Pharmacognosy by C.K.
Kokate (37th edition)
MUTATION (Approximately 2 A4 pages)
Definition:
Mutation refers to a variation in characters of a species.
It is caused due to:
Environmental changes
Changes in hereditary constitution
If environmental changes disappear, original traits may restore, showing non-genotypic
changes (called modifications).
When the changes are heritable, permanent, and genotypic, they are called mutations.
Characteristics of Mutation:
Sudden change in genotype.
May lead to:
Qualitative or quantitative alterations of genetic material.
Evolutionary advancements.
May be harmful, neutral, or beneficial.
Types of Mutation:
1. Chromosomal Mutation (Chromosomal Aberration):
Changes in the number or structure of chromosomes.
Examples: deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations.
2. Point Mutation:
Change in a single base pair in DNA.
Caused due to substitution, insertion, or deletion.
Often permanent and heritable.
Classification Based on Cause:
a. Spontaneous Mutation:
Occurs without any known reason.
May be due to internal errors, UV rays, or microbes.
Difficult to control or predict.
b. Induced Mutation:
Brought artificially using mutagens:
Physical mutagens: UV rays, X-rays, ionizing radiation.
Chemical mutagens: Formaldehyde, nitrous acid, 5-bromouracil, EMS, etc.
Artificial Mutation:
Induced by exposing plants to abnormal conditions like:
Radiations
High temperatures
Chemicals
1. Radiation Mutations:
Caused by short-wavelength electromagnetic waves like:
Ultra Violet (UV)
X-rays
Gamma rays
Alpha & beta particles
Ionizing radiations produce radicals (OH, HO₂) → damage DNA → cause:
Breaks
Deletions
Inversions
Chromosomal translocations
2. Chemical Mutations:
Mutagens alter DNA by base substitution or chain breakage.
Examples:
Nitrogen mustard
Formaldehyde
Ethyl methane sulphonate
5-bromouracil (base analogue)
Effects include:
Inhibition of protein synthesis
Production of abnormal DNA
Impaired gene expression
Effects of Mutation on Medicinal Plants:
May cause:
Morphological changes (leaf, flower shape)
Anatomical changes (tissue structure)
Changes in chemical composition
Can improve:
Yield
Resistance to diseases
Active constituents
But may also cause:
Susceptibility to climatic changes
Retarded growth
Unfavorable traits
Applications:
Used in plant breeding programs.
Selected favorable mutants are propagated.
Example crops: Capsicum, Mentha, Atropa belladonna.
POLYPLOIDY (Approximately 2 A4 pages)
Definition:
Polyploidy is a condition where the plant contains more than two complete sets of
chromosomes.
Occurs naturally or can be induced.
Helps in increasing plant vigor and yield.
Types of Ploidy:
Monoploidy: One genome set (n)
Diploidy: Two sets (2n)
Polyploidy: More than two sets
Triploidy (3n)
Tetraploidy (4n)
Pentaploidy (5n)
Hexaploidy (6n)
Heptaploidy (7n)
Octaploidy (8n)
Medicinal Plants Showing Polyploidy:
Digitalis
Mentha
Poppy (Papaver somniferum)
Lobelia
Tropane alkaloid-containing plants
Induction of Polyploidy:
Physical methods:
Temperature shock
Centrifugation
Radiation (X-rays)
Chemical methods:
Colchicine: most common
Veratrine
Mercuric chloride
Sulphanilamide
Mechanism of Colchicine:
Prevents spindle formation during cell division.
Chromosomes duplicate but do not separate.
Results in chromosome doubling in daughter cells.
Importance of Polyploidy:
May produce:
New species
Variations in medicinal value
Better adaptability to habitat
Resistance to disease
Higher metabolite accumulation
Effects on Biochemical Composition:
Alters glycoside/alkaloid content.
Example:
Atropa belladonna → increased alkaloid yield
Cannabis → higher resin content
Papaver → higher morphine content
Application in Drug Yield:
Colchicine treatment can:
Increase yield of alkaloids by 60–150%
Improve oil yield in Acorus
Alter saponin and glycoside levels
Drawbacks:
Sometimes no change in chemical composition is observed.
Not all polyploids are stable or desirable.
May cause sterility (especially in triploids)
HYBRIDIZATION (Approximately 2 A4 pages)
Definition:
Hybridization = crossing two species or varieties with different traits to produce a hybrid.
Hybrid: offspring having combined traits from both parents.
Types of Hybrids:
Monohybrid: Hybrid with one differing character.
Dihybrid: Two differing characters.
Polyhybrid: More than two characters.
Objectives:
Combine desirable characters.
Introduce resistance traits.
Improve therapeutic quality and yield.
Adaptability to new environmental conditions.
Applications in Medicinal Plants:
Withania somnifera hybrids:
Israeli chemotype II × South African chemotype.
Produces new withanolides.
Digitalis hybrids:
D. purpurea × D. lanata
D. purpurea × D. lutea
Increased lanatosides A, B, E
Solanum incanum × S. melongena:
Improved solasodine content
1st generation → 0.5% solasodine
2nd generation → high yielding source
Modern Method – Tissue Culture Hybridization:
Uses protoplast fusion:
Protoplast = plant cell without wall.
Fusion can occur between:
Same species (intraspecific)
Different species (interspecific)
Methods:
Protoplast fusion:
Asexual hybridization.
Bypasses sexual incompatibility.
Advantages of Hybridization:
Produces:
New biochemical traits
More active constituents
Higher yield plants
Combines multiple beneficial traits in a single plant.
Limitations:
Unpredictable outcomes.
Sterility in some hybrids.
Time-consuming process.