sol. Let 𝐴𝐵𝐶 be a triangle such that
BC = a, CA = b and AB = c

Then, a + b + c = BC + CA + AB
= BA + AB (∵ BC + CA = BA)
= −AB + AB
a+b+c =0 Hence proved.

Example. If 𝑆 is the mid-point of side 𝑄𝑅 of a ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅, then prove that PQ + PR = 2PS.

Sol. Clearly, by triangle law of addition, we have

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PQ + QS = PS
and PR + RS = PS
On adding Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
(PQ + QS) + (PR + RS) = 2PS
⇒ (PQ + PR) + (QS + RS) = 2PS
⇒ PQ + PR + 0 = 2PS
[∵ 𝑆 is the mid-point of QR ∴ QS = – RS]
Hence, PQ + PR = 2PS Hence proved.

Example. If 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 is a regular hexagon, prove that AD + EB + FC = 4AB.

Sol. We have,
AD + EB + FC = (AB + BC + CD) + (ED + DC + CB) + FC
= AB + (BC + CB) + (CD + DC) + ED + FC

= AB + O + O + AB + 2AB = 4AB
(∵ ED = AB, FC = 2AB)
Hence proved.

Subtraction of Vectors
If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two vectors, then their subtraction 𝐚 − 𝐛 is defined as 𝐚 − 𝐛 = 𝐚 + (−𝐛),
where −𝐛 is the negative of 𝐛 having magnitude equal to that of b and direction opposite to
b.

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ˆ
If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ
and 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
ˆ
Then, 𝐚 − 𝐛 = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 )𝐢ˆ + (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )𝐣ˆ + (𝑎3 − 𝑏3 )𝐤

Properties of Vector Subtraction

(i) 𝐚 − 𝐛 ≠ 𝐛 − 𝐚
(ii) (𝒂 − 𝒃) − 𝒄 ≠ 𝒂 − (𝒃 − 𝒄)
(iii) Since, any one side of a triangle is less than the sum and greater than the difference of the
other two sides, so for any two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏, we have
(a) |𝑎 + 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏| (b) |a + b| ≥ |a| − |b|
(c) |a − b| ≤ |a| + |b| (d) |a − b| ≥ |a| − |b|
Remark
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are two points in space having coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), then
𝐀𝐁 = Position Vector of 𝐵 − Position Vector of 𝐴
ˆ ) − (𝑥1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑦1 𝐣ˆ + 𝑧1 𝐤
= (𝑥2 𝐢ˆ + 𝑦2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑧2 𝐤 ˆ)

ˆ
= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝐢ˆ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝐣ˆ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝐤

Example. If 𝐴 = (0, 1), 𝐵 = (1, 0), 𝐶 = (1, 2) and 𝐷 = (2, 1), prove that vector 𝐀𝐁 and 𝐂𝐃
are equal.
Sol. Here, 𝐀𝐁 = (1 − 0)𝐢ˆ + (0 − 1)𝐣ˆ = 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ
and 𝐂𝐃 = (2 − 1)𝐢ˆ + (1 − 2)𝐣ˆ = 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ
Clearly, 𝐀𝐁 = 𝐂𝐃 Hence proved.
ˆ and 5𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
Example. If the position vectors of 𝐀 and 𝐁 respectively 𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 7𝐤 ˆ , then
find 𝐀𝐁.
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Sol. Let 𝑂 be the origin, then we have

ˆ
𝐎𝐀 = 𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 7𝐤
ˆ
and 𝐎𝐁 = 5𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 7𝐤
Now, = OB − OA = (5𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ
= 4𝐢ˆ − 5𝐣ˆ + 11𝐤

Example. Vectors drawn from the origin 𝑂 to the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are respectively 𝐚, 𝐛 and
4𝐚 − 3𝐛. Find 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶.
Sol. We have, OA = a, OB = b and OC = 4a − 3 b
Clearly, AC = OC − OA = (4a − 3 b) − (a)
= 3a − 3b
and BC = OC − OB = (4a − 3 b) − (b) = 4a − 4 b

Example 18. Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points 𝐴(1, 2, −3) and
𝐵(−1, −2, 1), directed from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
ˆ = −2𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
Sol. Clearly, 𝐀𝐁 = (−1 − 1)𝐢ˆ + (−2 − 2)𝐣ˆ + (1 + 3)𝐤 ˆ

Now, |𝐀𝐁| = √(−2)2 + (−4)2 + (4)2 = √36 = 6

𝐀𝐁 ˆ
−2𝐢ˆ−4𝐣ˆ+4𝐤
∴ Unit vector along 𝐀𝐁 = |𝐀𝐁| = 6

1 2 2
ˆ.
= − 3 𝐢ˆ − 3 𝐣ˆ + 3 𝐤

Example. Let α, β and γ be distinct real numbers. The points with position vectors
ˆ , β𝐢ˆ + γ𝐣ˆ + α𝐤
α𝐢ˆ + β𝐣ˆ + γ𝐤 ˆ and γ𝐢ˆ + α𝐣ˆ + β𝐤
ˆ

(a) are collinear (b) form an equilateral triangle

(c) form a scalene triangle (d) form a right angled triangle
ˆ , β𝐢ˆ + γ̂ + α𝐤
Sol. (b) Let the given points be 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 with position vectors α𝐢ˆ + β𝐣ˆ + γ𝐤 ˆ
ˆ.
and γ̂𝐢ˆ + 𝛼𝐣ˆ + β𝐤
As, α, β and γ are distinct real numbers, therefore 𝐴𝐵𝐶 form a triangle.
Clearly, 𝐀𝐁 = 𝐎𝐁 − 𝐎𝐀 = (β𝐢ˆ + γ𝐣 ˆ + α𝐤ˆ ) − (α𝐢ˆ + β𝐣
ˆ + γ𝐤
ˆ )
= (β − α)𝐢ˆ + (γ − β)𝐣ˆ + (α − γ)𝐤ˆ

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Now, |𝑨𝑩| = √(β − α)2 + (γ − β)2 + (α − γ)2

Similarly, 𝐁𝐂 = 𝐂𝐀 = √(β − α)2 + (γ − β)2 + (α − γ)2

∴ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is an equilateral triangle.

ˆ , 4𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
Example. If the position vectors of the vertices of a triangle be 2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 𝐤 ˆ and
ˆ , then the triangle is
3𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
(a) right angled (b) isosceles
(c) equilateral (d) None of these
ˆ , 4𝐢ˆ +
Sol. (a, b) Let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be the vertices of given triangle with position vectors, 2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
ˆ and 3𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
5𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ respectively.

Then, we have
ˆ , 𝐎𝐁 = 4𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
𝐎𝐀 = 2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 𝐤 ˆ
ˆ
and 𝐎𝐂 = 3𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
ˆ
Clearly, 𝐀𝐁 = 𝐎𝐁 − 𝐎𝐀 = 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
ˆ
𝐁𝐂 = −𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ − 4𝐤
ˆ
and 𝐀𝐂 = 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤

Now, 𝐀𝐁 = |𝐀𝐁| = √22 + 12 + 22 = 3

𝐁𝐂 = |𝐁𝐂| = √(−1)2 + (1)2 + (−4)2 = 3√2

and 𝐀𝐂 = |𝐀𝐂| = √12 + 22 + (−2)2 = 3

∵ AB = AC and 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐴𝐶 2
∴ The triangle is isosceles and right angled.
ˆ and 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
Example. The two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤 ˆ.

Find the unit vectors along the diagonals of the parallelogram.

Sol. Let 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 be the given parallelogram and let the adjacent sides 𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵 be
ˆ and 𝑏 = 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
represented by 𝑎 = 2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤 ˆ respectively.

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Now; the vectors along the two diagonals are

The required unit vectors are

𝐝 ˆ
3𝐢ˆ+6𝐣ˆ−2𝐤
𝐧ˆ1 = |𝐝1 | =
𝟏 √32 +62 +(−2)2

3 6 2
ˆ
= 7 𝐢ˆ + 7 𝐣ˆ − 7 𝐤
𝑑 ˆ
−𝐢ˆ−2𝐣ˆ+8𝐤
and 𝐧ˆ2 = |𝑑2 | =
2 √(−1)2+(−2)2+82

−1 2 8
= 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + ˆ
𝐤
√69 √69 √69

Example. If a and 𝐛 are any two vectors, then give the geometrical interpretation of the
relation |𝐚 + 𝐛| = |𝐚 − 𝐛|
Sol. Let 𝐎𝐀 = 𝐚 and 𝐀𝐁 = 𝐛. Completing the parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶.

Then, OC = b and CB = a
From ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵, we have
OA + AB = OB ⇒ a + b = OB ….(i)
From ∆𝑂𝐶𝐴, we have
OC + CA = OA
⇒ b + CA = a ⇒ CA = a − b …(ii)
Clearly, |a + b| = |a − b| ⇒ |OB| = |CA|
Diagonals of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 are equal.
𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a rectangle.

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⇒ OA ⊥ OC ⇒ a ⊥ b

Example. If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, prove that the magnitude of their
difference is √3.
ˆ be two unit vectors represented by sides 𝑂𝐴 and 𝐴𝐵 of a ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵.
Sol. Let 𝐚ˆ and 𝐛

Then, OA = â, AB = b̂
OB = OA + AB = â + b̂
(using triangle law of vector addition)
ˆ | = |𝐚ˆ + 𝐛
It is given that, |𝐚ˆ| = |𝐛 ˆ|=1

⇒ |𝐎𝐀| + |𝐀𝐁| = |𝐎𝐁| = 1

∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 is equilateral triangle.
ˆ | = |𝐀𝐁 ′ |
Since, |𝐎𝐀| = |𝐚ˆ| = 1 = | − 𝐛
Therefore, ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵′ is an isosceles triangle.
⇒ ∠𝐴𝐵′ 𝑂 = ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵′ = 30∘
⇒ ∠𝐵𝑂𝐵′ = ∠𝐵𝑂𝐴 + ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵′ = 60∘ + 30∘ = 90∘
∴ (since, ∆𝐵𝑂𝐵′ is right angled)
∴ ∆𝐵𝑂𝐵′ , we have
|𝐵𝐵′ |2 = |𝑂𝐵|2 + |𝑂𝐵′ |2
ˆ |2 + |𝐚ˆ − 𝐛
= |𝐚ˆ + 𝐛 ˆ |2
ˆ |2
22 = 12 + |𝐚ˆ − 𝐛
ˆ | = √3
|𝐚ˆ − 𝐛 Hence proved.

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

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If 𝐚 is a vector and 𝑚 is a scalar (i.e. a real number), then 𝑚 𝐚 is a vector whose magnitude is
𝑚 times that of 𝒂 and whose direction is the same as that of a, if 𝑚 is positive and opposite to
that of a, if 𝑚 is negative.
∴ Magnitude of 𝑚𝑎 = |𝑚a| ⇒ 𝑚 (magnitude of 𝐚) = 𝑚|𝐚|
ˆ,
Again, if 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ
then 𝑚 𝐚 = (𝑚𝑎1 )𝐢ˆ + (𝑚𝑎2 )𝐣ˆ + (𝑚𝑎3 )𝐤

Properties of Multiplication of Vectors by a Scalar

The following are properties of multiplication of vectors by scalars, for vectors a, b and
scalars 𝑚, 𝑛
(i) 𝑚(−𝐚) = (−𝑚) 𝐚 = −(𝑚𝐚)
(ii) (−𝑚)(−𝐚) = 𝑚 𝐚
(iii) 𝑚(𝑛𝐚) = (𝑚𝑛) 𝐚 = 𝑛(𝑚𝐚)
(iv) (𝑚 + 𝑛)𝐚 = 𝑚𝐚 + 𝑛𝐚
(v) 𝑚(𝐚 + 𝐛) = 𝑚 𝐚 + 𝑚 𝐛

Example. If a is a non-zero vector of modulus a and 𝑚, is a non-zero scalar, then ma is a unit

vector, if
(a) 𝑚 = ±1 (b) 𝑚 = |𝒂|
1
(c) 𝑚 = |𝐚| (d) 𝑚 = ±2

Sol. (c) Since, ma is a unit vector, ∣ma∣= 1

⇒ |𝑚||a| = 1
1 1
⇒ |𝑚| = |𝐚| ⇒ 𝑚 = ± |𝐚|

Example. For a non-zero vector a, the set of real numbers, satisfying |(5 − 𝑥)𝐚| < |2𝐚|
consists of all 𝑥 such that
(a) 0 < 𝑥 < 3 (b) 3 < 𝑥 < 7
(c) −7 < 𝑥 < −3 (d) −7 < 𝑥 < 3
Sol. (b) We have, |(5 − 𝑥)𝐚| < |2𝐚|
|5 − 𝑥||𝒂| < 2|𝒂|
⇒ |5 − 𝑥| < 2
⇒ −2< 5−𝑥 < 2
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⇒ 3<𝑥<7

Example. Find a vector of magnitude (5/2) units which is parallel to the vector 3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ.
Sol. Here, 𝐚 = 3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ

Then, |𝐚| = √32 + 42 = 5

∴ A unit vector parallel to
𝑎 1
𝐚 = 𝐚ˆ = |𝐚| ⋅= 5 (3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ)

Hence, the required vector of magnitude (5/2) units and parallel to a

5 5 1
= 2 ⋅ 𝐚ˆ = 2 ⋅ 5 (3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ)
1
= 2 (3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ)

Section Formula
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two points with position vectors 𝐚 and 𝐛 respectively. Let 𝑃 be a point on 𝐴𝐵
dividing it is the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛.
Internal Division
If 𝑃 divides 𝐴𝐵 internally in the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛. Then the position vector of 𝑃 is given by

𝑚𝐛 + 𝑛𝐚
OP =
𝑚+𝑛

Proof
Let 𝑂 be the origin. Then OA = a and OB = b. Let 𝑟 be the position vector of 𝑃 which
divides 𝐴𝐵 internally is the ratio 𝑚: 𝑛. Then
𝐴𝑃 𝑚
=
𝑃𝐵 𝑛

or 𝑛AP = 𝑚PB
or 𝑛(PV of 𝑃 − PV of 𝐴) = 𝑚(PV of 𝐵 − PV of 𝑃)

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or 𝑛(𝐫 − 𝐚) = 𝑚(𝐛 − 𝐫)
or 𝑛𝐫 − 𝑛𝐚 = 𝑚𝐛 − 𝑚𝐫
or 𝐫(𝑛 + 𝑚) = 𝑚𝐛 + 𝑛𝐚
𝑚𝐛+𝑛𝐚
or 𝑟= 𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝐛+𝑛𝐚
or OP = 𝑚+𝑛

External Division
If 𝑃 divides 𝐴𝐵 externally in the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛. Then, the position vector of 𝑃 is given by

𝑚𝑏 − 𝑛𝑎
𝐎𝐏 =
𝑚−𝑛
Proof
Let 𝑂 be the origin. Then OA = a, OB = b. Let r be the position vector of point 𝑃 dividing
𝐴𝐵 externally in the ratio 𝑚 ∶ 𝑛.
𝐴𝑃 𝑚
Then, =
𝐵𝑃 𝑛

or 𝑛𝐴𝑃 = 𝑚𝐵𝑃
or 𝑛AP = 𝑚BP
or 𝑛(PV of 𝑃 − PV of 𝐴) = 𝑚(PV of 𝑃 − PV of 𝐵)
or 𝑛(𝐫 − 𝐚) = 𝑚(𝐫 − 𝐛)
or 𝑛𝐫 − 𝑛𝐚 = 𝑚𝐫 − 𝑚𝐛
or 𝑟(𝑚 − 𝑛) = 𝑚𝐛 − 𝑛𝐚
𝑚𝐛−𝑛𝐚
or 𝐫=
𝑚−𝑛
𝑚𝐛−𝑛𝐚
or OP = 𝑚−𝑛

Remarks
a+b
1. Position vector of mid-point of 𝐴𝐵 is .
2

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2. In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, having vertices 𝐴(𝑎), 𝐵(𝑏) and 𝐶(𝐜)

𝐚+𝐛+𝐜
(i) Position vector of centroid is .
3

(ii) Position vector of incentre is

𝐵𝐶𝐚+𝐴𝐶𝑏+𝐴𝐵𝐜
.
𝐴𝐵+𝐵𝐶+𝐴𝐶

(iii) Position vector of orthocentre is

tan 𝐴𝐚+tan 𝐵𝐛+tan 𝐶𝐜
tan 𝐴+tan 𝐵+tan 𝐶
.

(iv) Position vector of circumcentre is

sin 2𝐴𝐚+sin 2𝐵𝐛+sin 2𝐶𝐜
.
sin 2𝐴+sin 2𝐵+sin 2𝐶

Example. If 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹 are the mid-points of the sides 𝐵𝐶, 𝐶𝐴 and 𝐴𝐵 respectively of the
∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝑂 be any point, then prove that
OA + OB + OC = OD + OE + OF
Sol. Since, 𝐷 is the mid-point of 𝐵𝐶, therefore by section formula, we have

OB+OC
OD = 2

⇒ OB + OC = 2OD
Similarly, OC + OA = 2OE
and OB + OA = 2OF
On adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
2(OA + OB + OC) = 2(OD + OE + OF)
⇒ OA + OB + OC = OD + OE + OF
Hence proved.
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Example. Find the position vectors of the points which divide the join of points 𝐴(2𝐚 − 3𝐛)
and 𝐵(3𝐚 − 2𝐛) internally and externally in the ratio 2 ∶ 3.
Sol. Let 𝑃 be a point which divide 𝐴𝐵 internally in the ratio 2 ∶ 3. Then, by section formula,
position vector of 𝑃 is given by
2(3a−2b)+3(2a−3b)
OP = 2+3
6a−4b+6a−9b 12 13
= = a− b
5 5 5

Similarly, the position vector of the point (𝑃′ ) which divides 𝐴𝐵 externally in the ratio 2 ∶ 3
is given by
2(3a−2b)−3(2a−3b)
OP ′ = 2−3
6a−4b−6a+9b 5b
= = −1 = −5b
−1

ˆ , 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ −
Example. The position vectors of the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of a triangle are 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
ˆ and −5𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 6𝐤
2𝐤 ˆ , respectively. The length of the bisector 𝐴𝐷 of the ∠𝐵𝐴𝐶, where 𝐷 is
on the segment 𝐵𝐶, is
3 1
(a) 4 √10 (b) 4
11
(c) (d) None of these
2

Sol. (b)

ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
(a) |𝐀𝐁| = |(2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤 ˆ )|
ˆ|
= |𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤

= √12 + 22 + 12 = √6
ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
|𝐀𝐂| = |(−5𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 6𝐤 ˆ )|
ˆ|
= | − 6𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤

= √(−6)2 + 32 + (−3)2 = √54 = 3√6

√6 1
𝐁𝐃 ∶ 𝐃𝐂 = 𝐀𝐁 ∶ 𝐀𝐂 = =
3 √6 3

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ˆ )+3(2𝐢ˆ+𝐣ˆ−2𝐤
1(−5𝐢ˆ+2𝐣ˆ−6𝐤 ˆ)
∴ Position vector of 𝐷 = 1+3

1
= (𝑖ˆ + 5𝑗ˆ − 12𝑘ˆ)
4
∴ 𝐀𝐃 = Position vector of 𝐷-Position vector of 𝐴
1
AD = 4 (𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ − 12𝐤 ˆ ) = 1 (−3𝐢ˆ + 9𝐣ˆ)
ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
4
3
= 4 (−𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ)
3 3
|AD| = 4 √(−1)2 + 32 = 4 √10

Example. The median 𝐴𝐷 of the ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is bisected at 𝐸. 𝐵𝐸 meets 𝐴𝐶 in 𝐹. Then, 𝐴𝐹: 𝐴𝐶 is

equal to
(a) 3/4 (b) 1/3
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/4
Sol. (b) Let position vector of 𝐴 w.r.t. 𝐵 is a and that of 𝐶 w.r.t. 𝐵 is 𝐜.

Position vector of 𝐷 w.r.t.

0+𝑐 𝑐
𝐵= =2
2

Position vector of
𝑐
𝑎+ 𝑎 𝑐
𝐸= 2
= + …(i)
2 2 4

Let 𝐴𝐹: 𝐹𝐶 = λ ∶ 1 and 𝐵𝐸: 𝐸𝐹 = μ ∶ 1

λ𝑐+𝐚
Position vector of 𝐹 = 1+λ

Now, position vector of

λ𝑐+𝑎
μ( )+1⋅0
𝐸= 1+λ
…(ii)
μ+1

From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get

𝐚 𝐜 μ λμ
+ = 𝐚+ 𝐜
2 4 (1+λ)(1+μ) (1+λ)(1+μ)
1 μ
⇒ = (1+λ)(1+μ)
2

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1 λμ
and 4 = (1+λ)(1+μ)
1
⇒λ=2
1
𝐴𝐹 𝐴𝐹 λ 2 1
∴ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐹+𝐹𝐶 = 1+λ = 3 =3
2

Magnitude of Resultant of Two Vectors

Let 𝐑 be the resultant of two vectors 𝐏 and 𝐐. Then,
R =P+Q

|𝐑| = 𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄cos θ

𝑄sin θ
where, |P| = 𝑃, |𝑄| = 𝑄, tan 𝛼 = 𝑃+𝑄cos θ

Deduction When |P| = |Q|, i.e. 𝑃 = 𝑄

𝑃 sin θ
tan 𝛼 =
𝑃 + 𝑃cos θ
sin θ θ
= 1+cos θ = tan 2
θ
∴ 𝛼=2

Hence, the angular bisector of two unit vectors a and b is along the vector sum a + b.
Remarks
1. The internal bisector of the angle between any two vectors is along the vector sum of t he
corresponding unit vectors.
2. The external bisector of the angle between two vectors is along the vector difference of the
corresponding unit vectors.

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Class 12 Maths

Example. The sum of two forces is 18 N and resultant whose direction is at right angles to
the smaller force 12 N. The magnitude of the two forces are
(a) 13, 5 (b) 12, 6
(c) 14, 4 (d) 11, 7
Sol. (a) We have, |𝐏| + |𝐐| = 18 N; |𝐑| = |𝐏 + 𝐐| + 12 N
α = 90∘
𝑃 + 𝑄cos θ = 0
⇒ 𝑄cos θ = −𝑃
Now. 𝑅2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄cos θ
⇒ 𝑅2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃(−𝑃) = 𝑄2 − 𝑃2

⇒ 122 = (𝑃 + 𝑄)(𝑄 − 𝑃) = 18(𝑄 − 𝑃)

⇒ 𝑄 − 𝑃 = 8 and 𝑄 + 𝑃 = 18
⇒ 𝑄 = 13, 𝑃 = 5
∴ Magnitude of two forces are 5 N and 13 N.

Example. The length of longer diagonal of the parallelogram constructed on 5a + 2b and

π
a − 3b, when it is given that |𝐚| = 2√2, |𝐛| = 3 and angle between 𝐚 and b is 4 , is

(a) 15 (b) √113

(c) √593 (d) √369

Sol. (c) Length of the two diagonals will be
𝑑1 = |(5𝑎 + 2𝑏) + (𝑎 − 3𝑏)|
and 𝑑2 = |(5𝑎 + 2𝑏) − (𝑎 − 3𝑏)|
⇒ 𝑑1 = |6𝑎 − 𝑏|, 𝑑2 = |4𝑎 + 5𝑏|
Thus,
𝑑1 = √|6𝑎|2 + | − 𝑏|2 + 2|6𝑎|| − 𝑏|cos (π − π/4)

1
= √36(2√2)2 + 9 + 12 ⋅ 2√2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ (− ) = 15
√2

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Class 12 Maths

π
𝑑2 = √|4𝐚|2 + |5b|2 + 2|4a||5b|cos 4

1
= √16 × 8 + 25 × 9 + 40 × 2√2 × 3 ×
√2

= √593
∴ Length of the longer diagonal = √593

Example. The vector c, directed along the internal bisector of the angle between the vectors
ˆ and 𝐛 = −2𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
𝐚 = 7𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ − 4𝐤 ˆ with |𝐜| = 5√6, is
5
ˆ)
(a) 3 (𝐢ˆ − 7𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
5
ˆ)
(b) 3 (5𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
5
ˆ)
(c) 3 (𝐢ˆ + 7𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
5
ˆ)
(d) 3 (−5𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤

ˆ
Sol. (a) Let 𝐚 = 7𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ − 4𝐤
ˆ
and 𝐛 = −2𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
𝐚 𝐛
Now, required vector 𝑐 = λ (|𝐚| + |𝐛|)
ˆ
7𝐢ˆ−4𝐣ˆ−4𝐤 ˆ
−2𝐢ˆ−𝐣ˆ+2𝐤
= λ( + )
9 3
λ
ˆ)
= 9 (𝐢ˆ − 7𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
λ2
|c|2 = 81 × 54 = 150

⇒ λ = ±15
5 z
⇒ 𝐜 = ± 3 (î − 7ĵ + 2k̂)

Linear Combination of Vectors

A vector 𝐫 is said to be a linear combination of vectors a, b and c.. etc., if there exist scalars
𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 etc., such that 𝐫 = 𝑥𝐚 + 𝐲𝐛 + 𝑧𝐜 + ⋯
For examples Vectors 𝐫1 = 2𝐚 + 𝐛 + 3𝐜 and
r2 = a + 3b + √2c are linear combinations of the vectors 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜.

8. Collinearity and Coplanarity of Vectors

Relation between Two Collinear Vectors (or Parallel Vectors)
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Let 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two collinear vectors and let 𝐱ˆ be the unit vector in the direction of 𝐚.
Then, the unit vector in the direction of 𝐛 is 𝐱ˆ or −𝐱ˆ according as 𝐚 and 𝐛 are like or unlike
parallel vectors. Now, 𝑎 = |𝑎|𝐱ˆ and 𝐛 = ±|𝐛|𝐱ˆ.
|𝐚| |a|
∴ a=( ) |b|𝐱ˆ ⇒ a = ± ( ) 𝐛
|b| |𝐛|
|a|
⇒ 𝐚 = λb, where λ = ± |b|

Thus, if 𝐚 and 𝐛 are collinear vectors, then 𝐚 = λ𝐛 or 𝐛 = λ𝐚 for some scalar λ i.e, there exist
two non-zero scalar quantities 𝑥 and 𝑦 so that 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 = 𝟎

Theorem : Vectors 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two non-zero, non-collinear vectors and 𝑥, 𝑦 are two scalars
such that
𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 = 0
Then, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
Proof It is given that 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 = 0 …(i)
Suppose that 𝑥 ≠ 0, then dividing both sides of (i) by the scalar 𝑥, we get
𝑦
𝐚 = −𝑥 𝐛 …(ii)
𝑦
Now, 𝑥 is a scalar, because 𝑥 and 𝑦 are scalars.

Hence, Eq. (ii) expresses a as product of 𝐛 by a scalar, so that 𝐚 and 𝐛 are collinear. Thus. we
arrive at 𝑎 contradiction because 𝑎 and 𝑏 are given to be non-collinear.
Thus our supposition that 𝑥 ≠ 0, is wrong.
Hence, 𝑥 = 0. Similarly, 𝑦 = 0
Remarks
𝐚 = 0, 𝐛 = 0
or
1. 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
or
{ 𝐚∥𝐛
2. If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two non-collinear (or non-parallel) vectors, then 𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 = 𝑥2 𝐚 + 𝑦2 𝐛
⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and 𝑦1 = 𝑦2
Proof 𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 = 𝑥2 𝐛 + 𝑦2 𝐛
⇒ (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝐚 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )𝐛 = 0
⇒ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0 and 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 0
[∵ 𝐚 and 𝐛 are [Link]]

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⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and 𝑦1 = 𝑦2
ˆ and 𝑏 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ , then 𝐚 ∥ 𝐛
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
⇒ = =
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Test of Collinearity of Three Points

(i) Three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear, if AB = λBC
(ii) Three points with position vectors 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are collinear if there exist scalars 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧
not all zero such that 𝑥a + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐 = 0, where 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
Proof Let us suppose that points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear and their position vectors are 𝐚, b
and c respectively. Let 𝐶 divide the join of 𝐚 and 𝐛 in the ratio 𝑦 ∶ 𝑥. Then,
𝑥a+yb
c= 𝑥+𝑦

or 𝑥a + 𝑦 b − (𝑥 + 𝑦)c = 0
or 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧𝐜 = 0, where 𝑧 = −(𝑥 + 𝑦)
Also, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − (𝑥 + 𝑦) = 0
Conversely, let 𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐 = 0, where 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0.
Therefore,
𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 = −𝑧𝑐 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑐 (∵ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = −𝑧)b
𝑥𝑎+𝑦𝑏
or 𝐜= 𝑥+𝑦

This relation shows that 𝑐 divides the join of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the ratio 𝑦 ∶ 𝑥. Hence, the three
points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.
(iii) If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ, 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ and 𝐜 = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ, then the points with position vector
𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝑐 will be
𝑎1 𝑎2 1
collinear if |𝑏1 𝑏2 1| = 0.
𝑐1 𝑐2 1
Proof The points with position vector 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 will be collinear iff there exist scalars 𝑥, 𝑦
and 𝑧 not all zero such that,
𝑥(𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ) + 𝑦(𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ) + 𝑧(𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ) = 0 and
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =0
⇒ 𝑥𝑎1 + 𝑦𝑏1 + 𝑧𝑐1 = 0
𝑥𝑎2 + 𝑦𝑏2 + 𝑧𝑐2 = 0

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𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =0

Thus, the points will be collinear iff the above system of equation's have non-trivial solution
Hence, the points will be collinear
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑎2 1
if |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 0 or | 𝑏1 𝑏2 1| = 0.
1 1 1 𝑐1 𝑐2 1

ˆ are collinear.
Example. Show that the vectors 2î − 3𝐣ˆ + 4k̂ and −4𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 8𝐤
ˆ and 𝐛 = −4𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 8𝐤
Sol. Let 𝐚 = 2𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤 ˆ
ˆ = −2(2𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 4k̂) = −2a
Consider, b = −4𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ − 8𝐤
∴ The vectors a and b are collinear.

Example. Show that the points 𝐴(1, 2, 3), 𝐵(3, 4, 7) and 𝐶(−3, −2, −5) are collinear. Find
the ratio in which point 𝐶 divides 𝐴𝐵.
𝐒𝐨𝐥. Clearly, 𝐀𝐁 ˆ
= (3 − 1)𝐢ˆ + (4 − 2)𝐣ˆ + (7 − 3)𝐤
ˆ
= 2𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
and 𝐁𝐂 ˆ
= (−3 − 3)𝐢ˆ + (−2 − 4)𝐣ˆ + (−5 − 7)𝐤
= 6𝐢ˆ − 6𝐣ˆ − 12𝐤ˆ
= −3(2𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤ˆ ) = −3AB
∵ BC = −3AB
∴ 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.
Now, let 𝐶 divide 𝐴𝐵 in the ratio 𝑘: 1, then
𝑘OB + 1 ⋅ OA
OC =
𝑘+1
ˆ ) + (𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
𝑘(3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 7𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ =
⇒ − 3𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤
𝑘+1
3𝑘 + 1 4𝑘 + 2 7𝑘 + 3
ˆ =(
⇒ − 3𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤 ) 𝐢ˆ + ( ) 𝐣ˆ + ( ˆ
)𝐤
𝑘+1 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
3𝑘+1 4𝑘+2 7𝑘+3
⇒ = −3; = −2 and = −5
𝑘+1 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
−2
From, all relations, we get 𝑘 = 3

Hence, 𝐶 divides 𝐴𝐵 externally in the ratio 2 ∶ 3.

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Example. If the position vectors of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ, 𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ, 3𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ and 𝐢ˆ + λ𝐣ˆ,
respectively and AB ∥ CD, then λ will be
(a) −8 (b) −6
(c) 8 (d) 6
Sol. (b) 𝐴𝐵 = (𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ) − (2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ) = −𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ;
CD = (𝐢ˆ + λ𝐣ˆ) − (3𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ) = −2𝐢ˆ + (λ − 2)𝐣ˆ;
AB ∥ CD ⇒ AB = 𝑥 CD
−𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ = 𝑥[−2𝐢ˆ + (λ − 2)𝐣ˆ}
⇒ −1 = −2𝑥, −4 = (λ − 2)𝑥
1
⇒𝑥= and λ = −6
2

Example. The points with position vectors 60𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ, 40𝐢ˆ − 8𝐣ˆ and 𝑎𝐢ˆ − 52𝐣ˆ are collinear, if 𝑎
is equal to
(a) −40 (b) 40
(c) 20 (d) None of these
Sol. (a) The three points are collinear if
60 3 1
|40 −8 1| = 0
𝑎 −52 1
⇒ 60(−8 + 52) − 3(40 − 𝑎) + (−2080 + 8𝑎) = 0
⇒ 2640 − 120 + 3𝑎 − 2080 + 8𝑎 = 0
11𝑎 = −440
⇒ 𝑎 = −40

Example. Let 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 be three non-zero vectors such that no two of these are collinear. If
the vector 𝐚 + 2𝐛 is collinear with 𝐜 and 𝐛 + 3𝐜 is collinear with 𝐚 (λ being some non-zero
scalar), then a + 2b + 6c is equal to
(a) 0 (b) λ𝑏
(c) λc (d) λ𝑎
Sol. (a) As 𝐚 + 2𝐛 and 𝐜 are collinear 𝐚 + 2𝐛 = λ𝐜 …(i)
Again, 𝐛 + 3𝐜 is collinear with 𝐚.
∴ b + 3𝑐 = μ𝑎 …(ii)

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Now, 𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 6𝑐 = (𝑎 + 2𝑏) + 6𝑐 = λ𝑐 + 6𝑐
= (λ + 6)𝑐 …(iii)
Also, 𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 6𝑐 = 𝑎 + 2(b + 3𝑐) = 𝑎 + 2μ𝑎
= (2μ + 1)𝑎 …(iv)
From Eqs. (iii) and (iv), we get
(λ + 6)𝑐 = (2μ + 1)𝐚
But 𝐚 and 𝐜 are non-zero, non-collinear vectors,
∴ λ + 6 = 0 = 2μ + 1
Hence, 𝑎 + 2b + 6𝑐 = 0
Theorem of Coplanar Vectors
Let 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two non-zero, non-collinear vectors. Then any vector 𝐫 coplanar with 𝐚 and 𝐛
can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination x𝐚 + y𝐛; x and 𝑦 being scalars.
Proof Let 𝐚 and 𝐛 be any two non-zero, non-collinear vectors and 𝐫 be any vector coplanar
with 𝐚 and 𝐛. We take any point 𝑂 in the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛

Let 𝐎𝐀 = 𝐚, 𝐎𝐁 = 𝐛 and 𝐎𝐏 = 𝐫
Clearly, 𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵 and 𝑂𝑃 are coplanar.
Through 𝑃, we draw lines 𝑃𝑀 and 𝑃𝑁, parallel to 𝑂𝐵 and 𝑂𝐴 respeetively meeting 𝑂𝐴 and
𝑂𝐵 at 𝑀 and 𝑁 respectively.
We have, OP = OM + MP
= OM + ON[∵ 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑂𝑁 and 𝑀𝑃 ∥ 𝑂𝑁] … (i)
Now, OM and OA are collinear vectors
OM = 𝑥 OA = 𝑥a, where 𝑥 is scalar.
Similarly, ON = 𝑦OB = 𝑦b, where 𝑦 is a scalar.
Hence, from Eq. (i), OP = 𝑥a + 𝑦 b or r = 𝑥 ′ a + 𝑦 ′ b
Uniqueness: If possible, let 𝐫 = 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦b and 𝐫 = 𝑥 ′ 𝐚 + 𝑦 ′ 𝐛 be two different ways of
representing 𝑟.
Then, we have 𝑟𝒂 + 𝑦𝒃 = 𝑥 ′ 𝐚 + 𝑦 ′ 𝐛

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⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝐚 + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ )𝐛 = 0
But 𝐚 and 𝐛 are non-collinear vectors
∴ 𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ = 0 and 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 0
⇒ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 and 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦
Thus, the uniqueness in established.

Test of Coplanarity of Three Vectors

(i) Three vectors 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 are coplanar iff any one of them is a linear combination of the
remaining two, i.e. if 𝐚 = 𝑥𝐛 + 𝑦𝐜 where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are scalars.
ˆ , 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
(ii) If three points with position vectors 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ and 𝐜 =
ˆ are coplanar,
𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
then |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = 0.
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
If vectors a, b and 𝐜 are coplanar, then there exist scalars 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that 𝐜 = 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛.
ˆ = 𝑥(𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
Hence, 𝑐1 î + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤 ˆ ) + 𝑦(𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
ˆ)

ˆ are non-coplanar and hence independent.

Now, 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
Then, 𝑐1 = 𝑥𝑎1 + 𝑦𝑏1 , 𝑐2 = 𝑥𝑎2 + 𝑦𝑏2
and 𝑐3 = 𝑥𝑎3 + 𝑦𝑏3
The above system of equations in terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦 is consistent. Thus,
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
| 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 0 or |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = 0.
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Remark
If vectors 𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 + 𝑧1 𝐜, 𝑥2 𝐚 + 𝑦2 𝐛 + 𝑧2 𝐜 and 𝑥3 𝐚 + 𝑦3 𝐛 + 𝑧3 𝐜 are coplanar (where 𝐚, b
and 𝐜 are non-coplanar).
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
Then, |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 | = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3

Test of Coplanarity of Four Points

(i) To prove that four points 𝐴(𝐚), 𝐵(𝐛), 𝐶(𝐜) and 𝐷(𝐝) are coplanar, it is just sufficient to
prove that vectors AB, AC and AD and coplanar.

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Class 12 Maths

(ii) Four points with position vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 are coplanar iff there exist scalars 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
and 𝑢 not all zero such that 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧𝐜 + 𝑢𝐝 = 0, where 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 𝑢 = 0.
(iii) Four points with position vectors
𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ,
𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤ˆ
𝐜 ˆ
= 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
and 𝐝 = 𝑑1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑑2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑑3 𝐤 ˆ
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 1
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏3 1
will be coplanar, if | 1 |=0
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 1
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 1
𝑑1 − 𝑎1 𝑑2 − 𝑎2 𝑑3 − 𝑎3
or |𝑏1 − 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 | = 0
𝑐1 − 𝑎1 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑐3 − 𝑎3

Theorem on Non-coplanar Vectors

Theorem 1
If 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜, are three non-zero, non-coplanar vectors and 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are three scalars such that
𝑥a + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐 = 0.
Then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0.
Proof It is given that 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐 = 0 …(i)
Suppose that 𝑥 ≠ 0
Then Eq. (i) can be written as
𝑥a = −𝑎b − 𝑧c
𝑦 𝑧
⇒ 𝐚 = −𝑥 𝐛 − 𝑥𝐜 …(ii)
𝑦 𝑧
Now, 𝑥 and 𝑥 are scalars because 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are scalars.

Thus, Eq. (ii) expresses a as a linear combination of 𝐛 and 𝐜. Hence, 𝐚 is coplanar with 𝐛 and
𝐜 which is contrary to our hypothesis because 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are given to be non-coplanar.
Thus, our supposition that 𝑥 ≠ 0 is wrong.
Hence, 𝑥 = 0
Similarly, we can prove that 𝑦 = 0 and 𝑧 = 0
Theorem 2

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If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors, then any vector 𝐫 can be uniquely expressed as a linear
combination 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧𝐜; 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 being scalars.
or
Any vector in space can be expressed as a linear combination of three non-coplanar vectors.
Proof Take any point 𝑂.
Let 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 be any three non-coplanar vectors and 𝐫 be any vector in space.
Let OA = a, OB = b,
OC = c, OP = r
Here, the three lines 𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵, 𝑂𝐶 are not coplanar. Hence, they determine three different
planes 𝐵𝑂𝐶, 𝐶𝑂𝐴 and 𝐴𝑂𝐵 when taken in pairs.
Through 𝑃, draw planes parallel to these planes 𝐵𝑂𝐶, 𝐶𝑂𝐴 and 𝐴𝑂𝐵 meeting 𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵 and 𝑂𝐶
in 𝐿, 𝐸 and 𝑁 respectively. Thus we obtain a parallelopiped with 𝑂𝑃 as diagonal and three
coterminous edges 𝑂𝐿, 𝑂𝐸 and 𝑂𝑁 along 𝑂𝐴, 𝑂𝐵 and 𝑂𝐶, respectively.

∴ OL is collinear with OA.

∴ OL = 𝑥 OA = 𝑥a, where 𝑥 is a scalar.
Similarly, OE = 𝑦𝐛 and ON = 𝑧c,
where 𝑦 and 𝑧 are scalars.
Now, OP = OR + RP = (ON + NR) + RP
= ON + OL + OE [∵ NR = OL and RP = OE]
= OL + OE + ON = 𝑥a + 𝑦b + 𝑧c
Thus, r = 𝑥a + 𝑦b + 𝑧c
Hence, 𝐫 can be expressed as a linear combination of 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜.
Uniqueness If possible let
𝐫 = 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧𝐜
and 𝐫 = 𝑥 ′ 𝐚 + 𝑦 ′ 𝐛 + 𝑧 ′ 𝐜
be two different ways of representing 𝐫, then we have

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𝑥a + 𝑦b + 𝑧c = 𝑥 ′ 𝐚 + 𝑦 ′ 𝐛 + 𝑧 ′ 𝐜
⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ )𝐚 + (𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ )𝐛 + (𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )𝐜 = 0
Now 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors
∴ 𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ = 0, 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ = 0 and 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ and 𝑧 = 𝑧 ′
Hence, the uniqueness is established.

Remark
If 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 are any three non-coplanar vectors in space, then
𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 + 𝑧1 𝐜 = 𝑥2 𝐚 + 𝑦2 𝐛 + 𝑧2 𝐜
⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
Proof 𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 + 𝑧1 𝐜 = 𝑥2 𝐚 + 𝑦2 𝐛 + 𝑧2 𝐜
⇒ (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝐚 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )𝐛 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )𝐜 = 0
⇒ 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 0, 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 = 0 and 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 0
⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 and 𝑧1 = 𝑧2

Example. Check whether the given three vectors are coplanar or non-coplanar.
ˆ , −2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤
−2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤 ˆ , 4𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤
ˆ
ˆ
Sol. Let a = −2𝐢ˆ 2𝐣ˆ ∣ 4𝐤
ˆ and 𝐜 = 4𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤
𝐛 = −2𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤 ˆ

Now, consider
−2 −2 4
|−2 4 −2| = −2(−8 − 4) + 2(4 + 8) + 4(4 − 16)
4 −2 −2
= 24 + 24 − 48 = 0
∴ The vectors are coplanar.

ˆ , 7𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 6𝐤
Example. If the vectors 4𝐢ˆ + 11𝐣ˆ + 𝑚𝐤 ˆ and 𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
ˆ are coplanar, then 𝑚
is equal to
(a) 38 (b) 0
(c) 10 (d) −10

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Sol. (c) Since the three vectors are coplanar, one will be a linear combination of the other
two.
ˆ = 𝑥(7𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 6𝐤
∴ 4𝐢ˆ + 11𝐣ˆ + 𝑚𝐤 ˆ ) + 𝑦(𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
ˆ)

⇒ 4 = 7𝑥 + 𝑦 … ( i)
11 = 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 … (ii)
𝑚 = 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 … (iii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
3 23
𝑥 = 11 and 𝑦 = 11

From Eq. (iii), we get

3 23
𝑚 = 6 × 11 + 4 × 11 = 10

ˆ , 7𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 6𝐤
Trick Since, vectors 4𝐢ˆ + 11𝐣ˆ + 𝑚𝐤 ˆ and 𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
ˆ are coplanar.
4 11 𝑚
∴ |7 2 6| = 0
1 5 4
⇒ 4(8 − 30) − 11(28 − 6) + 𝑚(35 − 2) = 0
⇒ −88 − 11 × 22 + 33𝑚 = 0
⇒ −8 − 22 + 3𝑚 = 0
⇒ 3𝑚 = 30 ⇒ 𝑚 = 10

Example. If a, b and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors, prove that 3𝑎 − 7𝑏 − 4𝑐, 3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 𝑐 and

𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑐 are coplanar.
Sol. Let 𝛼 = 3𝑎 − 7𝑏 − 4𝑐, 𝛽 = 3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 𝑐
and 𝛾 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑐
Also, let 𝛼 = 𝑥𝛽 + 𝑦 − 𝛾
⇒ 3𝑎 − 7𝑏 − 4𝑐 = 𝑥(3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 𝑐) + 𝑦(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑐)
= (3𝑥 + 𝑦)𝐚 + (−2𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑏 + (𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝐜
Since, a, b and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors.
Therefore,
3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3, −2𝑥 + 𝑦 = −7
and 𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −4
Solving first two, we find that 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = −3. These values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 satisfy the third
equation as well.
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So, 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑦 = −3 is the unique solution for the above system of equation.
⇒ 𝛼 = 2β − 3γ
Hence, the vectors α, β and γ are coplanar, because 𝛼 is uniquely written as linear
combination of other two.
3 −7 −4
|
Trick For the vectors α, β, γ to be coplanar, we must have 3 −2 1 | = 0, which is true
1 1 2
Hence, α, β, γ are coplanar.
9. Linear Independence and Dependence of Vectors
1. Linearly Independent Vectors
A set of non-zero vectors 𝐚1 , 𝐚2 … . , 𝐚𝑛 is said to be linearly independent, if
𝑥1 𝐚1 + 𝑥2 𝐚2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 𝐚𝑛 = 0
⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = ⋯ = 𝑥𝑛 = 0.

2. Linearly Dependence Vectors

A set of vector 𝐚1 , 𝑎1 … , 𝐚𝑛 is said to be linearly dependent, if there exist scalars 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛
not all zero such that 𝑥1 a1 + 𝑥2 𝐚2 + ⋯ . +𝑥𝑛 𝐚𝑛 = 0

Properties of Linearly Independent and Dependent Vectors

(i) A super set of a linearly dependent set of vectors is linearly dependent.
(ii) A subset of a linearly independent set of vectors is linearly independent.
(iii) Two non-zero, non-collinear vectors are linearly independent.
(iv) Any two collinear vectors are linearly dependent.
(v) Any three non-coplanar vectors are linearly independent.
(vi) Any three coplanar vectors are linearly dependent.
ˆ , 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
(vii) Three vectors a = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ and 𝐜 = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
ˆ will
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
be linearly dependent vectors iff |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | = 0.
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
(viii) Any four vectors in 3 -dimensional space are linearly dependent.

ˆ , 2𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
Example. Show that the vectors 𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤 ˆ and 3𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
ˆ and linearly
independent.

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ˆ
Sol. Let 𝛼 = 𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
β = 2𝑖ˆ − 4𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ
and γ = 3𝑖ˆ + 2𝑗ˆ − 𝑘ˆ
Also, let 𝑥𝛼 + 𝑦𝛽 + 𝑧𝛾 = 0
ˆ ) + 𝑦(2𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
∴ 𝑥(𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤 ˆ ) + 𝑧(3𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
ˆ)=0
ˆ =0
or (𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧)𝐢ˆ + (−3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧)𝐣ˆ + (2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧)𝐤
ˆ , we get
Equating the coefficient of 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
−3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
1 2 3
Now, |−3 −4 2 | = 1(4 + 2) − 2(3 − 4) + 3(3 + 8) = 41 ≠ 0
2 −1 −1
∴ The above system of equations have only trivial solution.
Thus, 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0
Hence, the vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are linearly independent.
ˆ
Trick Consider the determinant of coefficients of 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
1 −3 2
i.e. |2 −4 −1| = 1(4 + 2) + 3(−2 + 3) + 2(4 + 12)
3 2 −1
= 6 + 3 + 32 = 41 ≠ 0
∴ The given vectors are non-coplanar. Hence, the vectors are linearly independent.

ˆ , b = 4𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
Example. If 𝐚 = 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ and 𝐜 = 𝐢ˆ + 𝛼𝐣ˆ + β𝐤
ˆ are linearly dependent
vectors and |𝑐| = √3, then
(a) α = 1, β = −1 (b) α = 1, β = ±1
(c) α = −1, β = ±1 (d) α = ±1, β = 1
Sol. (d) The given vectors are linearly dependent, hence there exist scalars 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 not all
zero, such that
𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐 = 0
ˆ ) + 𝑦(4𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
i.e. 𝑥(𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ ) + 𝑧(𝐢ˆ + 𝛼𝐣ˆ + β𝐤
ˆ)=0

i.e. (𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧)𝐢ˆ + (𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝛼𝑧)ĵ + (𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝛽𝑧)k̂ = 0

⇒ 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝛼𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 𝛽𝑧 = 0

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1 4 1
For non-trivial solution |1 3 α| = 0 ⇒ β = 1
1 4 β
|𝑐|2 = 3 ⇒ 1 + 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 3
⇒ α2 = 2 − β2 = 2 − 1 = 1
∴𝛼 =±1

Trick |𝑐| = √1 + α2 + β2 = √3
⇒ α 2 + β2 = 2
1 1 1
∵ a, b and care linearly dependent, hence |4 3 4| = 0
4 α β
⇒ β=1
∴ α2 = 1 ⇒ α = ±1

10. Product of Two Vectors

Product of two vectors is processed by two methods. When the product of two vectors results
in a scalar quantity, then it is called scalar product. It is also known as dot product because
we denote it by putting a dot (.) between two vectors.
When the product of two vectors results in a vector quantity, then this product is called vector
product. It is also known as cross product because we denote it by putting a cross (𝑥)
between two vectors.

Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors

If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two non-zero vectors and 𝜃 be the angle between them, then their scalar
product (or dot product) is denoted by 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 and is defined as the scalar |𝐚||𝐛|cos θ, where
|𝐚| and |𝐛| are modulii of 𝑎 and 𝑏 respectively and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

Remarks
1. 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑅
2. 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 ≤ |𝐚||𝐛|
3. 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 > 0 ⇒ Angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛 is acute.
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4. 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 < 0 ⇒ Angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛 is obtuse.

5. The dot product of a zero and non-zero vector is a scalar zero.

Geometrical interpretation of scalar product

Let 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two vectors represented by 𝐎𝐀 and 𝐎𝐁 respectively. Let θ be the angle
between OA and OB. Draw 𝐵𝐿 ⊥ 𝑂𝐴 and 𝐴𝑀 ⊥ 𝑂𝐵.

From triangles 𝑂𝐵𝐿 and 𝑂𝐴𝑀, we have 𝑂𝐿 = 𝑂𝐵 cos θ and 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑂𝐴cos θ. Here, 𝑂𝐿 and
𝑂𝐴 are known as projection of 𝐛 on 𝐚 and a on 𝐛 respectively.
Now, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛|cos θ
= |a|(𝑂𝐵 cos θ) = |a|(𝑂𝐿)
= ( Magnitude of 𝑎) (Projection of 𝑏 on 𝑎 ) ...(i)
Again, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛|cos θ
= |𝐛|(|𝐚|cos θ) = |𝐛|(𝑂𝐴cos θ) = |𝐛|(𝑂𝑀)
a ⋅ b = (Magnitude of 𝐛 )
(Projection of a on b) ...(ii)
Thus, geometrically interpreted, the scalar product of two vectors is the product of modulus
of either vector and the projection of the other in its direction.
Remarks
𝐚⋅𝐛
1. Projection of 𝐚 on 𝐛 = =𝐚⋅𝐛
|𝐛|

𝐚⋅𝐛
2. Projection of 𝐛 on 𝐚 = =𝐚⋅𝐛
|𝐚|

3. Angle between two vectors it 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two vectors inclined at an angle θ, then 𝐚, 𝐛 =
|𝐚| ⋅ |𝐛|cos θ
𝐚⋅𝐛
⇒ cos θ =
|𝐚| ⋅ |𝐛|
𝐚⋅𝐛
⇒ θ = cos −1 ( )
|𝐚| ⋅ |𝐛|
ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ

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𝑎1 𝑏1 +𝑎2 𝑏2+𝑎3 𝑏3
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
√𝑎12 +𝑎22 +𝑎32 √𝑏12 +𝑏22 +𝑏32

Properties of Scalar Product

(i) Commutativity The scalar product of two vector is commutative i.e., 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚.
(ii) Distributivity of scalar product over vector addition The scalar product of vectors is
distributive over vector addition i.e.,
(a) 𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 + 𝐜) = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 + 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 (Left distributivity)
(b) (𝐛 + 𝐜) ⋅ 𝐚 = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚 + 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚 (right distributivity)
ˆ are mutually
(iii) Let 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two non-zero vectors 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 0 ⇔ 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛. As 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
perpendicular unit vectors along the coordinate axes, therefore
ˆ =𝐤
𝐢ˆ ⋅ 𝐣ˆ = 𝐣ˆ ⋅ î = 0, 𝐣ˆ ⋅ 𝐤 ˆ ⋅ 𝐣ˆ = 0; 𝐤
ˆ ⋅ 𝐢ˆ = 𝐢ˆ ⋅ 𝐤
ˆ =0

(iv) For any vector 𝐚, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚 = |𝐚|2 .

ˆ are unit vectors along the coordinate axes, therefore 𝐢ˆ ⋅ î = |î|2 = 1, 𝐣ˆ ⋅ 𝐣ˆ = |𝐣ˆ|2 =
As 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
1 and 𝐤 ˆ ⋅𝐤
ˆ = |𝐤
ˆ |2 = 1

(v) If 𝑚 is a scalar and a and b be any two vectors then (𝑚𝑎) ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝑚(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) = 𝐚 ⋅ (𝑚𝐛).
(vi) If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are scalars and 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two vectors, then (𝑚𝐚) ⋅ 𝑛𝐛 = 𝑚𝑛(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) =
(𝑚𝑛𝐚) ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐚 ⋅ (𝑚𝑛𝐛)
(vii) For any vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏, we have
(a) 𝐚 ⋅ (−𝐛) = −(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) = (−𝐚) ⋅ 𝐛
(b) (−𝑎) ⋅ (−𝑏) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏
(viii) For any two vectors 𝑎 and 𝐛, we have
(a) |𝐚 + 𝐛|2 = |𝐚|2 + |𝐛|2 + 2𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛
(b) |𝐚 − 𝐛| = |𝐚|2 + |𝐛|2 − 2𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛
(c) (𝒂 + 𝒃) ⋅ (𝒂 − 𝒃) = |𝒂|2 − |𝒃|2
(d) |𝐚 + 𝐛| = |𝐚| + |𝐛| ⇒ 𝐚 ∥ 𝐛
(e) |𝐚 + 𝐛|2 = |𝐚|2 + |𝐛|2 ⇒ 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛
(f) |𝐚 + 𝐛| = |𝐚 − 𝐛| ⇒ 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛

Scalar Product in Terms of Components

ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ , then 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 .

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Thus, scalar product of two vectors is equal to the sum of the products of their corresponding
components. In particular, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚 = |𝐚|2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32

ˆ and 𝐛 = 6𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤

Example. If θ is the angle between the vectors 𝐚 = 2𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤 ˆ , then
4 3
(a) cos θ = 21 (b) cos θ = 19
2 5
(c) cos θ = (d) cos θ =
19 21

Sol. (a) Angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏 is given by

𝐚⋅𝐛
cos θ =
|𝐚||𝐛|
ˆ )⋅(6𝐢ˆ−3𝐣ˆ+2𝐤
(2𝐢ˆ+2𝐣ˆ−𝐤 ˆ)
=
√22 +22 +(−1)2⋅√62 +(−3)2+22

12−6−2 4
= = 21
3⋅7

ˆ )𝐤
Example. (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐢ˆ)𝐢ˆ + (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐣ˆ)𝐣ˆ + (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐤 ˆ is equal to

(a) a (b) 2𝑎
(c) 3𝑎 (d) 0
ˆ
Sol. (a) Let 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ )𝐢ˆ = 𝑎1 ,
∴ a ⋅ 𝐢ˆ = (𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ = 𝑎3
𝐚 ⋅ 𝐣ˆ = 𝑎2 , 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐤
ˆ )𝐤
So, (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐢ˆ)𝐢ˆ + (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐣ˆ)𝐣ˆ + (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐤 ˆ
ˆ =𝐚
= 𝒂𝟏 𝐢ˆ + 𝒂𝟐 𝐣ˆ + 𝒂𝟑 𝐤

Example. If |𝐚| = 3, |𝐛| = 4, then a value of λ for which 𝐚 + λ𝐛 is perpendicular to 𝐚 − λ𝐛.

(a) 9/16 (b) 3/4
(c) 3/2 (d) 4/3
Sol. (b) 𝑎 + λ𝑏 is perpendicular to 𝑎 − λ𝑏.
∴ (𝑎 + λ𝑏) ⋅ (𝑎 − λ𝑏) = 0
⇒ |𝑎2 | − λ(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏) + λ(𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎) − λ2 |𝑏|2 = 0
⇒ |𝑎|2 − λ2 |𝑏|2 = 0

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|𝑎| 3
⇒ λ = ± |𝑏| = ± 4

ˆ is
Example . The projection of 𝐚 = 2î + 3𝐣ˆ − 2k̂ on 𝐛 = 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
1 2
(a) (b)
√14 √14
−2
(c) √14 (d)
√14

Sol. (b) Projection of 𝐚 on 𝐛

𝐛 (2𝐢ˆ+3𝐣ˆ−2𝐤 ˆ )⋅(𝐢ˆ+2𝐣ˆ+3𝐤
ˆ)
= 𝐚 ⋅ |𝐛| = ˆ|
|𝐢ˆ+2𝐣ˆ+3𝐤

2+6−6 2
= =
√14 √14

ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + λ𝐤
Example . If 𝐚 = 5𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 7𝐤 ˆ , then find 𝜆 such that 𝐚 + 𝐛 and 𝐚 − 𝐛 are
orthogonal.
ˆ ) + (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + λ𝐤
Sol. Clearly, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (5𝑖ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 7𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ
= 6𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + (7 + λ)𝐤
ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 𝜆𝐤
and 𝐚 − 𝐛 = (5𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 7𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ
= 4𝐢ˆ + (7 − 𝜆)𝐤
Since, a + b and a – b are orthogonal
∴ (𝐚 + 𝐛) ⋅ (𝐚 − 𝐛) = 0
ˆ ](4𝐢ˆ + (7 − 𝜆)𝐤) = 0
⇒ [6𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + (7 + 𝜆)𝐤
⇒ 6 × 4 − 2 × 0 + (7 + 𝜆)(7 − 𝜆) = 0
⇒ 24 + 49 − 𝜆2 = 0
⇒ 𝜆2 = 73

⇒ 𝜆 = ±√73

Example. If 𝑎. 𝑏 and 𝑐 are unit vectors such that 𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜 = 0, then find the value of 𝐚 ⋅
𝐛 + 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜 + 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚.
Sol. Consider, 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
On squaring both sides, we get
(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 02
⇒ (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) = 0 ⋅ 0

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⇒ |𝑎|2 + |𝑏|2 + |𝑐|2 + 2𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 = 0

⇒ 1 + 1 + 1 + 2(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎) = 0
3
⇒ 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 + 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜 + 𝐜 ⋅ 𝑎 = −2

Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝒄 are mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitudes, then find the
angle between the vectors 𝐚 and 𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜.
Sol. Let θ be the angle between the vectors 𝐚 and 𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜.
𝐚⋅(𝐚+𝐛+𝐜)
Then cos θ = |𝐚|∣𝐚+𝐛+𝐜

𝐚⋅𝐚+𝐚⋅𝐛+𝐚⋅𝐜
=
|𝐚| ∣ 𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜
|𝐚|2
= [∵ 𝐛 = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 0 as a, b, c are mutually perpendicular vectors]
|𝐚||𝐚 + 𝐛 + c|
|𝐚|
= |𝐚+𝐛+𝐜| …(i)

Now consider,
|𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐|2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
= |𝑎|2 + |𝑏|2 + |𝑐|2 + 2(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎)
[∵ |𝐚| = |𝐛| = |𝒄| and 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚 = 0]
|𝐚 + 𝐛 + 𝐜 = √3|𝐚 ∣
From Eq. (i), we get
1
cos θ =
√3
1
⇒ θ = cos −1
√3

ˆ and 𝐛 = (log 2 𝑥 )𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + (2c log 2 𝑥 )𝐤

Example. If the vectors 𝐚 = (c log2 𝑥 )𝐢ˆ − 6𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤 ˆ
make an obtuse angle for any 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞). Then, determine the interval to which 𝑐 belongs.
Sol. For the vectors 𝐚 and 𝐛 to be inclined at an obtuse angle, we must have
𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 < 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)
⇒ 𝑐(log 2 𝑥 )2 − 12 + 6𝑐 log 2 𝑥 < 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)
⇒ 𝑐𝑦 2 + 6𝑐𝑦 − 12 < 0, ∀ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, where 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥
⇒ 𝑐 < 0 and 36𝑐 2 + 48𝑐 < 0,
(using 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 < 0, ∀ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 iff 𝑎 < 0 and 𝐷 < 0)

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4
⇒ c < 0 and 𝑐(3𝑐 + 4) < 0 ⇒ 𝑐 ∈ (− 3 , 0)

Example. If 𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 4, then find the least value of 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 .

ˆ and 𝐪 = 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
Sol. Consider vectors 𝐩 = 𝑎𝐢ˆ + 𝑏𝐣ˆ + 𝑐𝐤 ˆ
𝑎+2𝑏+3𝑐
Now, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = √𝑎2
+𝑏2 +𝑐 2 √12 +22 +32

(𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3𝑐)2
⇒ cos 2 𝜃 = ≤1 [∵ cos 2 𝜃 ≤ 1]
14(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 )
(𝑎+2𝑏+3𝑐)2 16 8
⇒ 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 ≥ = 14 = 7
14
8
Hence, least value of 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 is 7.

ˆ and
Example. Find the unit vector which makes an angle of 45∘ with the vector 2𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
ˆ.
an angle of 60∘ with the vector 𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
ˆ so that; it makes an angle of 45∘ with 2𝐢ˆ +
Sol. Let the unit vector be 𝐜 = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
ˆ.
2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
2𝑐1 +2𝑐2 −𝑐3
⇒ = cos 45∘ (∵ |𝐜ˆ| = 1)
3
3
⇒ 2𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 − 𝑐3 = … (i)
√2

ˆ.
Also, it makes an angle of 60∘ with 𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
𝑐2−𝑐3
⇒ ˆ | = √2 and |𝐜ˆ| = 1)
= cos 60∘ (∵ |𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
√2

√2
⇒ 𝑐2 − 𝑐3 = … (ii)
2
⇒ 𝑐12 + 𝑐22 + 𝑐32 =1 … (iii)
ˆ | = 1)
(using |𝐜| = |𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
1 −𝑐3 1
Frum Eq. (ii), 𝑐2 = + 𝑐3 and from Eq. (i), 𝑐1 = + 2√2
√2 2

On substituting in Eq. (iii), we get

𝑐32 1 2𝑐3 1 𝑐3
+ + + − + 𝑐32 + 𝑐32 = 1
4 2 √2 8 2√2
9 2 3𝑐3 5 1 1
⇒ 𝑐3 + + = 1 ⇒ 𝑐3 = − ,
4 2√2 8 √2 3√2
1 1 1 4 1
Hence, the required vectors are ( , 0, − ) and (3√2 , 3√2 , 3√2).
√2 √2

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Example. Show that the median to the base of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular to base.
Sol. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC.
Let A be the origin of reference and let

AB = b, AC = c
Let 𝐷 be the middle point of BC. Then,
𝐛+𝐜
Then, AD = 2

Now, BC = c − b
b+c
∴ AD ⋅ BC = ( ) ⋅ (𝑐 − b)
2
1 1
= 2 (|c|2 − |b|2 ) = 2 (|AC|2 − |AB|2 )
1
= 2 (0) = 0

Hence, median to the base of an isosceles triangle is perpendicular to base.

Example. Using vector method, prove that in a triangle, 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 (cosine
law).
Sol. In 𝑎 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,
Let AB = c, BC = a, CA = b
∵a+b+c=0

We have, 𝐚 = −(𝐛 + 𝐜)
∴ |𝐚| = | − (𝐛 + 𝐜)| ⇒ |𝐚|2 = |𝐛 + 𝐜|2
⇒ |𝐚|2 = |𝐛|2 + |𝐜|2 + 2𝐛𝐜

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⇒ |𝐚2 | = |𝐛|2 + |𝑐|2 + 2|𝐛||𝐜|cos (π − 𝐴) ∣

Since, angle between 𝐛 and 𝐜 = The angle between 𝐶𝐴
produced and 𝐴𝐵
∴ 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴

Example. Using vector method, prove that in a triangle, 𝑎 = 𝑏 cos C + C + c cos B

(projection formula).
Sol. In a ∆, ABC,
Let AB = c, BC = a, CA = b
∵a+b+c=0

We have, |𝑎| = | − (𝑏 + 𝑐)|

∴ a ⋅ a = −(b + c) ⋅ a
or |𝐚|2 = −𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚 − 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚
= −|𝐛||𝐚|cos (π − 𝐶) − |𝐜||𝐚|cos (π − 𝐵)
Since, the angle between 𝐛 and 𝐚 = (π − 𝐶) and angle
between c and a = (π − B)
∴ 𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶 + 𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏 cos 𝐶 + 𝑐 cos 𝐵

Components of a Vector Along and Perpendicular to Another Vector

Let 𝐚 and 𝐛 be two vectors represented by 𝑶𝑨 and 𝑶𝑩 and let 𝜃 be the angle between a and
b. Draw 𝑀𝐵 ⊥ 𝑂𝐴, shown as
∴ 𝐛 = OM + 𝐌𝐁
⇒ OM = (𝑂𝑀)𝐚 = (𝑂𝐵cos 𝜃)𝐚 = (|𝐛|cos 𝜃)𝐚
(𝐚⋅𝐛)
= (|𝐛| ) 𝐚c
|𝐚|2

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𝑎⋅𝑏 𝑎⋅𝑏𝑎 𝑎−𝑏

= ( |𝑎| ) 𝑎 = |𝑎||𝑎∣ = ( |𝑎|2 ) 𝑎

b = OM + MB
a⋅b
MB = b − OM = b − (|a|2 ) a

𝐚⋅𝐛 𝐚⋅𝐛
Thus, the components of b along and perpendicular to a are (|𝐚|2 ) 𝐚 and 𝐚 − (|𝐚|2 ) 𝐚
respectively.
ˆ , then find the component of 𝐚 along 𝑏.
Example. If 𝐚 = 4𝐢ˆ + 6𝐣ˆ and 𝐛 = 3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
(𝐚⋅𝐛)
Sol. The component of vector 𝐚 along 𝐛 is |𝐛|2

18
ˆ)
= 25 (3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤

Example. Express the vector 𝐚 = 5𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤 ˆ as sum of two vectors such that one is
ˆ and the other is perpendicular to 𝐛.
parallel to the vector 𝐛 = 3𝐢ˆ + 𝐤
Sol. Required vectors are
𝐚⋅𝐛 𝐚⋅𝐛
(|𝐛|2 ) 𝐛 and 𝐚 − (|𝐛|2 ) 𝐛

𝐚⋅𝐛
ˆ ) = 6𝐢ˆ + 2𝐤
Clearly, (|𝐛|2 ) 𝐛 = 2(3𝐢ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ and so,

𝐚−𝐛
𝐚−( ˆ ) − (6𝐢ˆ + 2𝐤
) 𝐛 = (5𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤 ˆ)
|𝐛|2
ˆ
= −𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
ˆ ) + (−𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
Note that (6𝐢ˆ + 2𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ =𝐚
= 5𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤

Application of Dot Product in Mechanics (Work done)

A force acting on a particle is said to do work, if the particle is displaced in a direction which
is not perpendicular to force.

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Let a particle be placed at 𝑂 and a force 𝑓 represented by 𝑂𝐵 be acting on the particle at 𝑂.

Due to the application of force 𝐟, the particle is displaced in the direction of OA . Let OA be
the displacement.

Then, the component of OA in the the direction of force 𝐟 is, |𝐎𝐀|cos θ

Work done = |𝐟||𝐎𝐀|cos 𝜃 = 𝐟 ⋅ 𝐎𝐀
= 𝐟 ⋅ 𝐝, where d = 𝐎𝐀
∴ Work done = (Force) ⋅ (Displacement)
Remarks
1. The work done by the resultant of a number of forces 𝐟1 , 𝐟2 , 𝐟3 … . 𝐟𝐧 in a displacement d of
a particle is equal to the sum of work done by the forces separately
i.e. Work done = 𝐟1 ⋅ 𝐝 + 𝐟2 ⋅ 𝐝 + ⋯ + 𝐟𝑛 ⋅ 𝐝
= (𝐟𝟏 + 𝐟𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝐟𝐧 ) ⋅ 𝐝
= 𝐑 ⋅ 𝐝 where, 𝐑 = 𝐟1 + 𝐟2 + ⋯ + 𝐟𝑛
2. The work done by a force 𝑓 when its point of application experiences a number of
consecutive displacements 𝐝1 , 𝐝2 , 𝐝3 … , 𝐝𝑛 , is equal to the work done by the forces in single
displacement from the beginning to end.
i.e., Work done = 𝐟 ⋅ (𝐝1 + 𝐝2 + ⋯ . +𝐝𝑛 )
= The work done by the force f in the single displacement from the beginning to end

Example . Two forces 𝐟1 = 3𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ and 𝐟2 = 𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤

ˆ acting on a particle at 𝐴 move
it to 𝐵. Find the work done if the position vector of 𝐴 and 𝐵 are −2𝐢ˆ + 5𝐤ˆ and 3𝐢ˆ − 7𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
ˆ.

Sol. Let 𝐑 be the resultant of two forces 𝐟𝟏 and 𝐟𝟐 and 𝐝 be the displacement.
ˆ ) + (𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤
Then, 𝐑 = (3𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ
= 4𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ − 4𝐤
ˆ ) − (−2𝐢ˆ + 5𝐤
and 𝐝 = (3𝐢ˆ − 7𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤 ˆ ) = 5𝐢ˆ − 7𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
ˆ

∴ The total work done = The work done by resultant

ˆ ) ⋅ (5𝐢ˆ − 7𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
= 𝐑 ⋅ 𝐝 = (4𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ − 4𝐤 ˆ)

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= 20 − 7 + 12 = 25 units

ˆ and 3𝐢ˆ −
Example. Forces of magnitudes 5 and 3 units acting in the directions 6𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤
2𝐣ˆ + 6𝐤ˆ , respectively act on a particle which is displaced from the point (2, 2, −1) and
(4, 3, 1). Find the work done by the forces.
Sol. Let 𝐑 be the resultant of two forces and 𝐝 be the displacement.
Then,
ˆ)
(6𝐢ˆ+2𝐣ˆ+3𝐤 ˆ)
(3𝐢ˆ−2𝐣ˆ+6𝐤
𝐑=5 +3
√36+4+9 √9+4+36
1
ˆ)
= 7 (39𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 33𝐤

ˆ ) − (2𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
and d = (4𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ ) = 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
ˆ
1
∴ Total work done = 𝐑 ⋅ 𝐝 = 7 (78 + 4 + 66)
148
= units
7

Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors

Let a and b be two non-zero, non-parallel vectors. Then the vector product a × b, in that
order, is defined as a vector whose magnitude is

|𝐚||𝐛|sin θ
where θ is the angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛, whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of 𝐚 and
𝐛 in such a way that 𝐚, 𝐛 and this direction constitute a right handed system.
In other words, 𝐚 × 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛| sin θ 𝑛, where θ is the angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛, 𝐧ˆ is a unit
vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛 such that 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝑛 form a right handed system.
Properties of Vector Product
(i) Vector product is not commutative i.e., if 𝐚 and 𝐛 are any two vectors, then 𝐚 × 𝐛 ≠ 𝐛 ×
𝐚, however 𝐚 × 𝐛 = −(𝐛 × 𝐚).
(ii) Vector product is not associative, i.e. 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) ≠ (a × 𝐛) × 𝐜

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(iii) If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two vectors and 𝑚 is a scalar, then 𝑚𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝑚(𝐚 × 𝐛) = 𝐚 × 𝑚𝐛

(iv) If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two vectors and 𝑚 and 𝑛 are scalars, then 𝑚𝐚 × 𝑛𝐛 = 𝑚𝑛(𝐚 × 𝐛) =
𝑚(𝐚 × 𝐛) = 𝑛(𝑚𝐚 × 𝐛)
(v) Distributivity of vector product over vector addition. Let 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 be any three vectors.
Then,
(a) 𝐚 × (𝐛 + 𝐜) = 𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐚 × 𝐜 (left distributivity)
(b) (𝐛 + 𝐜) × 𝐚 = 𝐛 × 𝐚 + 𝐜 × 𝐚 (right distributivity)
(vi) For any three vectors 𝐚, b and 𝑐, we have 𝑎 × (𝑏 − 𝑐) = 𝑎 × 𝑏 − 𝑎 × 𝑐.
(vii) The vector product of any vector (zero or non-zero) with zero vector is a zero vector i.e.
𝑎×0 = 0×𝑎 = 0
(viii) The vector product of two non-zero vectors is zero vector iff they are parallel (collinear)
i.e. 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝟎 ⇔ 𝐚 ∥ 𝐛, 𝐚 and 𝐛 are non-zero vectors.
It follows from the above property that 𝐚 × 𝐚 = 𝟎 for every non-zero vector 𝑎, which in turn
ˆ ×𝐤
implies that 𝐢ˆ × 𝐢ˆ = 𝐣ˆ × 𝐣ˆ = 𝐤 ˆ = 𝟎.
ˆ using the definition of the
(ix) Vector product of orthonormal triad of unit vectors 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
vector product obtain
ˆ , 𝐣ˆ × 𝐤
𝐢ˆ × 𝐣ˆ = 𝐤 ˆ = 𝐢ˆ, 𝐤
ˆ × 𝐢ˆ = 𝐣ˆ,
ˆ ,𝐤
𝐣ˆ × 𝐢ˆ = −𝐤 ˆ × 𝐣ˆ = −𝐢ˆ, 𝐢ˆ × 𝐤
ˆ = −𝐣ˆ

(x) Lagrange's identity If 𝐚, 𝐛 are any two vectors, then

|𝐚 × 𝐛|2 = |𝐚|2 |𝐛|2 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)2
or |𝐚 × 𝐛|2 + (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)2 = |𝐚|2 |𝐛|2

Vector Product in Terms of Components

ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ

Then, 𝑎 × 𝑏 = (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝐢ˆ − (𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 )𝐣ˆ

𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
ˆ
+(𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝐤 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝑚𝐢ˆ + 𝑛𝐣ˆ + 12𝐤

Example. If 𝐚 = 2𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤 ˆ and 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝟎.

Then, find the values of 𝑚 and 𝑛.

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𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 𝐤ˆ
Sol. Clearly, 𝐚 × 𝐛 = | 2 3 −5|
𝑚 𝑛 12
ˆ (2𝑛 − 3𝑚)
= 𝐢ˆ(36 + 5𝑛) − 𝐣ˆ(24 + 5𝑚) + 𝐤
Since, 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝟎
ˆ = 0𝐢ˆ + 0𝐣ˆ + 0𝐤
∴ (36 + 5𝑛)𝐢ˆ − (24 + 5𝑚)𝐣ˆ + (2𝑛 − 3𝑚)𝐤 ˆ
ˆ , we get
On comparing the coefficients of 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
36 + 5𝑛 = 0, −(24 + 5𝑚) = 0 and 2𝑛 − 3𝑚 = 0
36 24
⇒ 𝑛=− and 𝑚 = −
5 5

Example. Show that (a − b) × (a + b) = 2(a × b)

Sol. Consider, (𝐚 − 𝐛) × (𝐚 + 𝐛) = (𝐚 − 𝐛) × 𝐚 + (𝐚 − 𝐛) × 𝐛 [By distributivity of vector
product over vector addition] = 𝐚 × 𝐚 − 𝐛 × 𝐚 + 𝐚 × 𝐛 − 𝐛 × 𝐛
[Again, by distributivity of vector product over vector addition]
= 0 + a × b + a × b − 0 [∵ a × b = −(b × a)]
= 2(a × b) Hence Proved

ˆ )2 is equal to
Example. If 𝑎 is any vector, then (𝐚 × 𝐢ˆ)2 + (𝐚 × 𝐣ˆ)2 + (𝐚 × 𝐤
(a) |𝐚|2 (b) 0
(c) 3|𝐚|2 (d) 2|𝑎|2
ˆ
Sol. (d) Let 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ ) × 𝐢ˆ = −𝑎2 𝐤
∴ 𝐚 × 𝐢ˆ = (𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐣ˆ

(𝐚 × 𝐢ˆ)2 = (𝐚 × 𝐢ˆ) ⋅ (𝐚 × 𝐢ˆ)

ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐣ˆ) ⋅ (−𝑎2 𝐤
= (−𝑎2 𝐤 ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐣ˆ) = 𝑎22 + 𝑎32

Similarly, (𝐚 × 𝐣ˆ)2 = 𝑎32 + 𝑎12

ˆ )2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22
and (𝐚 × 𝐤
∴ (a × î)2 + (a × ĵ)2 + (a × k̂)2
= 2(𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎32 ) = 2|𝐚|2

Example. If 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 0 and 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 0, prove that 𝑎 = 0 or 𝑏 = 0.

Sol. Given, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 0 and 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 0

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Now, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 0 ⇒ 𝐚 = 0 or 𝐛 = 0 or 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛
and 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 0 ⇒ 𝐚 = 0 or 𝐛 = 0 or 𝐚 ∥ 𝐛
Since, 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛 and 𝐚 ∥ 𝐛 can never hold simultaneously.
∴ 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 0 and 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 0
⇒ 𝐚 = 0 or 𝐛 = 0

Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝒄 are vectors such that 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜, 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝐚 × 𝐜 and 𝐚 ≠ 0, then

show that 𝐛 = 𝐜
Sol. 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 and 𝐚 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 − 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 0 and 𝐚 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 − 𝐜) = 0 and 𝐚 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐚 ⊥ (𝐛 − c) or 𝐛 = 𝐜 … (𝐢)
Again, 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎 × 𝑐 and 𝑎 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐚 × (𝐛 − c) = 0 and 𝐚 ≠ 0
⇒ 𝐚 ∥ (𝐛 − c) = 0 and 𝐛 = 𝐜 …(ii)
∴ From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we have
𝐛=𝐜
[as a cannot be both parallel and perpendicular to (𝐛 − 𝐜)]

Example. If 𝐚, b and c are three non-zero vectors such that 𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = 0 and 𝐛 and 𝐜 are
not parallel vectors, prove that 𝐚 = λ𝐛 + μc where λ and μ are scalar.
Sol. We have, a ⋅ (b × c) = 0
⇒ 𝐚 = 0 or 𝐛 × 𝐜 = 0 or 𝐚 ⊥ (𝐛 × 𝐜)
⇒ 𝐚 = 0 or 𝐛 ∥ 𝐜 or 𝐚 ⊥ (𝐛 × 𝐜)
But 𝐚 ≠ 0 and 𝐛 ≠ 𝐜
∴ 𝐚 ⊥ (𝐛 × c)
⇒ 𝐚 lies in the plane of 𝐛 and 𝑐
⇒ 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are coplanar.
⇒ a = λb + μc

Example. If 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝐚 × 𝐜, 𝐚 ≠ 0, show that 𝐛 = 𝐜 + ta for some scalar 𝑡.

Sol. We have, 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑎 × 𝑐
⇒𝑎×𝑏−𝑎×𝑐 =0
⇒ 𝑎 × (𝑏 − 𝑐) = 0

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⇒ 𝑎 = 0 or (𝑏 − 𝑐) = 0 or 𝑎 ∥ (𝑏 − 𝑐)
⇒ 𝐚 ∥ (𝑏 − 𝑐) (∵ 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0)
⇒ 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑡𝑎 (for some scalar 𝑡)
⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 + 𝑡𝑎

Example. For any two vector 𝐮 and 𝐯, prove that

(i) (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 × 𝐯|2 = |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2
(ii) (1 + |𝐮|2 )(1 + |𝐯|2 ) = (1 − 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 + 𝐯 + (𝐮 × 𝐯)|2
Sol. (i) To show (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 × 𝐯 2 | = |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2
Let θ be the angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯.
⇒ 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = 𝑢𝑣 cos θ
and |𝐮 × 𝐯| = 𝑢𝑣 sin 𝜃
⇒ (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 × 𝐯|2 = 𝑢2 𝑣 2 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝑢2 𝑣 2 sin2 𝜃
⇒ (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 × 𝐯|2 = 𝑢2 𝑣 2
⇒ (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 × 𝐯|2 = |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2
(ii) Taking RHS (1 − 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 + |𝐮 + 𝐯 + (𝐮 × 𝐯)|2
⇒ 1 + (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2 − 2𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯+∣ [𝐮 + 𝐯 + (𝐮 × 𝐯)] ⋅ [𝐮 + 𝐯 + (𝐮 × 𝐯)] ∣
⇒ 1 + |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2 cos 2 𝜃 − 2|𝐮 ∥ 𝐯|cos 𝜃 + 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐮 + 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 + 𝐮(𝐮 × 𝐯)
+𝐯 ⋅ 𝐮 + 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 + 𝐯 ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯) + (𝐮 × 𝐯) + (𝐮 × 𝐯) ⋅ 𝐮 + (𝐮 × 𝐯) ⋅ 𝐯 + (𝐮 × 𝐯) ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯)
⇒ 1 + |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2 cos 2 𝜃 − 2|𝐮||𝐯|cos 𝜃 + |𝐮|2 + |𝐮| ∣ 𝐯 ∣ cos 𝜃 + 0 +𝐮|𝐯|cos 𝜃 +
|𝐯 2 + 0 + 0 + 0 +|𝐮 + 𝐯|2
⇒ 1 + |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2 cos 2 𝜃 + |𝐮|2 + |𝐯|2 + |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2 sin2 𝜃
⇒ 1 + |𝐮|2 |𝐯|2 + |𝐮|2 + |𝐯|2
= (1 + |𝐮|2 )(1 + |𝐯|2 ) = LHS

11. Angle between Two Vectors

|𝐚×𝐛|
If θ is the angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛, then sin θ = .
|𝐚||𝐛|

Expression for 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

ˆ , 𝐛 = 𝑏1 ⋅ 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
If 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ and θ be angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛, then
(𝑎2𝑏3 −𝑎3 𝑏2)2 +(𝑎1 𝑏3 −𝑎3 𝑏1 )2+(𝑎1 𝑏2−𝑎2 𝑏1 )2
sin2 θ = (𝑎12 +𝑎22 +𝑎32 )(𝑏12 +𝑏22 +𝑏32)

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ˆ and 𝐛 = 2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤

Example. The sine of the angle between the vector 𝐚 = 3𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ is

74 25
(a) √ 99 (b) √99

37 5
(c) √ 99 (d)
√41

𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
|
Sol. (a) 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 3 1 ˆ
1| = 3𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 8𝐤
2 −2 1
|𝐚×𝐛| √74 74
sin θ = = = √ 99
|𝐚||𝐛| √11⋅√9

Example. If |𝐚| = 2, |𝐛| = 5 and |𝐚 × 𝐛| = 8, then find the value of 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛.

Sol. We have, |𝐚| = 2, |𝐛| = 5
and |𝐚 × 𝐛| = 8.
Let θ be the angle between 𝐚 and 𝐛.
|𝑎×𝑏| 8 4
Then, sin θ = |𝑎||𝑏| = 2×5 = 5

Now, cos 𝜃 = ±√1 − sin2 θ

16 3
= ±√1 − 25 = ± 5
3
𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = |𝐚|𝐛 ∣ cos θ = ± (2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5) = ±6

Vector Normal to the Plane of Two Given Vectors

If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two non-zero, non-parallel vectors and let 𝜃 be the angle between them.
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛|sin θ𝐧ˆ, where 𝐧ˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛 such
that a, b, 𝐧ˆ form a right handed system.
⇒ (𝐚 × 𝐛) = |𝐚 × 𝐛|𝐧ˆ
𝐚×𝐛
⇒ 𝐧ˆ = |𝐚×𝐛|
𝐚×𝐛 𝐚×𝐛
Thus, 𝐧ˆ = |𝐚×𝐛| is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛. Note that − |𝐚×𝐛| is also
a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and 𝐛. Vectors of magnitude ' λ ' normal to the
𝜆(𝐚×𝐛)
plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛 are given by ± |𝐛×𝐛|

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ˆ and 3𝐢ˆ − 6𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤

Example. The unit vector perpendicular to the vectors 6𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤 ˆ , is
ˆ
2𝑖ˆ−3𝐣ˆ+6𝐤 ˆ
2𝐢ˆ−3𝐣ˆ−6𝐤
(a) (b)
7 7
ˆ
2𝐢ˆ +3𝐣ˆ−6𝐤 ˆ
2𝐢ˆ+3𝐣ˆ+6𝐤
(c) (d)
7 7

ˆ and 𝐛 = 3𝐢ˆ − 6𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤

Sol. (c) Let 𝐚 = 6𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 3𝐤 ˆ

𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |6 2 3|
3 −6 −2
ˆ = 7(2𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 6𝐤
= 14𝐢ˆ + 21𝐣ˆ − 42𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ | =7⋅7
|𝐚 × 𝐛| = 7|2𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 6𝐤
𝑎×𝑏 1
∴ ˆ)
= (2𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 6𝐤
|𝑎 × 𝑏| 7
which is a unit vector perpendicular to 𝐚 and 𝐛.

Example. Find unit vectors perpendicular to the plane determined by the points
𝑃(1, −1, 2), 𝑄(2, 0, −1) and 𝑅(0, 2, 1)
Sol. Clearly, required unit vector is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐏𝐐 and 𝐏𝐑.
ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
Now, PQ = (2𝐢ˆ − 𝐤 ˆ)
ˆ
= 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
and 𝑃𝑄 × 𝑃𝑅 = | 1 1 ˆ
−3| = 8𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
−1 3 −1
∴ Required unit vectors
PQ × PR ˆ)
(8𝑖ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
=± =±
|PQ × PR| 4√6
1
=± ˆ)
(2𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
√6

Example. Let A, B and 𝐂 be unit vectors. Suppose 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐶 = 0 and the angle between
𝜋
𝐵 and 𝐶 is 4 . Then,

(a) A = ±2(B × C) (b) A = ±√2( B × C)

(c) A = ±3(B + C) (d) A = ±√3(B × C)

Sol. (b) Since, 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 = 0

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⇒ 𝐀 ⊥ 𝐁 and 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐂 = 0
⇒ 𝐀⊥𝐂
B×C
∴ A=±
|B × C|
[∵ A is a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝐁 and 𝐂]
𝜋
Here, |B × C| = |B||C|sin 4

1 1
=1⋅1⋅ =
√2 √2
(𝐵×𝐶)
So, 𝐴 = ± 1 = ±√2(𝐵 × 𝐶)
√2

12. Right Handed System and Left Handed System of Vectors

(i) Right handed system of vectors Three mutually perpendicular vectors 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 from a
right handed system of vector iff 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝐜, 𝐛 × 𝐜 = 𝐚, 𝐜 × 𝐚 = 𝐛.

ˆ form a right handed system, 𝐢ˆ × 𝐣ˆ = 𝐤

For example, the unit vectors 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤 ˆ , 𝐣ˆ × 𝐤
ˆ =
ˆ × 𝐢ˆ = 𝐣ˆ
𝐢ˆ, 𝐤

(ii) Left handed system of vectors The vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and c mutually perpendicular to one
another form a left handed system of vectors iff
𝐜 × 𝐛 = 𝐚, 𝐚 × 𝐜 = 𝐛, 𝐛 × 𝐚 = 𝐜.

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ˆ and 𝐛 = 𝐣ˆ are such that 𝐚, 𝐜 and 𝐛 form a right

Example. The vectors 𝐜, 𝐚 = 𝑥𝐢ˆ + 𝑦𝐣ˆ + 𝑧𝐤
handed system, then c is
(a) zî − xk̂ (b) 0
(c) 𝑦𝐣ˆ ˆ
(d) −𝑧𝐢ˆ + 𝑥𝐤
Sol. (a) 𝐚, 𝐜 and 𝐛 form a right handed system.
Hence, 𝐛 × 𝐚 = 𝐜
ˆ)
⇒ 𝐜 = 𝐣ˆ × (𝑥𝐢ˆ + 𝑦𝐣ˆ + 𝑧𝐤
ˆ + 𝑧𝐢ˆ = 𝑧𝐢ˆ − 𝑥𝐤
= −𝑥𝐤 ˆ

Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝒄 are three non-zero vectors . such that 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝐜 and 𝐛 × 𝐜 = 𝐚, prove
that 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are mutually at right angles and |𝐛| = 1 and |𝐜| = |𝐚|.
Sol. 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝐜 and 𝐚 = 𝐛 × 𝐜
⇒ 𝐜 ⊥ a, 𝐜 ⊥ b and 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛, 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐜 ⇒ 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛, 𝐛 ⊥ 𝐜 and 𝐜 ⊥ 𝐚
⇒ 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are mutually perpendicular vectors.
Again, 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝐜 and 𝐛 × 𝐜 = 𝐚
⇒ |𝐚 × 𝐛| = |𝐜| and |𝐛 × 𝐜| = |𝐚|
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ |𝐚||𝐛|sin = |𝐜| and |𝐛||𝐜|sin = |𝐚|
2 2

⇒ |a||b| = |c|
and |𝐛||𝐜| = |𝐚| (∵ 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛 and 𝐛 ⊥ c)
⇒ |𝐛|2 |𝐜| = |𝐜|
⇒ |𝑏|2 = 1 ⇒ |𝑏| = 1
On putting in |𝐚||𝐛| = |𝐜| ⇒ |𝐚| = |𝐜|

Geometrical Interpretation of Vector Product

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If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two non-zero, non-parallel vectors represented by OA and OB respectively and
let 𝜃 be the angle between them. Complete the parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐵.
Draw 𝐵𝐿 ⊥ 𝑂𝐴

𝐵𝐿
In ∆𝑂𝐵𝐿, sin θ = 𝑂𝐵

⇒ 𝐵𝐿 = 𝑂𝐵sin θ = |𝐛|sin θ
Now, 𝐚 × 𝐛 = |𝐚||𝐛|sin θ𝐧
= (𝑂𝐴)(𝐵𝐴)𝐧
= ( Base × Height )𝐧 = ( Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐵)𝐧
=Vector area of the parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐵
Thus, 𝐚 × 𝐛 is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the area of the parallelogram having 𝐚
and 𝑏 as its adjacent sides and whose direction 𝑛 is perpendicular to the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛 such
that 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐧 form a right handed system. Hence, 𝐚 × 𝐛 represents the vector area of the
parallelogram having adjacent sides along 𝐚 and 𝐛.

13. Area of Parallelogram and Triangle

(i) The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides 𝐚 and 𝒃 is |𝐚 × 𝐛|.
1
(ii) The area of a parallelogram with diagonals 𝐝𝟏 and 𝐝𝟐 is 2 |𝐝1 × 𝐝2 |.
1
(iii) The area of a plane quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is |AC × BD|, where 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐷 are its
2
diagonals.
1
(iv) The area of a triangle with adjacent sides 𝐚 and 𝐛 is 2 |𝑎 × 𝑏|
1
(v) The area of a ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is 2 |𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶|
1
or 2 |BC × BA|
1
or 2 |𝐂𝐁 × 𝐂𝐀|
1
(vi) If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are position vectors of a ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, then its area = 2 |(𝐚 × 𝐛) + (𝐛 × 𝐜) +
(𝐜 × 𝐚)|

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Remark
Three points with position vectors 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are collinear, if (𝐚 × 𝐛) + (𝐛 × 𝐜) + (𝐜 × 𝐚) =
0

Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are position vectors of the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶, show that
1
the area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 is 2 |𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 + 𝐜 × 𝐚|.

Deduce the condition for points 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 to be collinear.

1
Sol. Area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 |𝐀𝐁 × 𝐀𝐂| Now, 𝐀𝐁 = Position vector of 𝐵 − Position vector of 𝐴

𝐀𝐁 = 𝐛 − 𝐚

𝐀𝐂 = Position vector of 𝐶 − Position vector of 𝐴

𝐀𝐂 = 𝐜 − 𝐚
𝐀𝐁 × 𝐀𝐂 = (𝐛 − 𝐚) × (𝐜 − 𝐚)
= 𝐛 × 𝐜 − 𝐛 × 𝐚 − 𝐚 × 𝐜 + 𝐚 × 𝐚 (∵ 𝐚 × 𝐚 = 𝟎)
=𝐚×𝐛+𝐛×𝐜+𝐜×𝐚
1
Hence, area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 |𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶|
1
= 2 |𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 + 𝐜 × 𝐚| = 0

If the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear, then area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 0

1
⇒ |𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 + 𝐜 × 𝐚| = 0
2
⇒ |𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 + 𝐜 × 𝐚| = 0
⇒ 𝐚×𝐛+𝐛×𝐜+𝐜×𝐚=0
Thus, 𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 + 𝐜 × 𝐚 = 0
is the required condition of collinearity of three points a, b and c.

Example . Show that the perpendicular distance of the point 𝐜 from to the joining 𝐚 and 𝐛 is
|𝑏×𝑐+𝑐×𝑎+𝑎×𝑏|
|𝑏−𝑎|

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Sol. Let 𝐴𝐵𝐶 be a triangle and let 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 be the position of its vertices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
respectively. Let 𝐶𝑀 be the perpendicular from 𝐶 on 𝐴𝐵.
1 1
Then, area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 (𝐴𝐵) ⋅ (𝐶𝑀) = 2 |𝐴𝐵||𝐶𝑀|
1
Also, area of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 2 |𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 + 𝐜 × 𝐚|

1 1
∴ |𝐴𝐵||𝐶𝑀| = |𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎|
2 2
|𝑏 × 𝑐 + 𝑐 × 𝑎 + 𝑎 × 𝑏|
⇒ 𝐶𝑀 =
|𝑏 − 𝑎|

Example.
(i) Find the area of the quadrilateral whose diagonals are given by
ˆ , 𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤
3𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤 ˆ

(ii) 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 are the vertices of a regular plane polygon with 𝑛 sides. 𝑂 is the centre.
Show that
∑𝑛−1
𝑖=1 (𝐎𝐀𝐀 𝑖 × 𝐎𝐀 𝑖+1 ) = (1 − 𝑛)(𝐎𝐀 2 × 𝐎𝐀𝐀1 )
1
Sol. (i) Area of the quadrilateral = 2 |𝑑1 × 𝑑2 |

1 𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤 1
= |3 1 ˆ|
−2| = 2 | − 2𝐢ˆ − 14𝐣ˆ − 10𝐤
2
1 −3 4
1 10√3
= 2 √4 + 196 + 100 = = 5√3
2

(ii) 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑛 are the vertices of a regular plane polygon of 𝑛 sides and centre 𝑂.
Let |OA𝑖 | = 𝑘, ∀𝑖 = 1 < 2, 3, … , 𝑛
Let ê𝑖 be the unit vector along OA𝑖
OA𝑖 = 𝑘𝐞ˆ𝑖
OA𝐀𝑖 × 𝐎𝐀𝑖+1 = 𝑘𝐞ˆ𝑖 × 𝑘𝐞ˆ𝑖+1 = 𝑘 2 𝐱ˆ 𝑖
where 𝐱ˆ 𝑖 is a unit vector in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the polygon and 𝐱ˆ 𝑖 =
𝐱ˆ 𝑖+1 for

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𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … . . , 𝑛 − 1
∴ LHS = ∑𝑛−1 2 𝑛−1
𝑖=1 (𝐎𝐀,× OA𝑖+1 ) = 𝑘 ∑𝑟=1 𝐱
ˆ𝑙
= 𝑘 2 (𝑛 − 1)𝐱ˆ 𝑖 = (𝑛 − 1)(OA𝑖 × OA2 )
= (1 − 𝑛)(𝐎𝐀2 × 𝐎𝐀1 )

14. Moment of a Force

(i) About a point Let a force 𝐅 be applied at a point 𝑃 of a rigid body then, the moment of 𝐹
about a point 𝑂 measures the tendency of 𝐹 to turn the body about point 𝑂. If this tendency of
rotation about 𝑂 is in anti-clockwise direction, the moment is positive, otherwise it is
negative.
Let 𝐫 be the position vector of 𝑃 relative to 𝑂. Then, the moment or torque of 𝐹 about the
point 𝑂 is defined as the vector 𝐌 = 𝐫 × 𝐅.

If several forces are acting through the same point 𝑃 then the vector sum of the moment of
the separate forces about 𝑂 is equal to the moment of their resultant force about 𝑂.
Remark
Moment of a force 𝐅 about a point 𝐀 = 𝐀𝐁 × 𝐅, where 𝐁 is any . point on 𝐅.
(ii) About a line The moment of a force 𝐅 acting at a point 𝑃 about a line 𝐿 is a scalar given
by (𝐫 × 𝐅) ⋅ 𝐚ˆ, where 𝐚 is a unit vector in the direction of the line and 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟, where 𝑂 is
any point on the line.
Thus, the moment of a force 𝐅 about a line is the resolved part (component) along this line, of
the moment of F about any point on the line.
Remark
The moment of a force about a point is a vector while the moment about a straight line is a
scalar quantity.
ˆ acting at (1, 0, −2).
Example. Find the moment about (1, −1, −1) of the force 3𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤
Sol. Let 𝐴 ≡ (1, −1, −1), 𝐵 ≡ (1, 0, −2)
and F = 3î + 4ĵ − 5k̂

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Then, moment of force 𝐹 about 𝐴 is given by AB × F.

ˆ ) − (𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
Here, AB = (𝑖ˆ − 2𝐤 ˆ ) = 𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
ˆ

𝐢ˆ 𝐣ˆ 𝐤 ˆ
∴ 𝐀𝐁 × 𝐅 = |0 1 −1|
3 4 −5
ˆ (0 − 3)
= 𝐢ˆ(−5 + 4) − 𝐣ˆ(0 + 3) + 𝐤
ˆ
= −𝐢ˆ − 3𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤

Example. Three forces 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤 ˆ , 2𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤

ˆ and 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
ˆ acting on a particle at the
point (0, 1, 2). The magnitude of the moment of the forces about the point (1, −2, 0) is

(a) 2√35 (b) 6√10

(c) 4√7 (d) None of these
ˆ ) + (2𝐢ˆ + 3ĵ + 4𝐤
Sol. (b) Total force 𝐅 = (𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤 ˆ ) + (𝑖ˆ − 𝑗ˆ + 𝑘ˆ) = 4𝑖ˆ + 4𝑗ˆ + 2𝑘ˆ

Moment of the forces about

𝑃 = 𝐫 × 𝐅 = 𝐏𝐀 × 𝐅
ˆ
𝐏𝐀 = (0 − 1)𝐢ˆ + (1 + 2)𝐣ˆ + (2 − 0)𝐤
ˆ
= −𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
ˆ ) × (4𝐢ˆ + 4𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
∴ Moment about 𝑃 = (−𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤 ˆ)

𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
= |−1 3 ˆ
2| = −2𝐢ˆ + 10𝐣ˆ − 16𝐤
4 4 2

Magnitude of the moment

ˆ|
= | − 2𝐢ˆ + 10𝐣ˆ − 16𝐤

= 2√12 + 52 + 82 = 2√90 = 6√10

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Example. Find the moment about a line through the origin having the direction of 2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ +
ˆ due to 30 kg force acting at a point (−4, 2, 5) in the direction of 12𝐢 − 4𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
𝐤 ˆ.

Sol. Let F be the force. Then,

ˆ)
30(12𝐢ˆ−4𝐣ˆ−3𝐤 30
F= ˆ)
= 13 (12𝐢ˆ − 4𝐣ˆ − 3𝐤
√144+16+9

Suppose the force 𝐹 acts at point 𝑃(−4,2,5) the moment of

ˆ is equal to the resolve part along the
F acting at 𝑃 about a line in the direction 2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
line of moment of 𝐅 about a point on the line.
ˆ ) − (0)
∴ r = OP = (−4𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤
ˆ
= −4𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤
Let M be the moment F about 𝑂. Then,
𝐢ˆ 𝐣ˆ ˆ
𝐤
30
𝐌 = 𝐫 × 𝐅 = 13 |−4 2 5|
12 −4 −3
30
= ˆ)
(4𝐢ˆ + 48𝐣ˆ − 8𝐤
13

ˆ . Then,
Let a be unit vector in the direction of 2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
ˆ
2𝐢ˆ−2𝐣ˆ+𝐤 1
𝐚= ˆ)
= 3 (2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
√4+4+1

Thus, the moment of 𝐅 about the given line

30 1 760
ˆ ) ⋅ (2𝐢ˆ − 2𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
= 𝐌 ⋅ 𝐚 = 13 (14𝐢ˆ + 48𝐣ˆ − 8𝐤 ˆ)=−
3 13

15. Scalar Triple Product

The scalar triple product is defined for three vectors and it is defined as the dot product of one
of the vectors with the cross product of the other two.
If 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 are any three vector, then their scalar product is defined as (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜.
We denote it by [𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜]

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It is also called the mixed or box product.

Remark
Result of scalar triple product is always a scalar.

Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product

Let 𝐚, b and 𝐜 be three vectors. Consider a parallelopiped having coterminous edges OA, OB
and OC such that OA = 𝑎, OB = 𝑏 and OC = 𝑐. Then, a × b is a vector perpendicular to the
plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛. Let ϕ be the angle between 𝐜 and 𝐚 × 𝐛.
If 𝐧 is a unit vector along 𝐚 × 𝐛, then ϕ is the angle between 𝐧 and 𝐜.
Now, [a b c] = (a × b) ⋅ c

= ( Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵)𝐧 ⋅ 𝐜

= ( Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵)(𝐧 ⋅ 𝐜)
= ( Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵)(|𝐜||𝐧|cos ϕ)
= ( Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵)(|𝐜|cos ϕ)
= ( Area of parallelogram 𝑂𝐴𝐷𝐵)(𝑂𝐿)
= Area of base × height
= Volume of parallelopiped
Height of parallelopiped
Volume of parallelopiped
= Area of base

Properties of Scalar Triple Product

(i) If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are given by
ˆ
𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ
𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤

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ˆ
𝐜 = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
Then, (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜 = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
(ii) (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 × 𝐜) i.e. position of dot and cross can be interchanged without
altering product. Hence, it is also represented by [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜].
(iii) [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = [𝐛 𝐜 𝐚] = [𝐜 𝐚 𝐛]
(iv) [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = −[𝐛 𝐚 𝐜]
(v) [𝑘 𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 𝑘[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜][𝑘1 𝐚 𝑘2 𝐛 𝑘3 𝐜] = 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]
(vi) [𝐚 + 𝐛 𝐜 𝐝] = [𝐚 𝐜 𝐝] + [𝐛 𝐜 𝐝]
(vii) 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 in that order form a right handed system, if [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] > 0.

(viii) The necessary and sufficient condition for three non-zero, non-collinear vector 𝐚, 𝐛 and
𝐜 to be coplanar is that [𝐚𝐛𝐜] = 0 i.e., 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are coplanar ⇔ [a 𝑏 c] = 0.
(ix) [𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 + 𝑧1 𝐜, 𝑥2 𝐚 + 𝑦2 𝐛 + 𝑧2 𝐜, 𝑥3 𝐚 + 𝑦3 𝐛 + 𝑧3 𝐜]
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
= |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 | [𝐚𝐛𝐜]
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3
Remarks
1. Four points A, B, C. D are coplanar if [𝐀𝐁, 𝐀𝐂, 𝐀𝐃] = 0
2. Four points 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 and 𝐝 are coplanar, if [𝐝 𝐛 𝑐] + [𝐝 𝐜 𝐚] + [𝐝 𝐚 𝐛] = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]
or [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] + [𝐚 𝐜 𝐝] + [𝐚 𝐝 𝐛] = [𝐝 𝐛 𝐜]
3. [𝐚 𝐚 𝐛] = [𝐛 𝐛 𝐚] = [𝐜 𝐜 𝐛] = 0
i.e., if any two vectors are same, then vectors are coplanar.
Volume of Tetrahedron
(A pyramid having a triangular base)
If 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 is a tetrahedron as shown in figure, where - 𝐎𝐀 = 𝐚, 𝐎𝐁 = 𝐛, and 𝐎𝐂 = 𝐜, then
1
volume of tetrahedron = 6 [𝐚𝐛𝐜]

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Remarks
1. The six mid-points of the six edges of a tetrahedron lie in a sphere, if the pair of opposite
edges are perpendicular to each other.
2. Centre of the sphere is the centroid of the tetrahedron.
3. 𝐺𝐴2 + 𝐺𝐵2 + 𝐺𝐶 2 + 𝐺𝑂2 = 12𝑟 2 , 𝐺 being the centroid.
1
4. The angle between any two plane faces of a regular tetrahedron is cos −1 3.

1
5. Angle between the any edge and a face not containing the angle is cos −1 √3 (for regular
tetrahedron).
6. Any two edges of regular tetrahedron are perpendicular to each other.
2
7. The distance of any vertex from the opposite face of regular tetrahedron is √3 𝑘, 𝑘 being
the length of any edge.
Example. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are represented by 𝐚 = 2𝐢ˆ −
ˆ , 𝐛 = 𝐢ˆ + 2𝐣ˆ − 𝐤
3𝐣ˆ + 4𝐤 ˆ and 𝐜 = 3𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
ˆ
2 −3 4
Sol. Here, [𝐚𝐛𝐜] = |1 2 −1| = 2(4 − 1) + 3(2 + 3) + 4(−1 − 6)
3 −1 2
= 6 + 15 − 28 = −7
∴ The volume of the parallelopiped = |[a b c]| = 7.
Example. Let 𝐚 = 𝑥𝐢ˆ + 12𝐣ˆ − 𝐤 ˆ , 𝐛 = 2𝐢ˆ + 2𝑥𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
ˆ and 𝐜 = 𝐢ˆ + 𝐤
ˆ . If 𝐛, 𝐜, 𝐚 in that order form
a left handed system, then find the value of 𝑥.
[𝑥1 𝐚 + 𝑦1 𝐛 + 𝑧1 𝐜, 𝑥2 𝐚 + 𝑦2 𝐛 + 𝑧2 𝐜, 𝑥3 𝐚 + 𝑦3 𝐛 + 𝑧3 𝐜]
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
= |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 | [𝐚𝐛𝐜]
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3
Sol. Since, b, c, a form a left handed system, three fore [b, c, a] < 0

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2 2𝑥 −1
⇒ |1 0 1 |<0
𝑥 12 −1
⇒ 2(0 − 12) − 2𝑥(−1 − 𝑥) + 1(12 − 0) < 0
⇒ − 24 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 12 < 0
⇒ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 12 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 < 0

⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−3, 2)

Example. For any three vectors a, b and c prove that [𝐚 + 𝐛 𝐛 + 𝐜 𝐜 + 𝐚] = 2[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]
Sol. We have, [𝐚 + 𝐛 𝐛 + 𝐜 𝐜 + 𝐚]
= {(𝐚 + 𝐛) × (𝐛 × 𝐜)} ⋅ (𝐜 + 𝐚)
= {𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑎 × 𝑐 + 𝑏 × 𝑏 + 𝑏 × 𝑐} ⋅ (𝑐 + 𝑎) {∵ 𝑏 × 𝑏 = 0}
= {𝑎 × 𝑏 + 𝑎 × 𝑐 + 𝑏 × 𝑐} ⋅ (𝑐 + 𝑎)
= (𝑎 × 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑐 + (𝑎 × 𝑐 ) ⋅ 𝑐˙ + (𝑏 × 𝑐 ) ⋅ 𝑐 + (𝑎 × 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑎 + (𝑎 × 𝑐) ⋅ 𝑎 + (𝑏 × 𝑐) ⋅ 𝑎
= [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + [𝐛 𝐜 𝐚]
[∵ [𝐚 𝐜 𝐜] = 0, [𝐛 𝐜 𝐜] = 0,
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐚] = 0, [𝐚 𝐜 𝐚] = 0]
= [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] + [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 2[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]

Example. If a, b and 𝐜 are coplanar show [𝐚 + 𝐛 𝐛 + 𝐜 𝐜 + 𝐚] are coplanar.

Sol. Since, [a b c ] are coplanar
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 0 …(i)
and shown in above example
[𝐚 + 𝐛 𝐛 + 𝐜 𝐜 + 𝐚] = 2[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 0 [using Eq. (i)]
which shows [𝐚 + 𝐛 𝐛 + 𝐜 𝐜 + 𝐚] are coplanar, if [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] are coplanar.

𝐚⋅𝐚 𝐚⋅𝐛 𝐚⋅𝐜

Example. For any three vectors a, b and 𝐜 prove that [𝐚𝐛𝐜]2 = |𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚 𝐛⋅𝐛 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜|.
𝐜⋅𝐚 𝐜⋅𝐛 𝐜⋅𝐜
ˆ
Sol. Let 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤
ˆ
𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
ˆ
𝐜 = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤

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𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
Then, [a b c ][𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
On multiplying row-by-row, we get
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]2 =
𝑎1 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑎1 𝑐1 + 𝑎2 𝑐2 + 𝑎3 𝑐3
|𝑏1 𝑎1 + 𝑏2 𝑎2 + 𝑏3 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 𝑏2 + 𝑏3 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑐1 + 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑏3 𝑐3 |
𝑐1 𝑎1 + 𝑐2 𝑎2 + 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑐1 𝑏1 + 𝑐2 𝑏2 + 𝑐3 𝑏3 𝑐1 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑐3
𝐚⋅𝐚 𝐚⋅𝐛 𝐚⋅𝐜
= |𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐛 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜|
𝐜⋅𝐚 𝐜⋅𝐛 𝐜⋅c

Example. If a, b, c, I and m are vectors, prove that

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
[a b c](1 × 𝑚) = | 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑙 𝑏⋅𝑙 𝑐⋅𝑙 |
𝑎⋅𝑚 𝑏⋅𝑚 𝑐⋅𝑚
ˆ , 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤
Sol. Let 𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ,
ˆ , 𝐥 = 𝑙1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑙2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑙3 𝐤
c = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤 ˆ
ˆ
and 𝐦 = 𝑚1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑚2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑚3 𝐤
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
⇒ [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜](𝐥 × 𝐦) = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | | 𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3
On multiplying row-by-row, we get
𝑎1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑎2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑎3 𝐤 ˆ 𝑎1 𝑙1 + 𝑎2 𝑙2 + 𝑎3 𝑙3 𝑎1 𝑚1 + 𝑎2 𝑚2 + 𝑎3 𝑚3
= |𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑏3 𝐤ˆ 𝑏1 𝑙1 + 𝑏2 𝑙2 + 𝑏3 𝑙3 𝑏1 𝑚1 + 𝑏2 𝑚2 + 𝑏3 𝑚3 |
ˆ
𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤 𝑏1 𝑙1 + 𝑏2 𝑙2 + 𝑏3 𝑙3 𝑐1 𝑚1 + 𝑐2 𝑚2 + 𝑐3 𝑚3
𝑎 𝑎⋅1 𝑎⋅𝑚 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= |𝑏 𝑏⋅𝑙 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑚| = | 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑙 𝑏⋅𝑙 𝑐⋅𝑙 |
𝑐 𝑐⋅𝑙 𝑐⋅𝑚 𝑎⋅𝑚 𝑏⋅𝑚 𝑐⋅𝑚

Example. If 𝐚 and 𝐛 are non-zero and noncollinear vectors, then show that
ˆ
𝐚 × 𝐛 = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐢]𝐢ˆ + [𝐚 𝐛 j] 𝐣ˆ + [𝐚 𝐛 𝐤] 𝐤
ˆ
Sol. Let 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 𝑥î + 𝑦ĵ + 𝑧𝐤 …(i)
ˆ ) ⋅ 𝐢ˆ
(𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐢ˆ = (𝒙𝐢ˆ + 𝒚𝐣ˆ + 𝒛𝐤
(𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐢ˆ = 𝒙

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Also, (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐣ˆ = 𝒚 …(ii)
ˆ =𝒛
(𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐤
𝒂 × 𝒃 = [𝒂 𝒃 𝟏]𝒊ˆ + [𝒂 𝒃][𝒋ˆ + [𝒂 𝒃 𝒌]𝒌ˆ

Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are any three vectors in space, then show that
(c + b) × (c + a) ⋅ (c + b + a) = [a b c]
Sol. Here, (c + b) × (c + a) ⋅ (c + b + a)
⇒ (c × c + c × a + b × c + b × a) ⋅ (c + b + a)
⇒ (c × a + b × c + b × a) ⋅ (c + b + a) (∵ c × c = 0)
⇒ (c × a) ⋅ c + (c × a) ⋅ b + (c × a) ⋅ a + (b × c) ⋅ c + (b × c) ⋅ b
+(b × c) ⋅ a + (b × a) ⋅ c + (b × a) ⋅ b + (b × a) ⋅ a
⇒ 0 + [c a b] + 0 + 0 + 0 + [b c a] + [b a c] + 0 + 0
⇒ [a b c] + [a b c] − [a b c] (∵ c a b = a b c)
⇒ [a b c] (∵ [b a c] = −[a b c])

Example. If 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 are three non-coplanar vectors, then (𝐮 + 𝐯 − 𝐰) ⋅ [(𝐮 − 𝐯) × (𝐯 −

𝐰)] is equal to
(a) 0 (b) 𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰)
(c) 𝐮 ⋅ (𝐰 × 𝐯) (d) 3𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰)
Sol. (b) (𝐮 + 𝐯 − 𝐰) ⋅ [𝐮 − 𝐯 × (𝐯 − 𝐰)]
⇒ (𝐮 + 𝐯 − 𝐰) ⋅ [(𝐮 × 𝐯) × (𝐮 × 𝐰) − 0 + (𝐯 × 𝐰)]
= [𝐮 𝐮 𝐯] + [𝐯 𝐮 𝐯] − [𝐰 𝐮 𝐯] − [𝐮 𝐮 𝐰] − [𝐯 𝐮 𝐰]
+[𝐰 𝐮 𝐰] + [𝐮 𝐯 𝐰] + [𝐯 𝐯 𝐰] − [𝐰 𝐯 𝐰]
= 0 + 0 − [𝐮 𝐯 𝐰] − 0 + [𝐮 𝐯 𝐰] + 0 + [𝐮 𝐯 𝐰] + 0 − 0
= [𝐮 𝐯 𝐰] = 𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰)

Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors and λ is a real number, then the vector 𝑎 +
2𝑏 + 3𝑐, λ𝐛 + 4𝐜 and (2λ − 1)𝐜 are non-coplanar for
(a) no value of λ (b) all except one value of λ
(c) all except two values of λ (d) all values of λ

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Sol. (c) Since, 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors.

∴ [a b c] ≠ 0
Now, 𝐚 + 2𝐛 + 3c, λb + 4c and (2λ − 1)c will be non-coplanare iff
(𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3𝑐) ⋅ {(λ𝑏 + 4𝑐) × (2λ − 1)𝑐} ≠ 0
i.e., (𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3𝑐) ⋅ {λ(2λ − 1)(𝑏 × 𝑐) ≠ 0
i.e., λ(2λ − 1)[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]} ≠ 0
1
∴ λ ≠ 0, 2.
1
Thus, given vectors will be non-coplanar for all values of λ except two values 0 and 2.

Example. If 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are distinct scalars such that [𝑥𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏 + 𝑧𝑐, 𝑥𝑏 + 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑧𝑎, 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑦𝑎 +
𝑧𝑏] = 0] where 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors, then
(a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 (b) 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧𝑥 = 0
(c) 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 = 0 (d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 0
Sol. (a) 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar.
∴ [a b c] ≠ 0
Now, consider [𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧𝐜, 𝑥𝐛 + 𝑦𝐜 + 𝑧𝐚, 𝑥𝐜 + 𝑦𝐚 + 𝑧𝐛] = 0
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
⇒ |𝑧 𝑥 𝑦| [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 0 ⇒ | 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 | = 0 [∵ [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] ≠ 0]
𝑦 𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑥
⇒ (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦𝑧 − 𝑧𝑥 ) = 0
1
⇒ (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧){(𝑥 − 𝑦)2 } + (𝑦 − 𝑧)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑥)2
2
1
⇒ (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧){(𝑥 − 𝑦)2 } + (𝑦 − 𝑧)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑥)2 } = 0
2
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 or 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧
But 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are distinct
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0.

Example. If a, b and 𝐜 are three non-coplanar uni-modular vectors, each inclined with other
at an angle 30∘, then volume of tetrahedron whose edges are 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 is
√3√3−5 3√3−5
(a) (b)
12 12

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5√2+3
(c) (d) None of these
12

Sol. (a) Since, the volume of tetrahedron with edges 𝐚, 𝐛 and [a b c].
Where, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚 = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐜 = 1
√3
and 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = (given)
2
1
∴ 𝑉 = 6 [a b c]

1 2 2
1 𝐚⋅𝐚 𝐚⋅𝐛 𝐚⋅𝐜
⇒ 𝑉 = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = |𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚 𝐛⋅𝐛 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜|
36 36
𝐜⋅𝐚 𝐜⋅𝐛 𝐜⋅𝐜
√3 √3
1
| 2 2|
√3 √3 = 1 (3√3 − 5)
1 36 4 4
2 2
| |
√3 √3
1
2 2
1
∴ 𝑉= √3√3 − 5
12
16. Vector Triple Product
It is defined for three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 as the vector a × (b × c).
This vector being perpendicular to 𝐚 and 𝐛 × 𝐜. But 𝐛 × 𝐜 is a vector perpendicular to the
plane of 𝑏 and c.

∴ 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) lie in the plane of 𝐛 and 𝐜, i.e., it is coplanar with 𝐛 and 𝐜.

i.e., 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = 𝐥𝐛 + 𝑚𝐜 …(i)
Taking the scalar product of this equation with 𝐚, we get
∵ a × (𝐛 × 𝐜) is ⊥ to a
0 = 𝑙(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) + 𝑚(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜) [ ]
∴ (𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) ⋅ 𝐚 = 0
⇒ 𝑙(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) = −𝑚(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)
𝑙 𝑚
⇒ =− =λ
𝐚⋅𝐜 a⋅𝐛

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⇒ 𝑙 = λ(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)
and 𝑚 = −λ(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)
Substituting the value of 𝑙 and 𝑚 in Eq. (i), we get
a × (b × c) = λ[(a ⋅ c)b − (a ⋅ b)c]
Here, the value of λ can be determined by taking specific values of a, b and c.
If we choose the coordinate axes in such a way that,
𝐚 = 𝑎1 𝐢ˆ, 𝐛 = 𝑏1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑏2 𝐣ˆ
ˆ,
and 𝐜 = 𝑐1 𝐢ˆ + 𝑐2 𝐣ˆ + 𝑐3 𝐤
it is easy to show that λ = 1.
Hence, a × (b × c) = (a ⋅ c)b − (a ⋅ b)c
and 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = (𝐚 × 𝐛) × 𝐜, if some of all 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are zero vectors or 𝐚 and 𝐜 are
collinear.
Remarks
1. 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) is a linear combination of those two vectors which are with in brackets.
2. If 𝐫 = 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜), then 𝐫 is perpendicular to 𝐚 and lie in the plane of 𝐛 and 𝐜.
3. 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜
(𝐚 × 𝐛) × 𝐜 = (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚)𝐛 − (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐚
Aid to memory
|𝑥(∥ 𝑥|||) = (| ⋅ |||) ∥ −(| ⋅ ||)|||
4. (𝐚 × 𝐛) × (𝐜 × 𝐝) = ((𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐝)𝐜 − ((𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜)𝐝
⇒ The vector (𝐚 × 𝐛) × (𝐜 × 𝐝) lies in the plane of 𝐜 and 𝐝.
Also, (𝐚 × 𝐛) × (𝐜 × 𝐝) = −(𝐜 × 𝐝) × (𝐚 × 𝐛)
= −{((𝐜 × 𝐝) ⋅ 𝐛)𝐚 − ((𝐜 × 𝐝) ⋅ (𝐚 𝐛)}
= −[𝐜 𝐝 𝐛]𝐚 + [𝐜 𝐝 𝐚]𝐛
Which shows that (𝐚 × 𝐛) × (𝐜 × 𝐝) lies in the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛. Thus, the vector (𝐚 × 𝐛) ×
(𝐜 × 𝐝) lies along the common section of the plane of 𝐜, 𝐝 and that of the plane of 𝐚, 𝐛.

17. Lagrange's Identity

𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐝|
(𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐝) = |
𝐛⋅𝐜 𝐛⋅𝐝
Proof LHS = (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐝) = 𝐮 ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐝)

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Class 12 Maths

where 𝐮 = 𝐚 × 𝐛 = (𝐮 × 𝐜) ⋅ 𝐝
= ((𝐚 × 𝐛) × 𝐜) ⋅ 𝐝
= ((𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚) ⋅ 𝐛 − (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚) ⋅ 𝐚) ⋅ 𝐝
= (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚)(𝐛 ⋅ 𝐝) − (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐛)(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐝)
= (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)(𝐛 ⋅ 𝐝) − (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜)(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐝)
𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐝|
=|
𝐛⋅𝐜 𝐛⋅𝐝

ˆ , 𝐛 = 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ, 𝐜 = 𝐢ˆ and (𝐚 × 𝐛) × 𝐜 = 𝛌𝐚 + 𝛍𝐛, then λ + μ is equal

Example. If 𝐚 = 𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤
to
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
Sol. (a) (a × b) × c = λa + μb
⇒ (a ⋅ c)𝐛 − (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐚 = λ𝐚 + μb
⇒ λ = −𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜, μ = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜
∴ λ + μ = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 − 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜 = (𝐚 − 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜
ˆ ) − (𝐢 + 𝐣ˆ)} = 𝐤
= {(𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ ⋅ 𝐢ˆ = 0

1
Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are three non-parallel unit vectors such that 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = 𝐛, then
2
find the angles which a makes with 𝐛 and 𝐜.
1
Sol. We have, 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = 2 𝐛
1
⇒ (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜 = 𝐛
2
1
⇒ 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 2 and 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 0 , = (comparing 𝐜 and 𝐛)
1
⇒ 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 2 and 𝐚 ⊥ 𝐛
1
Suppose a makes angle 𝜃 with c. Then, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 2

1 1
⇒ |𝐚||𝐜|cos θ = ⇒ cos θ = (∵ |𝐚||𝐜| ≠ 0)
2 2
π
⇒ θ=
3
π
Thus, 𝐚 is perpendicular to 𝐛 and makes an angle with 𝐜.
3

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Class 12 Maths

ˆ and 𝐛 = 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐤
Example. If 𝐚 = −𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ , then find the vector 𝑥 satisfying the conditions.

(i) that it is coplanar with 𝐚 and 𝐛.

(ii) it is perpendicular to b.
(iii) 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐱 = 7
Sol. Since, 𝑥 is in the plane of 𝐚 and 𝐛 and is perpendicular to 𝐛.
∴ 𝑥 = λ{𝐛 × (𝐚 × 𝐛)}
⇒ 𝑥 = λ{(𝐛 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐚 − (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚)𝐛}
ˆ ) − (−1)(2𝐢ˆ + 𝐤
= λ{5(−𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 𝐤 ˆ )}
ˆ + 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐤
= λ{−5𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 5𝐤 ˆ}
ˆ}
= λ{−3𝐢ˆ + 5𝐣ˆ + 6𝐤
Now, 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐱 = 7
⇒ −3λ + 5λ + 6λ = 7
7
⇒ 8λ = 7 ⇒ λ = 8
7
ˆ)
Hence, 𝑥 = (−3𝐢ˆ + 𝐣ˆ + 6𝐤
8

Example. Prove that

𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) + 𝐛 × (𝐜 × 𝐚) + 𝐜 × (𝐚 × 𝐛) = 0
Sol. We have, 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) + 𝐛 × (𝐜 × 𝐚) + 𝐜 × (𝐚 × 𝐛)
= {(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜} + {(𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚)𝐜 − (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐚} +{(𝐜 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐚 − (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚)𝐛}
= [(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜 + (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜 − (𝐛 ⋅ c)𝐚 + (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐚 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛] = 0
Example. Show that the vectors 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜), 𝐛 × (𝐜 × 𝐚) and 𝐜 × ((𝐚 × 𝐛) are coplanar.
Sol. Let 𝐩 = 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜), 𝐪 = 𝐛 × (𝐜 × 𝐚) and 𝐫 = 𝐜 × (𝐚 × 𝐛), then
𝐩 + 𝐪 + 𝐫 = 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) + 𝐛 × (𝐜 × 𝐚) + 𝐜 × (a × 𝐛) = 0
⇒ 𝐩 = (−1), 𝐪 = (−1)𝐫
which shows 𝐩 is linear combination of 𝐪 and 𝐫.
So, p, q are coplanar.
Hence, 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜), 𝐛 × (𝐜 × 𝐚) and 𝐜 × (𝐚 × 𝐛) are coplanar

Example. Prove that [a × b b × c c × a] = [a b c]

Sol. We have, [𝐚 × 𝐛 𝐛 × 𝐜 𝐜 × 𝐚]

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= {(𝐚 × 𝐛) × (𝐛 × 𝐜)} ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐚)
= {𝐝 × (𝐛 × 𝐜)} ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐚). [where, 𝐝 = (𝐚 × 𝐛)
= [(𝐝 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐝 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜] ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐚)
= [{(𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛 − (𝐚 × 𝐛)𝐛}𝐜] ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐚)
= {[𝐛 𝐜]𝐛 − 0}. (𝐜 × 𝐚) [∵ (𝐚𝐛𝐛) = 1
= {[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]{𝐛 ⋅ (𝐜 × 𝐚)}
= [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜][𝐛 𝐜 𝐚] {∵ [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = [𝐛 𝐜 𝐚]
= [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]2
Example. If 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are coplanar show [𝐚 × 𝐛 𝐛 × 𝐜 𝐜 × 𝐚] are coplanar.
Sol. Since, [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] are coplanar
⇒ [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 0
and [𝐚 × 𝐛 𝐛 × 𝐜 𝐜 × 𝐚] = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]2 = 0
∴ [𝐚 × 𝐛 𝐛 × 𝐜 𝐜 × 𝐚] are coplanar, if 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are coplanar.

Example. If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are vectors such that

|𝐁| = |𝐂|, prove that
{(𝐀 + 𝐁) × (𝐀 + 𝐂)} × (𝐁 × 𝐂) ⋅ (𝐁 + 𝐂) = 0.
Sol. Let 𝐑1 = 𝐀 + 𝐁, 𝐑 2 = 𝐀 + 𝐂, 𝐑 3 = 𝐁 + 𝐂
∴ LHS = {(𝐀 + 𝐁) × (𝐀 + 𝐂)} × (𝐁 × 𝐂)} × (𝐁 × 𝐂) ⋅ (𝐁 + 𝐂)
⇒ {(𝐑1 × 𝐑 2 ) × (𝐁 × C)} ⋅ 𝐑 3
⇒ [{𝐑1 ⋅ (𝐁 × C)}𝐑 2 − {𝐑 2 ⋅ (𝐁 × C)𝐑1 }] ⋅ 𝐑 3
⇒ [𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩𝑪][𝑹𝟐 ⋅ 𝑹𝟑 ] − [𝑨 + 𝑪𝑩𝑪](𝐑1 ⋅ 𝐑 3 )
⇒ {[𝐀 𝐁 𝐂] + [𝐁 𝐁 𝐂]}[{𝐀 + 𝐂). (𝐁 + 𝐂) − {[𝐀 𝐁 𝐂] + [𝐂 𝐁 𝐂]}[(𝐀 + 𝐁). (𝐁 + 𝐂)
⇒ [𝐀 𝐁 𝐂](𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 + 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐂 + 𝐂 ⋅ 𝐁 + 𝐂 ⋅ 𝐂) − [𝐀 𝐁 𝐂] (𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 + 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐂 + 𝐁 ⋅ 𝐁 + 𝐁 ⋅ 𝐂)
⇒ [𝐀 𝐁 𝐂](𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 + 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐂 + 𝐂 ⋅ 𝐁 + |𝐂|𝟐 − 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁) − 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐂 + 𝐁 + 𝐁 ⋅ 𝐂)
⇒ [A B C] (|C|² – |B|²
⇒ [A B C] (0) (∵ |B| = |C|
⇒ 0 = RHS
18. Reciprocal System of Vectors
The two system of vectors are called reciprocal system of vectors if by taking dot product, we
get unity.
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Thus, if 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 be three non-coplanar vectors and if.

𝐛×𝐜 𝐜×𝐚 𝐚×𝐛
𝐚′ = |𝐚 𝐛 𝐜| , 𝐛′ = |𝐚 𝐛 𝐜| and 𝐜 ′ = |𝐚 𝐛 𝐜|

Then 𝐚′ , 𝐛′ and 𝐜 ′ are said to be reciprocal system of vectors for the vector 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜.
Remarks
𝐚⋅(𝐛×𝐜) [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]
1. If 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 and 𝐚′ , 𝐛′ , 𝐜 ′ are reciprocal system of vectors, then 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚′ = = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 1
(𝐚 𝐛 𝐜)

Similarly, 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐛′ = 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐜 ′ = 1
2. 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛′ = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 ′ = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚′ = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚′ = 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚′ = 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐛′ = 0
3. [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] ⋅ [𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] = 1
Proof: We have,
𝐛×𝐜 𝐜×𝐚 𝐚×𝐛
[𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] = [ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]]
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]

1 1
= [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]3 [𝐛 × 𝐜 𝐜 × 𝐚 𝐚 × 𝐛] = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]3 [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]2
1
= [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]

∴ [𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] ⋅ [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 1
4. The orthogonal triad of vectors 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤ˆ is self reciprocal. Let 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
ˆ be the system of
ˆ then, we have,
vectors reciprocal to the system 𝐢ˆ, 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤
ˆ
𝐣ˆ × 𝐤
𝐢ˆ = [𝐢ˆ 𝐣ˆ 𝐤ˆ ] = 𝐣ˆ

ˆ′=𝐤
Similarly, ˆ𝐣 ′ = 𝐣ˆ and 𝐤 ˆ

5. 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar iff 𝐚′ , 𝐛′ , 𝐜 ′ are non-coplanar.

∵ [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜][𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] = 1
1
∴ [𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] =
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]
So, [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] ≠ 0 ⇔ [𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] ≠ 0
Thus, 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are non-coplanar iff [𝐚′ 𝐛′ 𝐜 ′ ] are non-coplanar.
6. If 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜 are non-coplanar vectors, then
[𝐱 𝐛 𝐜] 𝐚 + [𝐱 𝐜 𝐚] 𝐛 + [𝐱 𝐚 𝐛] 𝐜
ˆ , 𝐢ˆ − 𝐣ˆ − 2𝐤
Example. Find the set of vectors reciprocal to the set of vectors 2𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 𝐤 ˆ , −𝐢ˆ +
ˆ
2𝐣ˆ + 2𝐤
Sol. Let the given vector be 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜.

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2 3 −1
Now, [a b c ] = | 1 −1 −2|
−1 2 2
= 2(−2 + 4) − 3(2 − 2) − 1(2 − 1)
=4−1=3
𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
𝐛×𝐜 = | 1 ˆ
−1 −2| = 2𝐢ˆ + 𝐤
−1 2 2
𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
𝐜 × 𝐚 = |−1 2 ˆ
2 | = −8𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 7𝐤
2 3 −1
𝐢ˆ ˆ𝐣 ˆ
𝐤
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |2 3 ˆ
−1| = −7𝐢ˆ + 3𝐣ˆ − 5𝐤
1 −1 −2
𝐛×𝐜 ˆ
2𝐢ˆ+𝐤
Hence, 𝐚′ = [a 𝐛 𝐜] = 3

𝐜×𝐚 ˆ
−8𝐢ˆ+3𝐣ˆ−7𝐤
𝐛′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = 3

𝐚×𝐛 ˆ
−7𝐢ˆ+3𝐣ˆ−5𝐤
and 𝐜 ′ = [a 𝐛 𝑐] = 3

Example. Find a set of vector reciprocal to the vectors 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐚 × 𝐛.

Sol. Let the given vectors be denoted by 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 where 𝐜 = 𝐚 × 𝐛.
∴ [a𝐛𝐜] = (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜 = (𝐚 × 𝐛) = (𝐚 × 𝐛)2 … (i)
and let the reciprocal system of vector be 𝐚′ , 𝐛′ and 𝐜 ′ .
𝐛×𝐜 𝐛×(𝐚×𝐛)
∴ 𝐚′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = [𝐚×𝐛]2
𝐜×𝐚 (𝐚×𝐛)×𝐚
𝐛′ = =
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] [𝐚×𝐛]2
𝐚×𝐛 𝐚×𝐛
𝐜′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] = [𝐚×𝐛]2

∴ 𝐚′ , 𝐛′ and 𝐜 ′ are required reciprocal system of vectors for 𝐚, 𝐛2 and 𝐚 × 𝐛.

𝐛×𝐜 𝐜×𝐚 𝐚×𝐛
Example. If 𝐚′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜] , 𝐛′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]′ , 𝐜 ′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐛]′ then show that 𝐚 × 𝐚′ + 𝐛 × 𝐛′ + 𝐜 × 𝐜 ′ =
0, where 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐜 are
𝐚×(𝐛×𝐜)
Sol. Here, 𝐚 × 𝐚′ = [𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]

(a ⋅ c)b−(a ⋅ b) c
a × a′ = [a b c]

Similarly,

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(b ⋅ a)c − (b ⋅ c)a
b × b′ =
[a b c]
(c ⋅ b)a − (c ⋅ a)b
c × c′ =
[a b c]
a × a′ + b × b′ + c × c ′
(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜) − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) 𝐜 + (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚) 𝐜 − (𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜) 𝐚 + (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐛) 𝐚 − (𝐜 ⋅ 𝐚) 𝐛
=
[𝐚 𝐛 𝐜]
=0 (∵ 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 = 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚)

Example. If (𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 ) and (𝑒1 ′ , 𝑒2 ′ , 𝑒3 ′ ) are two sets of non-coplanar vectors such that 𝐢ˆ =
1, if 𝐢ˆ = 𝐣ˆ
1, 2, 3, we have 𝑒𝐢 ⋅ 𝑒1′ = { , then show that [𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 ], [𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ] = 1.
0, if 𝐢ˆ ≠ 𝐣ˆ
Sol. We have, 𝑒1 ⋅ 𝑒2′ = 0, 𝑒1 ⋅ 𝑒3′ = 0
⇒ 𝑒1 ⊥ 𝑒2′ and 𝑒1 ⊥ 𝑒3′
∴ 𝑒1 ∥ (𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′ )
∴ 𝑒1 = λ(𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′ ) …(i)
𝑒1 ⋅ 𝑒1 ′ = λ(𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′ ) ⋅ 𝑒1′
1 = λ[𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ] (∵ 𝑒1 𝑒1′ = 1, given)
1
λ=
[𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]
From Eq. (i),
𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′
𝑒1 = ′ ′ ′
[𝑒1 𝑒2 𝑒3 ]
𝑒 ′ ×𝑒 ′
Similarly, 𝑒2 = [𝑒 ′3𝑒 ′ 𝑒1′ ]
1 2 3

𝑒1′ ×𝑒2′
and 𝑒3 = [𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]

[𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′ 𝑒3′ × 𝑒1′ 𝑒1′ × 𝑒2′ ]

∴ [𝑒1 𝑒2 ] =
[𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]3
⇒ [𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 ][𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]3 = [𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′ 𝑒3′ × 𝑒1′ 𝑒1′ × 𝑒2′ ] … (ii)
Now, [𝑒2′ × 𝑒3′ 𝑒3′ × 𝑒1′ 𝑒1′ × 𝑒2′ ] = [𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]2
∴ From Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get
[𝑒1 𝑒2 𝑒3 ][𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]3 = [𝑒1′ 𝑒2′ 𝑒3′ ]2

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Class 12 Maths

Solving of Vector Equations

Solving a vector equation means determining an unknown vector (or a number of vectors
satisfying the given conditions)
Generally, to solve vector equations we express the unknown as the linear combination of
three non-coplanar vector as; 𝐫 = 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧(𝐚 × 𝐛); as 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐚 × 𝐛 are non-coplanar
and find 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 using given conditions.
Sometimes, we can directly solve the given condition it would be more clear from some
examples.

Example. Solve the vector equation 𝐫 × 𝐛 = 𝐚 × 𝐛, 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐜 = 0 provided that 𝐜 is not

perpendicular to 𝐛.
Sol. We are given,
𝐫×𝐛=𝐚×𝐛
⇒ (𝒓 − 𝒂) × 𝒃 = 𝟎
Hence, (𝐫 − 𝐚) and 𝐛 are parallel.
⇒ 𝐫 − 𝐚 = 𝐭𝐫
and we known 𝐫 ⋅ 𝐜 = 0 …(i)
∴ Taking dot product of Eq. (i) by c, we get
𝐫 ⋅ 𝐚 − 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝑡(𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜)
0 − 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝑡(𝐛 ⋅ 𝐜)
𝐚⋅𝐜
⇒ 𝑡 = − (𝐛⋅𝐜) …(ii)

∴ From Eqs. (i) and (ii) solution of 𝐫 is

𝐚⋅𝐜
𝐫 = 𝐚 − (𝐛⋅𝐜) 𝐛

Example. Solve for 𝐱, such that 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐗 = 𝐂 and 𝐀 × 𝐗 = 𝐁 with 𝐶 ≠ 0.

Sol. We have, 𝐀 × 𝐗 = 𝐁
Taking vector product of both sides with 𝐀, we get
𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝐀 × (𝐀 × 𝐗)
= (𝐀 ⋅ 𝐗)𝐀 − (𝐀 ⋅ 𝐀)𝐗
= 𝐂𝐀 − |𝐀|2 𝐗
⇒ using 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐗 = 𝐂 and 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑡𝐀 = |𝐀|2 )

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Class 12 Maths

⇒ |𝐀|𝟐 𝐗 = 𝐂𝐀 − 𝐀 × 𝐁
or 𝐗 = 𝐂𝐀 − 𝐀 × 𝐁
𝐂𝐀+𝐁×𝐀
𝐗= |𝐀|2

Example. Solve the vector equation 𝑟 × 𝑎 + 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑏, where 𝐚 and 𝐛 are two given vector and
𝑘 is any scalar. Sol. Since, 𝐚, 𝐛 and 𝐚 × 𝐛 are two non-coplanar vectors.
𝐫 = 𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧(𝐚 × 𝐛) …(i)
(where, 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 scalars)
On putting 𝐫 in 𝐫 × 𝐚 + 𝑘𝐫 = 𝐛, we get
{𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧(𝐚 × 𝐛)} × 𝐚 + 𝑘{𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧(𝐚 × 𝐛)} = 𝐛
⇒ 𝑦(𝐛 × 𝐚) + 𝑧{(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚)𝐛 − (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐚} + 𝑘{𝑥𝐚 + 𝑦𝐛 + 𝑧(𝑎 × 𝑏)} = 𝑏
⇒ {𝑘𝑥 − 𝑧(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)}𝐚 + {𝑘𝑦 + 𝑧(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚)}𝐛 + {(𝑦 + 𝑧𝑘)}(𝐚 × 𝐛) = 𝐛
⇒ 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑧(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) = 0, 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑧(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚) = 1
⇒ − 𝑦 + 𝑧𝑘 = 0
On solving these equations, we get
1
𝑧 = 𝑘 2 +|𝐚|2 ,
𝐚⋅𝐛
𝑥 = 𝑘(|𝐚|2 +𝑘 2 )
𝑘
and 𝑦 = 𝑘 2 +|𝐚|2 .

On putting theses value in Eq. (i), we get the solution,

(𝐚⋅𝐛) 𝑘 1
𝐫 = 𝑘(𝑘 2 +|𝐚|2 ) + 𝑘 2 +|𝐚|2 (𝐛) + 𝑘 2 +|𝐚|2 (𝐚 × 𝐛)

1 (𝐚⋅𝐛)𝐚
𝐫 = 𝑘 2 +|𝐚|2 [ + (𝑘)𝐛 + (𝐚 × 𝐛)] is required solution.
𝑘

Example. Solve for vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵, where

𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐚, 𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝐛, 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐚 = 𝟏
Sol. We have, A + B = a
⇒ A⋅a+B⋅a = a⋅a
⇒ 1 + B ⋅ a = a2 (given A ⋅ a = 1 )
⇒ B ⋅ a = a2 − 1 … (i)
Also, 𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝐛
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Class 12 Maths

⇒ a × (A × B) = a × b
⇒ (a ⋅ B)A − (a ⋅ A)B = a × b
⇒ (𝐚2 − 1)𝐀 − 𝐁 = 𝐚 × 𝐛
[using Eq. (i) and a. A = 1] …(ii)
and 𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝐚
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
(a×b)+a (a×b)+a
A= and B = a − { }
a2 a2

(b × a) + a(a2 − 1)
⇒ B=
a2
(𝐚×𝐛)+𝐚 (𝐛×𝐚)a(a2 −1)
Thus, 𝐀 = and 𝐁 =
𝐚2 a2

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