PREPARED BY:

HABTAMU GIRMA
LECTURER @ASSOSA UNIVERSITY
Email: habtamugirma280@[Link]

September, 2022
ASSOSA, ETHIOPIA
Route Surveying Module 2023

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LISTS OF FIGURE ........................................................................................................................ 5

LISTS OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ 6

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 7

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 7

1.1 Definition of Route Surveying ......................................................................................... 7

1.2 Different mode of transportation ...................................................................................... 8

1.2.1 Land mode: ............................................................................................................... 8

1.2.1 Other modes of Transportations.............................................................................. 11

1.3 Requirement of highway alignment ............................................................................... 12

1.4 Stages in route surveying ............................................................................................... 12

1.4.1 Desk study or Map study ........................................................................................ 12

1.4.2 Reconnaissance or site visit & study ...................................................................... 13

1.4.3 Preliminary survey .................................................................................................. 15

1.4.4 Final location and detail survey .............................................................................. 18

1.5 Construction survey........................................................................................................ 20

1.6 The following technical terms may be kept in view and should be understood for proper
management. ............................................................................................................................. 22

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 24

2. Horizontal curves ................................................................................................................... 24

2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 24

2.2 Types of curves and their uses ....................................................................................... 24

2.2.1 Horizontal Curves ................................................................................................... 24

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 2

Route Surveying Module 2023

2.3 Terminology of Horizontal curves ................................................................................. 33

2.4 Setting out of circular curves ......................................................................................... 35

2.4.1 Setting out of simple circular curve by angular methods: ...................................... 36

2.4.2 Offsets from the long chord .................................................................................... 36

2.4.3 Offsets from the tangent (back tangent).................................................................. 37

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 40

3. VERTICAL CURVES ........................................................................................................... 40

3.1 Definition of Vertical Curves ..................................................................................... 40

3.1.1 Crest Curves: ........................................................................................................... 40

3.1.2 Sag Curves .............................................................................................................. 40

3.2 Purposes of vertical curves ............................................................................................. 41

3.3 Types of Vertical Curves................................................................................................ 41

3.3.1 Symmetrical parabola curve: .................................................................................. 41

3.3.2 Unsymmetrical parabolic curve: ............................................................................. 42

3.4 Elements of Parabolic Vertical Curve ............................................................................ 42

3.5 Element of symmetrical parabolic vertical curve ........................................................... 43

3.6 Equation of Unsymmetrical parabolic Vertical Curve ................................................... 46

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 48

4 EARTH WORK..................................................................................................................... 48

4.1 Definition of Earth Work ............................................................................................... 48

4.2 Computation of area ....................................................................................................... 48

4.2.1 Area measurement by planimeter ........................................................................... 49

4.2.2 Area by triangles ..................................................................................................... 49

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 3

Route Surveying Module 2023

4.2.3 Area by squares ....................................................................................................... 49

4.2.4 Area by coordinates ...................................................................................................... 49

4.2.5 Ordinate methods .................................................................................................... 50

4.2.6 Coordinate rule........................................................................................................ 50

4.3. Calculation of volume .................................................................................................... 51

4.3.1 End-area method ..................................................................................................... 51

4.3.2 Prismoidal formula.................................................................................................. 52

4.3.3 Volume from cross-section ..................................................................................... 52

4.3.4 Prismoidal formula (Simpson’s rule) ...................................................................... 54

4.3.5 Effect of curvature .................................................................................................. 55

4.3.6 Volume from contour lines ..................................................................................... 56

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 61

5. SETTING OUT WORKS .................................................................................................... 61

5.1 Learning Objectives ....................................................................................................... 61

5.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 61

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 4

Route Surveying Module 2023

LISTS OF FIGURE

Figure 2.1 Circular Curve ............................................................................................................. 25

Figure 2.2 Element of compound curve ........................................................................................ 27

Figure 2.3 Revers curve ............................................................................................................... 30

Figure 2.4 Transition curve ........................................................................................................... 33

Figure 2.5 Arc Definition .............................................................................................................. 35

Figure 2.6 Offsets from the long chord ......................................................................................... 36

Figure2.7 offsets from the tangent (back tangent) ........................................................................ 38

Figure 3.1: Types of curst curves .................................................................................................. 40

Figure 3.2: Types of sag curve ...................................................................................................... 41

Figure 3.3 symmetrical parabola curves ....................................................................................... 42

Figure 3.4 unsymmetrical parabolic curves .................................................................................. 42

Figure 3.5 elements of Parabolic Vertical Curve .......................................................................... 43

Figure 4.1 End areas Calculation .................................................................................................. 52

Figure 5.1 setting out on level ground .......................................................................................... 63

Figure 5.2 Setting out instrument on sloping ground ................................................................... 64

Figure 5.3 Setting out peg at a predetermined level ..................................................................... 65

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 5

Route Surveying Module 2023

LISTS OF TABLES

Table 3.1: curve elevation and tangent elevation at every required station .................................. 45

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 6

Route Surveying Module 2023

CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of Route Surveying

Route Surveying is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical controls, to obtain
topographic data, and to layout the position of high ways, railroads, pipe lines etc. The primary
aspect of route surveying is that the project area is very narrowing compared with its length,
which can extend for many kilometers.

Route surveying includes all the surveying & mapping activities (the field and office work)
required to plan, design, and layout (construction) and any long and narrow transportation
facility. This transportation facility could be road (highway) railways, pipeline, and power
transmission lines. The shape or geometry of any transportation route is called its alignment.
This includes both its horizontal (i.e. plan view), and its vertical alignment (i.e. profile
view).This vertical alignment is also called the grade line. The centerline of highway, railroad,
canal consists of straight lines, (tangents) connected by curves for safe and comfortable ride. The
plan view should include:

 Bearing of tangents

 Angles of intersection Stationing

 Geometric data for each horizontal curve

 Topography adjacent to the center line

 Existing structures affected by the project

In highways, railways, or canals the curve are provided for smooth or gradual change in direction
due the nature of terrain, cultural features, or other unavoidable reasons. In highway practice, it
is recommended to provide curves deliberately on straight route to break the monotony in driving
on long straight route to avoid accidents. The horizontal curve may be a simple circular curve or
a compound curve. For a smooth transition between straight and a curve, a transition or easement
curve is provided. The vertical curves are used to provide a smooth change in direction taking

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 7

Route Surveying Module 2023

place in the vertical plane due to change of grade. The vertical alignment consists of straights
(gradients) connected by vertical curves in a vertical plane. The profile view should include:

 The existing ground surface

 Proposed route grade line

 Grades (slopes) of the tangents

 Vertical curve data

 Stations (chain ages)

 Location of drainage structures

 Elevations of existing ground surface & proposed grade lines

1.2 Different mode of transportation

There are different modes of transportation:

 Road way

 Rail way

 Water way

 Air way

 Pipe way

1.2.1 Land mode:

This comprises of road and rail as sub modes. While the rail has trains as means of transport.
Trains are of varieties depending on the kind of services they provide and the speed at which
they travel. They include the trams, light rail, electric trains, freight trains, etc.

A) Road transport:

Road is A way or path over which cyclists, vehicles and pedestrians can pass lawfully. Roads are
normally used for transportation within a country. Road transport exist in all parts of the world,
this involves the use of motor vehicles (cars, Lorries, buses, bicycles, and trucks). There are

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 8

Route Surveying Module 2023

various types of roads according to size and functions, some roads are tarred while others are not.
Road transport when compared with other modes of transportation is more flexible. It is
relatively cheaper and faster. Road transport has a high capacity of carrying goods over short
distances.

o Facilitate movement of men & materials from place to another

o Promotes growth of trade and other economic activities
o Vital for national defense-both during war& peace time
o Educational, medical facilities & cultural contacts can be maintained.
o Help in enforcement of law & order
o Road serves as feeders for railways, airways &water ways the passengers and the
goods.
o Materials have to be first transported by road before reaching the rail station,
airport or port.
o Natural resource are easily tapped& improved. E.g. mining of minerals.
o Essential for economic prosperity & general development
o Road transport requires a relatively small investment
B) Railway transport:
Railways were developed during the period of industrial revolution in the 19th century, these
was partly for political reasons and for economic reasons. In many countries, they were built
especially to penetrate isolated regions and help promote political unity. The major advantage of
railway transport includes provision reliable services. It has ability of conveying heavy and bulky
goods; it is also very cheap, safe and comfortable for passengers over a long distance. Rail
uniquely combines speed and energy efficiency *Plus environmentally Friendly. The major
Characteristics of Railway transport are the following;

 Fast

 Reliable

 Convenient

 Economical

 Safe/Secure

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 9

Route Surveying Module 2023

 Fuel Efficient

 Environmentally Friendly

C) Marine transport

Water/ Marine transport is very important because it is the cheapest way of transporting bulky
goods over a long distance. This makes use of ferries, boats, cargo ships, container ships, etc. In
the world, there are two major types of water transport namely: Inland water transport and ocean
water transport. Inland water transport- this is the system of transport through all navigable
rivers, lakes and man-made canals. Many large rivers in different parts of the world are used by
ships and barges for transportation; the main rivers where inland water transport are important
are the Rhine and Dambe in Europe, the Zaire in Africa, the Nile in Africa, the Mississippi in
USA etc. However, ocean waterways carry a lot of the world’s trade, majority of the bulky
goods, materials and passengers pass through ocean waterways from one country to another at
the cheapest cost. Waterways Pros and Cons:

o Pros: Energy efficiency, low cost, low pollution, safety, capacity

o Cons: Speed, limited network

D) Air mode

Air transport is the newest means of transport; it was introduced in 1903 but developed into full
means of transporting people and goods in 1930s. ). Here the means include helicopters,
scooters, aero planes, etc. The greatest of the air transportation started after the Second World
War (WW11This mode of transportation can be used for both domestic and international flights.
Airways Pros and Cons:

 Pros: Speed, reliability, network coverage

 Cons: Energy efficiency, cost, limited volume

E) Pipeline mode:

This is a unique mode of transport that has only one direction (face) which is pipeline. This
system of transportation involves the use of hollow pipes and it is used in transporting water,

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 10

Route Surveying Module 2023

crude oil (petroleum), biofuels, gas and powder from origin to destination. This mode of
transportation is safer and cheaper than using tankers or trailers in the transportation of liquids.
Pipelines:

o Pros: High volume, continuous transport possible, no vehicles needed, low labor
requirements

o Cons: Highly constrained types of commodities, limited product flexibility, speed and
network

1.2.1 Other modes of Transportations

a) Animal-powered transport:

This usually involves the use of animals for the transportation of people and goods, which is
mostly referred to as beast of burden. It is the oldest means of transportation; Humans may ride
some of the higher animals directly, or harness them. Example of such animals used for
transporting humans and goods include camel, horse, donkey, elephant, and giraffe.

b) Human powered transport:

This is another form of transport, which people, goods or both transported from one place to
another using human muscle-power, in the form of walking, running and swimming. Human-
powered transport remains popular for reasons of cost-saving, physical exercise, leisure, and
environmentalism; it is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or
inaccessible regions.

c) Spaceflight
This is a means of transport that moves out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of a
spacecraft. While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is not commonly used
except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scientific experiments.

d) Cable transport:
This is another means of transport use in mountain. Cable transport is a broad class of transport
modes that have cables as the foundation for transporting goods or people, often in vehicles
called cable cars. The cable may be driven or passive; items may be moved by pulling, sailing,

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 11

Route Surveying Module 2023

sliding or by drives within the object being moved on cableways. The use of pulleys and
balancing of loads going up and down are common elements of cable transport.

1.3 Requirement of highway alignment

The basic requirement of ideal alignment b/n two terminal stations are that it should be:

Short: It is desirable to have short alignment b/n two terminal stations. A straight alignment
would be the shortest path.

Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and maintain the road with
minimum problems.

Safe: The alignment should be safe for construction and maintenance from the point of view of
stability of natural slope embankment & cut slope and also foundation drivers & passengers/free
of accident/

Economical: The road alignment could be considerate economical only if the total cost
including initial cost maintenance cost & vehicle operation cost is lowest.

1.4 Stages in route surveying

Survey may be completed in four main stages:

a) Map study

b) Reconnaissance

c) Preliminary survey

d) Final location and details surveying

1.4.1 Desk study or Map study

If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the likely routes of the
road. The main feature like rives, hills, valleys etc are also shown in these maps. By a careful
study of such maps, it is possible to have an idea of several possible alternatives routes so that
further details of these may be studied later at the site.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 12

Route Surveying Module 2023

1.4.2 Reconnaissance or site visit & study

The reconnaissance survey is the key to any project and the most important in the series of
survey.

 Reconnaissance means the first inspection

 After the first inspection, one has got some ideas regarding the mental map about the terrain
and the features of the ground.

 It is also necessary to estimate the duration of the whole fieldwork.

 The reconnaissance survey is rapid and rough survey conducted to examine the territory
to be surveyed.

 Though the reconnaissance survey is rapid it should be thorough and exhaustive

examination of the whole area.

 Considering the importance of reconnaissance survey, it must be carried out under the
supervision of a very experienced engineer who should be unbiased, resourceful and
gifted with aptitude of engineering jobs and having wide of observation for the present as
well as for future requirements.

There are two aspects of reconnaissance survey

a) Office based analysis

b) Field Observations

The first step in reconnaissance survey is to collect the best possible available maps of the area
under investigation, such as the surveyed maps and Aerial photographs. The area under
investigation should be examined in detail and very carefully. If it is a route surveying keeping
the general topography of the territory in the mind various possible routes may be marked on
these maps in pencil and the area under consideration should be examined in detail by going over
the various proposed routes, in order to assess their feasibility and relative merits. Some more
relevant information can also be marked on the map.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 13

Route Surveying Module 2023

The second aspect of reconnaissance survey is the field [Link] includes rapid
observation of heights, distance and gradients, which are made with an aneroid barometer (in
high hills).Clinometers in low undulations, pedometer, pacing, etc.

The directions are fixed by observing magnetic bearings using a magnetic compass. The
reconnaissance survey should begin at one of the end stations and proceed in general direction of
the other. It is also recommended to go over the survey lines first in one direction and then in the
other direction or especially so in higher regions, to provide a check on observations.

[Link] In general the reconnaissance survey should provide the following information:

1. Accurate topographic of the area under investigation.

2. Towns, railways, highways, river crossings, tunnel sites, etc.

3. Geological characteristics of the soil of the area affecting foundations for bridges and
stability of the project line.

4. Width of waterway required for each river and other drainages.

5. Maximum flood levels of the intercepting natural drainages.

6. Availability of building materials and labour.

7. Probable radii of the horizontal curves.

8. The total length and area under study.

9. Amount of excepted earthwork.

10. The approximate cost of construction.

[Link] Factors to be kept in view during reconnaissance survey

The following factors should be kept in view during reconnaissance survey:

1. Area. The reconnaissance survey should be carried out for the entire area and not only
along line or in part of the area.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 14

Route Surveying Module 2023

2. Existing Roads. Alignment of existing roads should not be mistaken as suitable route for
the survey. Road alignments are rarely useful for the construction of a railway line.

3. Starting of route. The engineer should not reject a particular route only because its start
is bad i.e. with sudden rise or fall. He must ascertain whether the route continues to be
bad for a long distance.

4. Assumption. There should not be any place for assumptions. The engineer should never
declare his decision by simply assuming the nature of the ground. He should personally
verify the details in the field.

5. Survey route. Each route should be surveyed independently from either end.

6. Ocular/visual illusion/false impression:- The following ocular illusions should be

prevented:

i. Estimating wrong length

ii. Estimating wrong curvature.

iii. Overlaps of hills, which may appear, as continuous ridge from a distance,
whereas it might have a valley at the overlap.

iv. In flat countries, the observer may observe a lake or river due to mirage. In
fact no such thing exists there.

1.4.3 Preliminary survey

The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:

From the reconnaissance survey of the area, suitable routes are selected and detailed survey with
the instruments is conducted to prepare an accurate topographic map of the selected belts. The
fieldwork generally consists of travelling by a Theodolite along the selected routes and the
distance heights and angles between traverse stations are measured accurately. The basic product
of preliminary survey in terms of Route Survey is the location of a baseline, which is a series of
straight lines that run along or near what will be the centreline of the final route. The strip or belt

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 15

Route Surveying Module 2023

should be of sufficient width to accommodate any unexpected variation in the position of the
final line; this width is approximately 120 meters for highways and 400 meters for railways and
mainly depends upon the character of the country. The preliminary survey is conducted with the
same accuracy, as that is required for the final location survey. For preliminary survey for large
projects, the field work under control of location engineer may be divided to the following
parties:

A. Transit party.

B. Levelling party.

C. Topographic party.

A. Transit party. It consists of the following:

1. A transit man, who is the chief of the party.

2. Two chain men.

3. A flagman

4. A clearing squad for clearing the line and setting stakes.

5. A recorder for important projects.

The transit party workers under the direct supervision of the location engineer, who chooses the
route of the survey and directs the movement of the transit party.

For the fieldwork of the transit party, the following steps are involved:

1. Clearing the route from vegetative growth.

2. Fixing a peg on the starting on the first traverse by making astronomical observations to
sun or star.

3. Selecting a forward station on the straight line.

4. Determining the true bearing of the first traverse by making astronomical observations to
sun or star.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 16

Route Surveying Module 2023

5. Measuring the horizontal distance of the first traverse by leg with a 30 m steel tape.

6. Setting up the transit at the second station and fixing the stakes on the third station as
well as on the first station.

7. Observing the direct angle or the back angle for the railways and the deflection angles for
the highways.

8. Clearing the proposed alignment of the route and fixing stakes at the proposed traverse
stations.

9. Observing the direct or deflection angles at succeeding stations accurately.

10. Checking the azimuths of the first and the last lines by making astronomical observations.
If the traverse is long, intermediate checks after about 15 km, need be provided for the
azimuths.

11. Connecting the traverse to triangulation stations and interested points en-route where
possible.

12. Observing prominent points such as church spires, temples, mosques, pylons, etc., on
either side of the route at least for three consecutive traverse stations, for checking the
accuracy of the instrument work.

13. Fixing stakes at 30 m intervals and at the ends of traverse lines.

14. Measuring the distance between stakes with a 30 m steel tape. Chain age is carried
forward continuously from the beginning of the survey, i.e. zero station. Every 30 m
station is named as full stations and the intermediate stations as plus stations.

15. Fixing stakes at intersection with road, railways, canals, streams, etc., and record their
chain ages.

16. Plotting each day’s work daily to detect gross mistakes and omissions.

B. Level Party. The squad of a level party consists of (i) A Level man, (ii) One or two
staff men.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 17

Route Surveying Module 2023

The level party follows immediately the transit party to run longitudinal sections of the traverse
lines. Following steps are involved:

Determine the elevations of the ground at all stakes, intersections with roads, railways, cart
tracks, on the points of changes in slope in the usual way. Determine the bed levels, depth of
water and highest flood level in intersecting streams. Establish bench marks on objects which are
likely to be permanent such as rocks, wells, tree roots etc., at about 500 meters intervals and
given their full descriptions to be referred to for subsequent work. Read the staff to the nearest
0.01 m at full stations and points of the change in slope and up to 0.05 m at transit points, transit
stations and benchmarks. Check the leveling work by connecting the level lines to the existing
permanent benchmarks or G.T.S. benchmarks en route.

Plot the profile of the ground daily along the traverse lines on the following scales:

Project Horizontal Scale Vertical Scale

Railway 1:2000 1:200

Roads 1:1000 1:100

C. Topographic party. The squad of a topographic party consists of: (i) A surveyor
(ii) Two Staff men (iii) Two Chainmen.

The topographic party prepares the topographic map of the area. Following steps are involved:
Plotting the natural and artificial details, rivers, streams, roads, railways, canals villages, property
lines, [Link].

1.4.4 Final location and detail survey

1. Location survey is carried out in two stages:

(i) Office location survey (ii) Field location survey.

A. Office Location survey. After carefully study of the topography of the terrain, final location
of the route is drawn on the detail map by a trial and error method. The new line of alignment
projected on the preliminary plan is something called the paper location, which may be
anywhere in the belt surveyed and in most favorable position.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 18

Route Surveying Module 2023

The following steps are involved:

(1) Draw the straights along the most suitable alignment of the route in pencil.

(2) Draw curves by means of a curve template of known degrees of curvature.

(3) Prepare a profile along the new line from contour levels on the map and mark the grade
line on the profile in pencil.

While choosing the proper location of the route, the following factors are considered:

(i) Minimum gradient.

(ii) Minimum curvature.

(iii) Equalization of the earthwork.

(iv) Heavy earthwork.

(v) Minimum number of expensive bridges.

(vi) Minimum number of retaining and breast walls.

The new line of the route and its corresponding profile are further studied to improve, if possible.
Repeated trials are made till a well-balanced location lines is obtained. To avoid excessive
erasing of the pencil lines, it is advisable to use needles and thread for various alignment and the
only final alignment and grade line need be drawn in pencil on the map and profile.

B. Field Location Survey. It is carried out to set out on the ground the alignment of the route,
finally decided on the preliminary plan. Alignment is nothing but shape and geometry of the
proposed route. This includes horizontal alignment (plan view) and vertical alignment (profile
view). Minor changes are permissible to be made in the field at this stage if found necessary.
The central line of the projected line is set out on the ground as follows:

1. From the preliminary map, scale off the positions of the various points to be transferred on
the ground. To do this, perpendicular offsets may be made from the traverse line. The
chain age of the intersections of the line with main traverse may be ascertained and if
necessary, angles and distances may also be used.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 19

Route Surveying Module 2023

2. Prolong the adjoining tangents and find their point of intersection. Measure the angle of
intersection carefully.

3. Knowing the radius of the curve and the angle of intersection of tangents, compute the
necessary data for setting out the simple curve.

4. Drive stakes at every 30 m intervals and hubs at all intermediate Theodolite stations,
intersection points of the tangents and the points of tangencies of the curves.

5. Draw sketches with proper dimensions for important features such as roads, railways,
streams, etc., on the right hand side of the field book.

6. Carry out the leveling over the located line. Prepare a profile and establish a suitable grade
line on the profile.

7. Plot the finally located line known as field location on the preliminary map and complete
the profile.

A. Show vertical curves on the final profile.

B. Calculate the approximate quantities of the earthwork by drawing cross-

section of the located line on the preliminary counter map.

8. Depict all important features in the close proximity of the line, all the points where hubs are
set, the entire bench marks and the boundaries of private properties on the preliminary map.

9. Collect the names of the owners of private properties to facilitate the requisition of the land
right.

1.5 Construction survey

The detailed methods employed on construction surveys vary greatly with the type, location and
size of the structure and the preference of the engineering and construction organizations.

However much depends on the ingenuity/creativity of the surveyor so that correct information is
given. As discussed prior to construction survey, topographic survey of the site is performed and
maps are prepared. As part of location survey some property line surveys is also carried out so
that land can be acquired. The survey engineer who ever is in charge of planning the survey has

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 20

Route Surveying Module 2023

the responsibility of organizing initial basic control survey provides maximum number of
horizontal and vertical no. of control points. These control points are not only used for
topographic survey but also construction surveys.

The task of marking the positions of the proposed infrastructure is called construction
surveying

One of the most common tasks in the construction surveying is to mark on the ground the
location of roads, railways, buildings or other projects that is to be built.

The surveyor has to transfer the given distances from the drawing into the field with a
suitable degree of accuracy.

The marks used by the surveyor are wooden stakes or hubs.

The stakes set by the surveyor serves as reference points and begins before the
construction work actually starts.

The number of such markers should be sufficient to avoid the necessity of many
measurements, but it should not be so great in number to cause confusion.

The construction superintendent should have consent over the design of various points.

The surveyor however should not work far ahead so that stakes gets destroyed.

A project construction engineer is entrusted with the entire job. The procedure to be adopted is
as under:

1. Go over the located line and check the location stakes.

2. Reset the missing stakes if any, from the field notes.

3. Check the level of various points and establish additional benchmarks.

4. Set additional stacks or reference points at the intersection of all straight or tangents to be
used to retake the final location if the location stakes are disturbed during construction.

5. Set the side slope stakes for earth mark as well as grade stakes.

6. Set the stakes for structure such as bridge abutments, culverts, etc.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 21

Route Surveying Module 2023

7. Set the horizontal curves, i.e transition and main circular curves.

8. Set the vertical curves.

9. Sets out the sides of borrow pits.

10. Take the final cross-sections to ascertain the quantities of the earthwork.

11. Determine the waterways for each bridge carefully.

12. To expedite the regular payment, the finished work should be measured at regular
intervals.

1.6 The following technical terms may be kept in view and should be understood
for proper management.

1. Grade. The reduced level of the finished work of excavation or embankment is called
grade.

2. Grade stake. The stake, which is driven until its top has attained the same elevation as
the grade of the finished work, is called grade stake.

3. Grade staff reading. The difference between the height of collimation and the grade
elevation is called grade staff reading or grade rod.

4. Ground staff reading. The staff reading at any point where a cut or fill is desired is
called the ground staff reading or ground rod.

5. Cut. The different between the grade staff reading and the ground staff reading is
called cut.

6. Fill. The difference between the ground staff reading and the grade staff reading is
called ‘fill’.

7. Slope stakes. The stakes, which are fixed at the intersections of the side slopes and
natural ground surface on either side of the center stake, are called the slope stakes.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 22

Route Surveying Module 2023

With the advancement of technology it is up to the survey engineer as to whether the

construction layout should be performed in the traditional manner from random control points
using Total Station system or Global Positioning System.

 This however depends upon many factors related to characteristics of the job and also the
site.

 These factors are generally unique to each project.

 It is good if a combination of all methods be used.

 For example: in highway construction basic horizontal control may be established by

static GPS survey, slope stakes set from random control points using a Total Station
System, and the final grade established from the center line, which is set from random
control points or by Kinematic GPS survey.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 23

 Route Surveying Module 2023

CHAPTER TWO

2. HORIZONTAL CURVES

2.1 Introduction

Curves are provided in the line of communication like roads, railways, canals etc. to bring about
the change of direction gradually. Horizontal curves are curves that are used to connect straight
line called tangent. The curves employed normally are circular.

2.2 Types of curves and their uses

In general there are two types of curves and have different function.

These are:

A. Horizontal curves

B. Vertical curves

Curves

Horizontal vertical

Circular Spiral summit/curst sag/valley

Simple Compound Reverse

2.2.1 Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves are curves that are used to connect straight line called tangent.

Their design & their construction are considered in the horizontal plane.

Horizontal curves may be simple, compound, reverse, or [Link] are treated as a combin
ation of two or more simple curves, where as the spiral curve is based on a varying radius.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 24

Route Surveying Module 2023

Circular curves of short radius (usually less than one tape length) can be established
by holding one end of the center of the circle and swinging the tape in an arc making as many
points as may be desired. As the radius and length of curve increases, the tape becomes
impractical and the surveyor must use other [Link] common method is to measure angles
and straight-line sight distances by which selected points, known as stations, may be located on
the circumference of the arc. Circular curves can be classified as

A. CIRCULAR CURVES
A simple circular curve shown in Fig., consists of simple arc of a circle of radius R connecting
two straights AI and IB at tangent points T1 called the point of commencement (P.C.) and T2
called the point of tangency (P.T.), intersecting at I, called the point of intersection (P.I.), having
a deflection angle or angle of intersection. The distance E of the midpoint of the curve from I is
called the external distance. The arc length from T1 to T2 is the length of curve, and the chord
T1T2 is called the long chord. The distance M between the midpoints of the curve and the long
chord, is called the mid-ordinate. The distance T1I which is equal to the distance IT2, is called the
tangent length. The tangent AI is called the back tangent and the tangent IB is the forward
tangent.

Figure 2.1 Circular Curve

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 25

Route Surveying Module 2023

Formula to calculate the various elements of a circular curve for use in design and setting out, are
as under


Tangentdis tan ce T  R tan
2

Externaldis tan ce E  R(sec  1) .
2

MiddleordinateM  R(1  cos )
2

Longchord C  2 R sin
2
Arclength(l )   R / 180

Station PC= station PI-tangent length (T)

Station PT= Station PC + Arc length (l)

Example: the chain age intersecting of two straight having the intersection angle of 1300 is
1+680.5m. If the radius of the curve is 450m calculate the elements of the curve & determine the
chain age of the tangent pc & pt.

Solution:

Given data: R=450m

Station I=1+680.5m

Angle of intersection (<I)= 1300

=1800- <I= 500

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 26

Route Surveying Module 2023


TangentdisanceT  R tan  209.84m
2

ExternaldisanceE  R(sec  1)  46.520m
2

MiddleordinateM  R(1  cos )  42.16m
2

Longchord C  2 R sin  380.36m
2
Arclength(l )   R / 180  392.700m
Station PC = station PI - tangent length T = 1680.5- 209.84 = 1 + 470.66m
Station PT = Station PC + Arc length(l) = 1470.66+ 392.700 = 1 + 863.36m

B. Compound Circular curves

A compound curve (Fig. 2.2) has two or more circular curves contained between the two main
straights or tangents. The individual curves meet tangentially at their junction point. Smooth
driving characteristics require that the larger radius be more than 1 times larger than the smaller
radius. The elements of a compound curve shown in Fig. 2.2 are as below

Figure 2.2 Element of compound curve

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 27

Route Surveying Module 2023

Tangent lengths

ts =Rs tan Δs/2

tL=RL tan ΔL/2

TS= (ts+tl)sin L/sin +ts

TL= (ts+tl) sin s/sin +tl Where,

Δ = ΔS + ΔL.

Length of the curve

ls = πRSΔS

180

lL = πRLΔL

180

L= lL+ ls

= Π ( Rs Δ s+ R LΔ L )

180

Chain age of point of curve (T1) =chain age of intersection point (PI) –Ts

Chain age of point of compound curve (T3) = chain age of point curve (T1) +ls

Chain age of point of tangency (T2) = chain age of point of compound curve (T3) +lL

Example: two straights AB and BC are intersected a line MN. The clockwise angle measured
in the field are <NMA=1450 and <CNM=1400 .the radius of the 1st curve is 400m and that of the
2nd curve is 600m. If the chain age of the PI is 5+555m, calculate the chain ages of the PC, PT
and PCC.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 28

Route Surveying Module 2023

Solution: Tangent lengths Δ s = 1800-<NMA= 350

ts =Rstan Δs/2= 126.12m ΔL=1800_<CNM= 400

tL=RLtanΔL/2= 218.382m Δ= Δ s+ ΔL =750

TS= (ts + tl) sin Δ L/sin Δ +ts =355.373m

TL= (ts + tl) sin Δ s/sin Δ +t l=428.66m

Length of the curve

ls = πRSΔS =244.35m

180

lL = πRLΔL =418.88m

180

L= lL + ls =663.23m

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 29

Route Surveying Module 2023

= Π ( Rs Δ s+ R LΔ L ) = 663.23m

180

Chain age of PC=5555-355.37 =5+199.63m

Chain age of PCC= Chain age of PC+ ls =5+443.98m

Chain age of PT = Chain age of PCC + lL=5+862.88m

C. Reverse Curves

A reverse curve is one in which two circular curves of same or different radii have their center of
curvature on the opposite sides of the common tangent. Two straights to which a reverse curve
connects may be parallel or non-parallel.

They are used to when the straights are parallel or intersect at a very small angle.

Non-parallel straights when R1 = R2 = R, given δ1, δ2, and L

Figure 2.3 Revers curve

R= L

sinδ1 + 2cos θ + sin δ

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 30

Route Surveying Module 2023

Where

θ =sin-1(cos δ1+cos δ2)

Δ1 = δ1 + (90° – θ)

Δ2 = δ2 + (90° – θ)

Example: a rivers curve is to run from a point T1 on AA’ to the point T2on CC’. Determine the
common radius and the length of the two part of curves given that T1T2=720m and the angle
AT1T2 and T1T2C’ are 47030’ and 25012’ respectively.

Solution:

R= L

sinδ1 + 2cos θ + sin δ

θ =sin-1[(cost δ1+cos δ2)] =52012’18”

R= 720/( sinδ1 + 2cos θ + sin δ) =301.42m

D. Transition curve

Transition Curves are curves in which the radius changes from infinity to a particular value. The
radius starts from infinity at a straight and end at some specified value (R) of a circular curve.
The effect of this is to gradually increase the radial force P from zero to its highest value &
thereby reduce its effect.

For a Vehicle traveling from PC to PT, the force gradually increases from zero to its maximum
on the circular curve and then decreases to zero again. This greatly reduces the tendency to skid
& reduces the discomfort experienced by passengers in the vehicles. This is one of the purposes
of transition curves; and also use to increase the curvature of the curve gradually and uniformly
and uniformly they minimize passenger discomfort.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 31

Route Surveying Module 2023

If the transition curve is to introduce the radial force in a gradual & uniform manner it must have
the property that the product of the radius of curvature at any point on the curve and the length of
the curve up to that point is a constant value.

Length of transition curve

i. By arbitrary gradients
lt =n*e R- radius of the circular curve

lt- length of transition curve

n- Arbitrary gradients b/n 3%to 12%

e- Super elevation

ii. Time rate

Lt=v*e/a v- speed of vehicle

A-time rate to be provided in sec (2.5 to 5cm)/sec

iii. Rate of radial acceleration (c)m/sec3 mostly (1/3)

Lt=V3/c*R

Where

V-speed of vehicle

R-radius of circular curve

c- Rate of radial acceleration in m/sec3

Another purpose of transition curves is to gradually introduce super elevation

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 32

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 2.4 Transition curve

2.3 Terminology of Horizontal curves

The following are the main elements of a simple circular curve;

1. Vertex (V) - the point of intersection (PI) of two intersecting tangents.

2. Point of curvature (PC) = the point of tangency where the curve leaves the tangent.
3. Point of tangency (PT) - the point of tangency where the curve meat the other tangent.
4. Tangent distance (T) - the distance from the vertex (PI) to the PC or PT.
5. Intersection angle (I) or D- the angle by which the forward tangent deflects from the back
tangent
6. Radius (R) - the radius of the circle of which the curve is made.
7. External distance (E) is the distance from the vertex to the midpoint of the circular curve.
8. Long chord (C) - is the distance from the chord joining the PC and PT along a straight line
9. Middle Ordinate (M) -is the distance from the midpoint of the long chord to the midpoint of
the circular curve.
10. Arc length (l): length of the curve from PC to PT.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 33

Route Surveying Module 2023

11. Degree of curve: The degree of curve (D) defines the "sharpness" or "flatness" of the curve.
There are two common defnitions for degree of curve, as follows

a) Chord definition

The chord definition states that the

degree of a curve is the angle formed
by two radii drawn from the center of
the circle to the ends of a chord 100 ft
long. The chord definition is used
primarily for civilian railroad.

b) Arc definition

The arc definition states that the degree

of a curve is the angle formed by two
radii drawn from the center of the circle
to the ends of an arc 100 ft long. This
definition is used primarily for highways
and streets.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 34

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 2.5 Arc Definition

2.4 Setting out of circular curves

Method of setting out means locating various points at equal and convenient distance along
length of curve. The method of setting out curve can be mainly divided in to two head depending
upon instrument used:

A. Linear method:- this method used for:

 when the curve is short
 when high accuracy is not required
 only the tape chain is used
B. angular method:- this method used for:
 when high accuracy is required
 angle measurement instrument are used with or without tapes
 it can be used for any length
Before a curve is set out, it is essential to locate the tangents, points of intersection, point of the
curve, and point of tangency.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 35

Route Surveying Module 2023

Setting out of simple circular curve by linear methods:

1. offset from the long chord

2. perpendicular offsets from the tangents / Offsets from the tangent (back tangent)
3. radial offsets from the tangent
4. successive bisection of arc or chord
2.4.1 Setting out of simple circular curve by angular methods:

1. Deflection Angle Method

2. Two theodolite method
2.4.2 Offsets from the long chord

 Is the distance of a point on a curve from the long chord

 Uses two tapes.
 Suitable for curves of small radius.
 Useful when tangent lengths are inaccessible.

Figure 2.6 Offsets from the long chord

 CD-major offset Y at mid-point C of the long chord.

 OC=a-Constant
In OPcC,

a= (R2-X2)

Therefore,

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 36

Route Surveying Module 2023

Y=R-(R2-X2), R=a+y

 Any other offset Yn=AB-a

 In ABO, AB= (R2-Xo2)
Yn= (R2-Xn2)-a

Yn= (R2-Xn2) - (R2-C/22)

Example: Given that the deviation angle  = 45o and radius R=60m. Calculate the offsets from
the long chord at 5m intervals.

Solution

C =2Rsin(/2)

=2*60*sin22.5o

=45.92m

Offset at 5m

Y = (R2-Xn2)- (R2-(C/2)2)

= (602-52) - (602-22.962)

= 4.36m

X(m) 0 5 10 15 20 22.96

Y(m) 4.57 4.36 3.73 2.66 1.14 0.00

2.4.3 Offsets from the tangent (back tangent)

This method used when:

 Deflection angle is small

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 37

Route Surveying Module 2023

 The length of the curve is short

 The centre is inaccessible

Figure2.7 offsets from the tangent (back tangent)

The line AB is drawn parallel to the tangent it cuts the radius.

The length AT1=Y3 &

The length AO=(R-Y3)

In OAB,

OA=(BO2-AB2)

(R-Y3)=(R2-X32)

Y3=R-(R2-X32)

Example: Given that the deviation angle  = 45o and radius R=60m. Calculate the offsets from
the tangents at 5m intervals.

Solution

T=R tan /2

=60 tan 22.5o

= 24.85m

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 38

Route Surveying Module 2023

 Offset at 5m=60- (602-52)=0.210m

” 10m= 60- (602-102) =0.84m

” 15m= 60- (602-152) =1.905m

” 20m= 60- (602-202) =3.43m

” 24.85m= 60- (602- 24.85m2) =5.39m

X(m) 0 5 10 15 20 24.85

Y(m) 0 0.21 0.84 1.905 3.43 5.39

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 39

Route Surveying Module 2023

CHAPTER THREE

3. VERTICAL CURVES

3.1 Definition of Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are introduced at the intersection of two gradients either as summit curves or sag
curves. The requirement of a vertical curve is that it should provide a constant rate of change of
grade, and a parabola fulfills this requirement. Whenever roads or railways change gradient, a
vertical curve is required to take traffic smoothly from one gradient to the other. When the two
gradients form a hill, the curve is called a summit curve and when the gradient form a valley, a
sag or valley curve is produced.

3.1.1 Crest Curves:

Which can also be referred to as a summit or hogging curve, is one for which the algebraic
difference is negative when calculated from right to left.

Figure 3.1: Types of curst curves

3.1.2 Sag Curves

A sag curve (valley or sagging) curve is one for which the algebraic difference of the gradients is
positive when calculated from right to left.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 40

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 3.2: Types of sag curve

3.2 Purposes of vertical curves

There are two general purposes of Vertical curves:

1. Adequate visibility (Sight distance)- For a vehicle to stop or to overtake safely, it is

essential that on coming or any obstructions in the road can be seen clearly at good time.

2. Passenger comfort & safety- As the vehicle travels along the curve a radial force acts on
the vehicle in the vertical plan.

3.3 Types of Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are usually parabolic since parabola curves provide constant rate of change of
curvature.

3.3.1 Symmetrical parabola curve:

The curve lengths from PVC to PVI and from PVI to PVT are equal.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 41

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 3.3 symmetrical parabola curves

3.3.2 Unsymmetrical parabolic curve:

The curve lengths from PVC to PVI and from PVI to PVT are not equal.

Figure 3.4 unsymmetrical parabolic curves

3.4 Elements of Parabolic Vertical Curve

Vertex (V):- The point of intersection of the grade line (PVI) point of V. Curvature (PVC) - The
PT of tangency where the parabolic V. curves leaves initial grade.

Point of Vertical tangency (PVT):- The PT of tangency where the parabolic V. curves meets
the forward grade.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 42

Route Surveying Module 2023

Length of vertical curve (L):- The horizontal distance b/n PVC to PVT.

Figure 3.5 elements of Parabolic Vertical Curve

Let X and Y are the coordinates of pt p on the curve with respect point A.

X= the vertical offset (m) from the vertex (PVI) to the middle of the curve.

Y= the vertical offset (m) from the tangent to any point on the curve.

3.5 Element of symmetrical parabolic vertical curve

1. Compute the algebraic difference in grade

A=g2-g1 (in %)

2. Compute the chain age of (i.e station) of VPC and VPT as follows:

Station of PVC = Station of PVI -L/2

Station of PVT = Station of PVI +L/2

3. Compute the distance from VPC to high or low point as follows:

X= -Lg1/A

4. Compute the elevation of VPC and VPT by using g1,g2, and L

5. Compute the curve elevation at every required station by using the following equations:

Y=ax2+bx+c where

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 43

Route Surveying Module 2023

Y= curve elevation at every required station

a= (g2-g1)/200L

b=g1/100

c=elevation of VPC

x= horizontal distance from VPC to station of interest.

Example: A vertical curve is to connect two tangents that intersect at station 5 + 000 &
elevation 500m. The back tangent gradient is – 4%, the forward tangent gradient is 2%. The
length of the length of the curve is 160m. Setup a table that shows elevations at PVC, PVT and at
full stations along the curve. The V.C. is symmetrical parabolic curve.

Solution:

1. Compute the algebraic difference in grade

A=g2-g1 (in %) =2%-(-4%) = 6%

2. Compute the chain age of (i.e station) of VPC and VPT as follows:

Station of PVC = Station of PVI -L/2

= 5000m-80m

Station of PVC = 4+920m

Station of PVT =Station of PVC + L

= 4920+ 160

Station of PVT = 5+080m

3. Compute the distance from VPC to high or low point as follows:

X= -Lg1/A

=-160m*-4%/6% = 106.667m

4. Compute the elevation of VPC and VPT by using g1,g2, and L

Elevation of VPC = Elevation of PVI- g1 L/2

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 44

Route Surveying Module 2023

=500 + 4 * 160
100 2

= 503.20m

Elevation of PVT= Elevation of PVI+ g2L/2

=500+2/100*80

=501.6m

5. Compute the curve elevation and tangent elevation at every required station by
using the following equations:

Curve elevation =Y=ax2+bx+c

Tangent elevation from PVC up to PVI= [Link]-g1/100*x

Tangent elevation from PVI up to PVT= elev. PVT-(L-x)*g2

Table 3.1: curve elevation and tangent elevation at every required station

station distance(x curve tangent Remar

) elevation k
elevation
4+920 0 503.2 503.2 VPC
4+940 20 502.475 502.4
4+960 40 501.9 501.6
4+980 60 501.475 500.8
5+000 80 501.2 500 VPI
5+020 100 501.075 500.4
5+026.66 106.667 501.06666 500.5333 low
7 7 4 point
5+040 120 501.1 500.8
5+060 140 501.275 501.2
5+080 160 501.6 501.6 VPI

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 45

Route Surveying Module 2023

3.6 Equation of Unsymmetrical parabolic Vertical Curve

It is possible that unsymmetrical (unequal tangent) curve will fit more closely certain imposed
requirements than the usual symmetrical (equal tangent) curve.

EPVC = EPVI- g1L1 station PVC= station PVI-L1

Elev.N= EPVC+g1*L1/2 station N= station PVC+L1/2

EPVT =EPVI-g2L2 station M= station PVT-L2/2

Elev. M= EPVT+g2L2/2

Gradient of NM= (elev.M-elev.N)/(L1/2+L2/2)

Elev. CVC= elev.N+L1/2* Gradient of NM

Example : A 5% grade meets a -2% grade at station 1+ 810 and elevation 1125.00m the tangents
are unequal l1=80m,l2=120m. Compute the elevations at each full station on the curve.

So/n

g1= 5%, g2= -2%, PVI=1+810,EPVI= 1125 , L1=80, and L2=120 are given data

EPVC = EPVI- g1L1 =1121m station PVC= station PVI-L1=1+730m

Elev. N= EPVC+g1*L1/2 =1123m station N= station PVC+L1/2=1+770m

EPVT =EPVI-g2L2=1122.6m station PVT= station PVI+L2=1+930m

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 46

Route Surveying Module 2023

Elev. M= EPVT+g2L2/2=1121.4m station M= station PVT-L2/2=1+870m

Gradient of NM= (elev.M-elev.N)/(L1/2+L2/2) =-1.6%

Elev. CVC= elev.N+L1/2* Gradient of NM=1122.36m

Station CVC= station M-(L2/2+L1/2)/2=1+820m

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 47

Route Surveying Module 2023

CHAPTER FOUR

4 EARTH WORK

4.1 Definition of Earth Work

Earth work operations involve the determination of the volume of materials that must be
excavated or embanked on an engineering project to bring the ground surface to a predetermined
grade, and the setting of stakes to aid in carrying out the construction work according to the
plans.

The principles involved in determining volumes of stock piles of crushed stone, gravel, and to
volumes of reservoirs.

The field work includes the measurement of the dimensions of the various geometrical solids that
make up the volumes, the setting of grade stakes, and the keeping of the field notes. The office
work involves the computations of the measured areas / volumes and the determination of the
most economical manner of performing the work.

Estimation of areas and volumes is basic to most engineering schemes such as route alignment,
reservoirs, tunnels, etc. The excavation or embanking and hauling of material on such schemes is
the most significant and costing aspects of the work.

Areas may be required in connection with the purchase or sale of land, with the subdivision of
land or with the grading of land.

Earthwork volumes must be estimated to enable route alignment to be located at such lines and
levels that cut and fill are balanced as far as practicable; and to enable contract estimates of time
and cost to be made for proposed work; and to form the basis of payment for the work carried
out.

4.2 Computation of area

The computation of area may be based on data scaled from plans or drawings or directly from
the survey field data.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 48

Route Surveying Module 2023

4.2.1 Area measurement by planimeter

The most common method of measuring areas from plans is to use an instrument called a
planimeter.

Actual area=revolution*A* M 2

4.2.2 Area by triangles

A= s(s  a)(s  b)(s  c)

abc
s= or A=1/2 b c sin a
2

4.2.3 Area by squares

When the area is irregular, a sheet of gridded tracing material may be superimposed over it and
the number of squares counted. Knowing the scale of the plans and the size of the squares, an
estimate of the area can be obtained. Portions of squares cut by the irregular boundaries can be
estimated.

4.2.4 Area by coordinates

If the shape of the area is defined in terms of plane rectangular co-ordinate, its area can be
computed precisely by the use of coordinates as

2*area= y1 ( x2  xn ) + y 2 ( x3  x1 )+ y3 ( x4 - x3 )+…+ yn 1 ( xn  xn  2 )+ y n ( x1  xn 1 )

B C

D
A

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 49

Route Surveying Module 2023

This is interpreted as the area equals half the sum of the

xa y a
product of the coordinates joined by the arrow to the right
xb yb
minus half the sum of the product of the coordinates joined
xc y c by the dotted lines.

xd y d

xe ye

xa y a

4.2.5 Ordinate methods

This method is widely applied for irregular areas, when offsets are taken from regular to
irregular boundary with uniform or non-uniform interval

There are three important rules under ordinate method.

 The trapezoidal rule

It assumes that the boundaries between the extremities of the ordinates are straight lines.

h1  h2
Area of trapezium A1 = d1 ( )
2

h 2  h3 h2 h3
Area of trapezium A2 = d 2 ( ) h1
2 A1 A2
h3  h4 d1 d2 d3
Area of trapezium A3 = d 3 ( )
2

If d1=d2=d3=dn-1=d

Then Total area =d[h1+2(h2+h3+….hn-1)+hn]/2

4.2.6 Coordinate rule

When the ordinates are taken at irregular intervals, the area of each figure between pairs of
adjacent offsets may be computed and the values are added. The coordinate rule for irregular

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 50

Route Surveying Module 2023

spacing of ordinates can be applied by the relation; twice the area can be calculated if each offset
is multiplied by the distance to the preceding offset plus the distance to the following offset.

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5

d1 d2 d3 d4

2 Area=h1d1+h2 (d1+d2) +h3 (d2+d3) +h4 (d3+d4) +h5d4

The general formula

2Area=h1d1+h2 (d1+d2) +…+hn-1(dn-2+dn-1) +hndn-1

4.3. Calculation of volume

One of the major considerations in civil engineering projects is the volume of earth work to be
excavated, moved (hailed) around and perhaps used as fill at some other part of the site.

There are three general methods which may be considered in volume calculation.

These are:-

 cross-sectional areas

 contours

 spot heights

4.3.1 End-area method

For given areas at different sections the volume can be calculated by means of the two end areas
multiplied by the length between them. Consider following Figure to calculate the volume.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 51

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 4.1 End areas Calculation

4.3.2 Prismoidal formula

Similarly the volume of earth work can be calculated by using prismoidal formula. But the
number of sections where the areas are determined should be odd and having the same interval.

For the above figure,

Volume (V) =∆/3[Afirst+Alast+2Aodd+4Aeven]

4.3.3 Volume from cross-section

Volumetric calculations involve cross-sections taken at right angles to a convenient base line,
e.g. The centerline of the construction as highway, or waterway, which generally runs
longitudinally through the earthworks.

Three types of configurations are considered

1. Two level-the cross fall is level;

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 52

Route Surveying Module 2023

It will be applied for both fill and cut similarly

Where,

 w-formation width

 Ho-formation height measured on the center line

 W-side width for fixing of formation side width pegs measured from the centerline

Side slope or batter

Cross fall gradient

W=w/2+mho

A=ho (w+2W)/2

=ho (w+w+2mho)/2

=ho (w+mho)

2. Three level section

In this case there are levels at the formation level, and at the side width pegs A and B, giving the
respective heightsh1, h0, and h2.

There are (A) then consists of two triangles and a trapezium.

In  ACG
A1  h1 d 1
2
In trapeziumCDHG
A2  how
In  DHB
A3  h 2 d 2
2

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 53

Route Surveying Module 2023

3. Multilevel cross fall

It must be assumed that a cross-sectional leveling has been carried out and thus at each change
ingredient the level is known together with linear offsets from the center line.

The Cartesian coordinates are thus known and a cross-section can be drawn from which the area
can be computed by using the coordinate which are derived from point’s level and offsets useful
in setting.

After the areas at different sections are determined, the volume can be derived by using End area
method (trapezoidal rule) or Primoisdal formula (Simpson’s rule)

End area method

A1, A2, A3, A4…are areas at different section spaced with interval ∆1, ∆2, ∆3 respectively. So,

A1  A2
V1= ( ) ∆1
2

A2  A3
V2= ( ) ∆2
2

If spacing is taken at equal intervals,

n 1
V=  vi =∆/2[A1+2A2+A3]
i 1

=∆/2[Afirst+Alast+2Aintermediate]

V=∆/3(A1+4A2+2A3+4A4+A5)

=∆/3(Afirst+Alast+2Aodd+4Aeven)

4.3.4 Prismoidal formula (Simpson’s rule)

Since prismoidal formula is the most accurate formula in volume calculation, correction is
needed to be applied to regular sections calculated by end area method to have equivalent result
to that of prismoidal method.

Prismoidal correction varies depending on the nature of the cross-section.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 54

Route Surveying Module 2023

Prismoidal correction (pc) =Vea-Vp

Vea=volume by end area method

VP=volume by prismoidal formula

PC for different sections

1. Sections in level across

Pc=d/6*m [  (h1  h2 ) 2 ]

2. Sections with cross fall

Pc= d6 (k2/k2m2) m [  (h1  h2 ) 2 ]

3. Sections part in cut, part in fill

(k /k-m) [  (h1  h2 ) 2]
d 2
Pc=
12

4.3.5 Effect of curvature

When the center line is curved, the sections for volume calculation may no longer be parallel to
each other because they will be set out radial to the curve. So, it is necessary to apply curvature
corrections using Pappui’s theorem.

It states that the volume swept out by an area revolving about an axis is given by the product of
the area and the length of the path traced by the centroid of the area.

Thus a sphere is swept out by a semicircle rotating about a diameter and its volume is given by
the area (A=1/2∏r2) times the length of the centroid in tracing one complete revolution.

Since the centroid of a semicircle is

4 r
From the axis
3 

r 2 4r
Volume= * 2 *
2 32

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 55

Route Surveying Module 2023

4
= r 3
3

The mean distance of centroids from the center line is written as E= (E1+E2)/2 so the mean radius
of the path of the centroid will be (R+E).

SO V=1/2(A1+A2) D (1+E/R)

4.3.6 Volume from contour lines

Volume can be calculated using the horizontal area obtained by contour lines. The contour
interval will determine the distance D in the area or prismoidal formula, and for accuracy.

This should be as small as possible. The areas enclosed by individual contour lines are best taken
off the plan by means of planimeter. And, in computing the volume; the areas enclosed by two
successive contour lines are used in the end areas formula.
AX  AY
Volume=D 2

Where;

D - Contour interval

Ax - area at x contour line

Ay - area at y contour line

It required the prismoidal formula can be used either by treating alternate areas or by
interpolating intermediate contours between those established by direct leveling. This method
can be used in determining volumes of reservoirs etc.

This method of volume determination is especially useful in the determination of volumes of

large open excavations for tanks, basements, borrow pits etc. and for ground-leveling operations
such as playing fields and building sites.

Based on the work to be done the area is divided into squares or rectangles and marking the
corner points and then taking levels at each of these corner points.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 56

Route Surveying Module 2023

The size of the square depends on the nature of the ground and the corners should be sufficiently
close for the ground surfaces between to be considered as planes. By subtracting from the
observed levels the corresponding formation levels a series of heights can be found from which
the volume within each square can be taken as the plan area multiplied by the average of the
depth of excavation (or fill) at the four corners.

d2
So, volume of cut under the first square= (ha+hb+hc+hd)
4

Because over the complete grid the heights at the interval intersection are used in calculation of
more than one square, the following type of formula can be developed.

d2
VOL= ( h1  2 h2  3 h3  4 h4 )
4

d-length of side of square

h1-height used only once (ha,hb);

h2-height used twice (he,hf);

h3-height used three times (hd)

h4-height used four HJGJGJT times(hg)

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 57

Route Surveying Module 2023

Solved Exercise

1. The access to a tunnel has a level formation width of 10 m and runs into a plane hillside,
whose natural ground slope is 1 in 10 (10%). The intersection line of this formation and the
natural ground is perpendicular to the center-line of the tunnel. The level formation is to run
a distance of 360 m into the hillside, terminating at the base of a cutting of slope 1 vertical to
1 horizontal (100%). The side slopes are to be 1 vertical to 1.5 horizontal (67%). Calculate
the amount of excavation in cubic meters. Using the following figure.

Solution

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 58

Route Surveying Module 2023

2. A 100-m length of earthwork volume for a proposed road has a constant cross-section of cut
and fill, in which the cut area equals the fill area. The level formation is 30 m wide,
transverse ground slope is 20◦ and the side slopes in cut-and-fill are 1/2 horizontal to 1
vertical and 1 horizontal to 1 vertical, respectively. Calculate the volume of excavation in the
100-m length.

Imagine turning the following Figure through 90◦, then the 1-in-2.75 grade (36◦) becomes 2.75
in 1 and the 2-in-1 grade becomes 1 in 2, then by rate of approach:

3. A reservoir is to be formed in a river valley by building a dam across it. The entire area that
will be covered by the reservoir has been contoured and contours drawn at 1.5-m intervals.
The lowest point in the reservoir is at a reduced level of 249 m above datum, whilst the top

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 59

Route Surveying Module 2023

water level will not be above a reduced level of 264.5 m. The area enclosed by each contour
and the upstream face of the dam is shown in the table below.

4. The central heights of the ground above formation at three sections 100 m apart are 10 m, 12
m, 15 m, and the cross-falls at these sections are respectively 1 in 30, 1 in 40 and 1 in 20. If
the formation width is 40 m and sides slope 1 vertical to 2 horizontal, calculate the volume of
excavation in the 200-m length:

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 60

Route Surveying Module 2023

CHAPTER FIVE

5. SETTING OUT WORKS

5.1 Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Describe the different types of construction surveys
2. Develop skills for construction of sewer and other constructions.

5.2 Introduction

Construction surveys provide the horizontal and vertical layout for every key component of a
construction project. This provision of line and grade can only be accomplished by experienced
surveyors familiar with both the related project design and the appropriate construction
techniques. A knowledge of related design is essential to interpret the design drawings
effectively for layout purposes, and a knowledge of construction techniques is required to ensure
that the lay out is optimal for both line and grade transfer and construction schedule. On any
construction site, it is general practice to construct firstly the roadways and sewers, in order to
provide a) access to the site and b) main drainage to all buildings.

All roads, buildings, drains and sewers are set out using standard surveying equipment
comprising:
1. Steel tapes: it must always be used for setting out purposes as they are not subject to the
same degree of stretching as are Fibron tapes. The accuracy of setting out work is largely
dependent up on the condition of the tape and or course, the expertise of the user.
2. Levels: automatic levels are used on most sites. They compare favorably in price with
optical levels and produce much more reliable results.
3. Theodolites: a wide variety of theodolite is now available but, as with levels, the more
automation that can be provided, the greater will be the accuracy of the setting out. Thus,
it is a good practice to use theodolite with optical plumbing, automatic vertical circle
indexing, electronic readout and electronic two axes leveling.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 61

Route Surveying Module 2023

4. Total station: most setting out work, particularly road ways, can be readily and
accurately accomplished by the method of coordinates. An EDM instrument is required
to set the distances and total stations can set out horizontal distances with ease.
5. Auto plumb instruments: These instruments are used to set a vertical line in high-rise
buildings. They are much more convenient to use this purpose than theodolites. They
save much time and greatly increase accuracy.
6. Pegs: these are either wooden 50mm X 50mm X 500mm stakes for use in soft ground or
25mm X 25mm X 300mm angle irons for hard standing.
7. Profiles: is a wooden stake to which a cross-piece, painted in contrasting colored stripes,
is nailed. For sewer work, goalpost-type profiles, called sight rails, are preferable. The
profiles are elected over the offset pegs in order to remain clear of the excavation.
8. Travelers: Is really mobile profile boards used in conjunction with sight rails. The length
of the traveler equals the sight rail level- sewer invert level. The length of 0.25 meters
and travelers are usually about 2 meters long.
9. Corner profiles: during the construction of buildings, the pegs denoting the corners of
the buildings are always removed during the construction work. The corner positions
have, therefore, to be removed some distance back from the excavations on to corner
profiles. These are constructed from stout wooden stakes 50mm X 50mm, on to which
wooden boards 250mm X 25mm X 1.00m long are securely nailed.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 62

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 5.1 setting out on level ground

Setting Out On Sloping Ground

When setting out buildings on sloping ground, it must be remembered that the dimensions taken
from the plan are horizontal lengths and consequently the tape must be held horizontally and the
method of step taping used. The diagonals must also be measured horizontally and in practice
considerable difficulty is experienced in obtaining checks under such conditions. Besides, the
method is laborious and time consuming.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 63

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 5.2 Setting out instrument on sloping ground

Setting out – vertical control

Whenever any proposed level is to be set out, sight rails (profiles) must be erected either at the
proposed level in the case of a floor level or at some convenient height above the proposed level
in case of foundation levels, formation levels and invert levels.

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 64

Route Surveying Module 2023

Figure 5.3 setting out peg at a predetermined level

ASU, Department of Surveying Engineering Page 65