REPRODUCTION
Need for Reproduction
Reproduction ensures continuation of species by passing genetic
material (DNA) from one generation to the next.
It does not provide energy for survival (unlike
nutrition/respiration) but requires energy.
DNA copying occurs with high constancy (for stability)
and variations (helps species adapt to changing environments and
evolve).
Variation and its Importance
Variation is important for the survival of a species but can sometimes be
harmful to an individual because:
Adapting to change: Variations make the population diverse,
meaning some individuals might have traits that help them survive
if the environment changes.
Helping evolution: Over time, helpful variations can build up in
the population, leading to new species that are better suited to their
environment.
Risk to individuals: Although variation helps the species, some
changes might not be good for an individual in their specific
environment, which could make it harder for them to survive.
Modes of Reproduction Used by
Single Organisms
i. Fission
For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of
new individuals.
Feature Binary Fission Multiple Fission
Number of
daughter Two Many
cells
Division Parent cell divides into multiple
Parent cell divides into two equal halves
process daughter cells simultaneously
Many bacteria and protozoa like Amoeba,
Examples Plasmodium (malarial parasite).
Paramecium, and Leishmania.
Speed of
Relatively faster Relatively slower
division
Complexity Simpler More complex
iv.
iv.
Diagram
ii. Fragmentation
In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organization,
simple reproductive methods can still work. Spirogyra, for example,
simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation. These pieces or
fragments grow into new individuals.
It is not possible to reconstruct the whole organism from a fragment in
complex multicellular organisms because many multi-cellular organisms
are not simply a random collection of cells. Specialized cells are organized
as tissues and tissues are organized into organs, which then have to be
placed at definite positions in the body. Therefore, the cell-by-cell division
would be impractical.
iii. Regeneration
Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new
individual organisms from their body parts. That is, if the individual is
somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these pieces grow
into separate individuals. For example, simple animals
like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces and each
piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as regeneration.
iv. Budding
In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at
one specific site. These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully
mature, detach from the parent body and become new independent
individuals. Yeast also follows budding for reproduction.
v. Vegetative Propagation
The method of producing new plants from vegetative parts like roots,
stems, and leaves are called vegetative propagation.
Buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall
on the soil and develop into new plants.
The advantages of vegetative propagation are:
1. Faster growth and earlier flowering and fruiting.
2. Preservation of desired traits.
3. Propagation of seedless varieties.
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation are:
1. Such plants are genetically similar to parent plants and are
vulnerable to infections and diseases.
2. They do not have variations, therefore, do not adapt well to
changing environments, and the plant species do not evolve.
vi. Spore Formation
The thread-like structures that develop on bread are the hyphae of the
bread mould (Rhizopus). They are non-reproductive parts. The tiny blob-
on-a-stick structures are involved in reproduction. The blobs are
sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually develop into
new Rhizopus individuals.
Advantages of spore formation:
Survival in Harsh Conditions: Spores are highly resistant to
extreme conditions like heat, cold, and drought. This helps the
organism survive unfavorable environments.
Wide Dispersal: Spores are lightweight and can easily be carried
by wind, water, or animals to distant places. This increases the
chances of colonizing new environments.
Rapid Population Increase: Spores are produced in large
numbers, ensuring that even if many are destroyed, some will still
survive and grow into new organisms.
Advantages of the asexual mode of
reproduction
Only one individual is required.
Progeny is identical to parents.
Produced in large numbers.
Sexual Reproduction
It is a mode of reproduction that depends on the involvement of two
individuals before a new generation can be created.
Four steps in sexual reproduction:
1. Formation of gametes in the sex organs.
2. Transfer of male gamete to female gamete.
3. Fusion of gametes, either inside or outside the female parent's
body.
4. Development of the zygote to embryo and then complete individual.
Advantages of sexual reproduction:
1. Variations are produced among the progeny.
2. Such populations are able to adapt well to changing environment
and thus evolves faster.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
i. Involves only one parent. i. It involves two parents.
ii. Gametes are not produced. ii. Gametes are produced.
iii. No fertilization and zygote formation. iii. Fertilization and zygote formation is observed.
iv. Produces offspring less rapidly. iv. Produces offspring more rapidly.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering
Plants
Different parts of a flower are – sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. The
stamens and pistils are the reproductive parts of a flower that contain the
germ cells.
The flower may be
unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamens
or pistils
bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and
pistils.
1. Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains
that are yellowish in colour.
2. Pistil is present in the center of a flower and is the female
reproductive part. It is made of three parts: stigma, style, and ovary.
3. The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.
4. The male germ cell produced by pollen grain fuses with the female
gamete present in the ovule.
5. This fusion of the germ cells or fertilization gives us the zygote
which is capable of growing into a new plant.
Pollination Fertilization
i. It is the transfer of pollen grain from the
i. It is the fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete.
anther to the stigma of a flower.
ii. It is achieved by agents like wind, water, ii. It is achieved by the growth of the pollen tube so that the
or animals. male gamete reaches the female germ cells.
iii. It leads to fertilization. iii. It leads to the formation of seeds.
iv. It is an external process. iv. It is an internal process.
Process of seed formation in a flowering plant:
1. The pollen from the stamen is transferred to the stigma.
2. The male germ cell and the female germ cells combine to form the
zygote.
3. The zygote undergoes rapid division to form the embryo inside the
ovule.
4. The ovule develops a seed coat and turns into a seed.
Germination
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
i. It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to i. It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther t
the stigma within the same flower. the stigma in another flower.
ii. It occurs either in the same flower or another ii. It occurs between two flowers that are on differe
flower of the same plant. plants but are of the same species.
iii. It occurs between flowers that are genetically
iii. It occurs in flowers that are genetically the same.
different.
Reproduction in Human Beings
The ratio of number of chromosomes between an egg and its zygote
is 1:2.
Sperms contain either X or Y chromosomes whereas an egg will
always have an X chromosome.
General Growth Sexual Maturation
General growth refers to different types of
Sexual maturation is specific to changes reflected
developmental processes in the body like an increase in
at puberty like the cracking of voice, new hair
height, weight gain, and changes in shape and size of the
patterns, development of breasts in females, etc.
body.
Sexual maturation of reproductive tissues is a necessary link for
reproduction because of the need for specialized cells called germ cells to
participate in sexual reproduction. The body of the individual organism
has to grow to its adult size, the rate of general body growth begins to
slow down, and reproductive tissues begin to mature.
A whole new set of changes in the appearance of the body takes place like
changes in body proportions, and new features appear. This period during
adolescence is called puberty.
There are also changes taking place that are different between boys and
girls. In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of
the nipples at the tips of the breasts. Also, girls begin to menstruate at
around this time. Boys begin to have new thick hair growth on their faces
and their voices begin to crack.
Male Reproductive System
The urethra serves as a common passage for both sperm and urine.
The testosterone hormone is released by the testis. In addition to
regulating the formation of sperm, testosterone brings about
changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles add their secretions so
that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport
easier and this fluid also provides nutrition.
Female Reproductive System
Ovary (production of egg)
Oviduct (site of fertilization)
Uterus (site of implantation)
Vagina (entry of the sperm)
Functions of the ovary:
1. Production of the female hormone estrogen.
2. Production of female gamete.
Functions of Oviduct/Fallopian tube:
1. Transfer of female gamete from the ovary.
2. Site of fertilization.
Functions of the uterus:
1. Implantation of the zygote.
2. Nourishment of developing embryo.
Placenta: A placenta is a special tissue connection between the embryo
and the uterine wall.
Role of the Uterus and Placenta in the Growth and Development of the
Embryo:
1. The lining of the uterus thickens and is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo.
2. The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of
the placenta. It is embedded in the uterine wall.
3. It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue. On the mother’s
side are blood spaces, which surround the villi.
4. This provides a large surface area for nutrition and oxygen to pass
from the mother to the embryo.
5. Waste substances produced by the embryo are removed through
the placenta into the mother’s blood.
6. The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles
in the uterus.
When the egg is not fertilized:
1. The egg survives for a day in the reproductive system.
2. In case the egg is not fertilized, it is shed along with the lining of the
uterus out of the vagina as blood and mucus.
Child marriages are a hazard to women's reproductive health
because:
1. Females will not have reached full sexual maturity at the time of
marriage.
2. There are possibilities of pregnancy in the teenage years that may
cause adverse effects on the female’s body.
Contraceptive methods are used such as:
1. Mechanical barriers (condoms)
2. Drugs (as pills)
3. Loop or copper T
4. Surgical method.
Pills change the hormonal balance and thus prevent the release of the
egg, hence fertilization is prevented. But this method can have some side
effects as it interferes with the hormonal balance of the body.
Advantages of using a mechanical barrier over other
contraceptive measures:
1. Contraceptive pills can cause hormonal imbalances.
2. Copper T and IUD can cause irritation to the uterine lining if not
placed correctly.
3. Surgical methods, if not performed properly, can lead to infections
and complications.