LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.

Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines

S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

TOPIC/ LESSON: LEARNING FROM OTHERS AND

REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
 identify the purpose of the review of the related literature;
 distinguish the common citation styles: American Psychological Association (APA), Modern
Language Association (MLA), Chicago Manual of Style (CMS);
 determine the correct ways in presenting the conceptual and theoretical framework of the study;
 identify the basic elements of hypothesis;
 distinguish conceptual and operational definition; and
 recognize the ethical standards used to avoid plagiarism.

LESSON PROPER:
REVIEWING, CITING AND SYNTHESIZING RELATED LITERATURE

Purpose of the Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature relates your study to a larger body of literature. It sets the context of
the study and explains the significance of your research problem. By reviewing prior work, you improve
your knowledge and understanding of your topic, know about developments in your research area, learn
from what has and what hasn’t been studied before and familiarize yourself with the theories and
methodologies that is not yet used in previous studies. The review is also useful in identifying areas that
can be improved and knowledge gaps that still needs to be addressed. This guides the planning and
implementation of your work. Thus, think of the review of related literature is deemed as a “jump-point” –
the point where your research starts and your first opportunity to immerse in your topic.

In both qualitative and quantitative research, the review of related literature serves as the foundation
for the development of the theoretical and conceptual framework of the study. The review of related
literature is not a stand-alone work. Rather it is dependent on what has been written. It reflects your
familiarity with the body of knowledge relating to your chosen topic.

Identifying Related literature

Identifying potential research topics requires a survey of the available literature. You can imagine
the large amount of available materials that may appear related to your research study. It is more practical
to limit the literature to be reviewed to those with the most direct relevance to the research topic.

The first step is narrowing potential sources is through an electronic database search. When
evaluating an internet source, take the following points into consideration.
1. Author. Identify whether the site contains the name of the author, his/her contact information, and
credentials. This will help you assess whether the person or the organization is credible.
2. Purpose. Know the motive of the creator in creating the site and its contents. Consider the domain
of the page (.com, .org, .edu). Evaluate the target audience of the site is and assess the site’s
purpose. Is it to inform, persuade, or sell a product?
3. Reliability. Check whether the site and the links featured in it are working and whether there would
still be available on your next visit. This is necessary if one intends to review the information taken
from a particular site. Also check if the arguments and assertions in the page are backed by
reputable sources.
4. Objectivity. Remember that the information available in the web is often not subjected to rigorous
standards and controls. The internet may be used by a particular person or organization as a
platform to campaign their opinions. Consider the following points: sources and advertisements and

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 1 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

its possible link to the context of the page, affiliation of the author, and whether the page exhibits
any form of bias.

As a rule of thumb, scholarly sources are recommended over personal and nonscholarly sources. As a
guide, we have provided a general guide of reputable literature:
 Scholarly Journals. It often takes the form of literature reviews, book reviews, or research studies.
Most are written in highly technical manner since most authors are professional researchers or
members of the academe. (Article search engines: JSTOR, Project MUSE, EBSCOHOST,
ProQuest and others)
 Books. Limit your reference materials to books that are either reader, compendium or annual
reports.
a) Reader – edited and synthesized collection of original research reports.
b) Compendium – contains articles and essays organized around a particular topic.
c) Annual Reports – have a volume number specific for a certain year and underline a general
research area.
You can also look for reputable sources like survivor memoirs, diaries, anthropology, picture
books and etc.
 Thesis and Dissertations. Most postgraduate students are required to complete their individual
research. Some are eventually published as books, book chapters, or journal articles. May others
are archived in the library of their school or universities.
 Government Documents. Government units conduct or commission studies and publish official
reports. These include censuses, economic reports, policy reviews, or updates of the current
situation of the country.
 Policy Reports and presented papers. International Organizations and agencies, such as the
World Bank and the United Nations, conduct country studies. Research institutes, think tanks, and
policy centers also publish their individual report and research. Local Sources include the Asian
Institute of Management and Philippine Institute of Development Studies among others.

After locating possible sources, evaluate the materials and examine the title of the literature. If the
title is relevant to your individual research continue reading the abstract or blurb. This often contains vital,
summarize points of the materials.

Step-by-step approach in drafting literature review

1. Define Your Goal. If you are writing an argument paper, create a thesis statement with a clear
position. If you are evaluating scientific theories, develop a hypothesis to examine. If you are
providing a self-contained review of writings on a topic, state your project’s purpose. At the
beginning of any paper, define your paper’s purpose so that the literature review will be anchored to
a specific point of view.
2. Do Your Research. Review a number of texts that most closely pertain to your topic and position,
and are written by relevant scholars. Understand who the top voices are in your topic’s academic
field, and be sure to include the most pertinent publications by those scholars.
3. Ground Summary in Relevance. As you summarize each publication, provide the context for that
publication’s importance by tying its main points to your thesis, hypothesis, or project statement.
How does it relate? Establish its relevance to the discussion.
4. Develop Review Logically. Think of your literature review as a development of an argument—what
were the earliest ideas on the topic and how did they grow and evolve in the academic conversation
of these publications? First things first.
5. Include References/Works Cited List. As you are writing the literature review you will mention the
author names and the publication years in your text, but you will still need to compile comprehensive
citations for each entry at the end of your review. Follow APA, MLA, or Chicago style guidelines, as
your course requires.

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 2 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

Elements of the Review of Related Literature

1. Introduction – briefly describes the content of the section and how it is organized.
2. Topic 1 or the Independent Variable – must review literature related to the independent variable.
3. Topic 2 or the Dependent Variable – must review literature related to the dependent variable.
4. Topic 3 or the link between these variables through previously conducted studies or the Intervening
Variable – review this one if applicable, explain how and why the dependent and independent
variables are related. This section must contain past studies that is similar or close as possible to
your chosen research area.
5. Summary – highlights the major themes, briefly explain major and seminal studies on your topic,
identify the gap that needs to be addressed, and explain how your proposed study will contribute or
address that gap.

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN WRITING YOUR LITERATURE REVIEW

Research Ethics: Why Proper Citation Matters

All researchers must always observe proper research conduct and ethics, especially when citing
and crediting the source of literature used in your study. The primary function of citation is to help readers
in locating a publication. Citations allow readers to distinguish your original work from the work and ideas of
others. Adhering to proper citation and referencing standards is a requirement for all written research
projects.

The research and academic community strongly forbids scientific misconduct. This includes “cutting
and pasting” the work and ideas of others, presenting this as if it were one’s own, and failing to properly
acknowledge or cite others. These acts constitute plagiarism.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is one of the most common form of intellectual dishonesty in research. This is an act that
separate from the intent of a person who commits it. Even if the person has no malice, s/he can still be
guilty of plagiarism if s/he fails to properly attribute or cite sources. Plagiarism damages one’s credibility
and gives one’s school or institution a bad name. It is a serious offense in all institutions and professions.
The good news is that it can be avoided using proper citation and adhering standards.

Different Forms of Plagiarism

1. Cut and Paste Plagiarism –This common form of plagiarism involves copying text word – per –
word without properly indicating that the text was taken from another source. To avoid this, properly
signal that the excerpt is directly taken from another source. This can be done by putting the text
between quotation marks (“…”)

Example: “Time management means the effective use of time through performing specified targeted
activities and includes behaviors that aim to make effective use of time during the implementation of
certain targeted activities. The concept of time management has been paid more attention from the
1950s and can be considered as a way to monitor and control time.” (Bahadori M. et al 2015).

2. Mosaic Plagiarism – This involves copying text from another source and changing several words,
while maintaining the original sentence structure. It is still considered plagiarism even if the source
text is indicated or cited. While a paraphrase can help to avoid this problem, poor paraphrasing can
still lead to accidental plagiarism or patchwork.

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 3 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

Example: Original Text: “I place refereed journal articles high on the list because they are the
easiest to locate and duplicate. They also report research about a topic” (Creswell 2014, 36).

Mosaic Plagiarism: There is a vast number of literature available to be used as reference material.
However refereed journal articles are place on top of the list since it can be easily located and it
reports research on various topis (Creswell 2014).

Correct Usage: There is a vast number of literature available to be used as reference material. It is
however recommended that researchers prioritize looking into journal articles which are reviewed
and are often reports of conducted studies. In addition, this kind of material can be easily searched
(Creswell 2014).

3. Misattribution Plagiarism – This involves attributing an excerpt, quote, or an idea to the wrong
author or the incorrect source – or worse, a nonexistent source. In order to avoid this be faithful to
the original source and take steps to ensure proper and up to date documentation of your sources.

4. Self – Plagiarism – This is committed in two instances.: duplication and replication. Duplication is
when a researcher copies the content of his/her own work, previously submitted of published in
whole or in part without proper attribution. Replication is a graver act, in which a researcher
submits one’s work multiples times (examples: classes, publishers, teachers) without disclosing this
first.

Citation Styles
There are (3) major citation styles used in academic writing:
1. Modern Language Association (MLA)
2. American Psychological Association (APA)
3. Chicago Manual Style (CMS), which supports two styles:
a. Notes and Bibliography
b. Author-Date

The citation style you choose will largely be dictated by the discipline in which you're writing, and for
most assignments your instructor will assign a style to you. However, as you progress through your
academic career, you may find more flexibility in choosing a style that works for you. It's always best to
check with your instructor and colleagues as to what style is appropriate. If you have flexibility, use the
guide below to help you decide.

Humanities: English, Art Social Sciences, History, or the Physical, Natural, or

History, Philosophy, Education, Humanities Social Sciences
Music, Religion, Engineering, etc.
Language, Linguistics, etc.

Try: MLA Try: APA Try: Chicago Try: Chicago Author-Date

Notes &
MLA style uses APA style uses Bibliography Chicago author-date
parenthetical in-text parenthetical in-text utilizes parenthetical in-text
citations and a "Works citations and a Chicago notes citations and a references
Cited" list at the end of a "References" list at the utilizes footnotes or works cited list at the
paper to link sources end of the paper to link and endnotes to end, similar to the APA
sources link text to sources. style.

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 4 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

The humanities place These disciplines place Typically Typically accompanied by a

emphasis emphasis on the date of accompanied by a "References" or "Works
on authorship and creation or publication, in "Bibliography" Cited" page.
interpreting primary an effort to track currency page.
sources in a historical and relevancy.
context. The author's The date is listed
name is the first piece of immediately following the
information preceding title author's name in the
and publication information "References" list.
on the "Works Cited" list at
the end of the work.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Style is widely used in the humanities, especially in writing
on language and literature. MLA style uses brief parenthetical citations in the text that refer to an
alphabetical list of works cited appearing at the end of the work.
Material Type In-text Citation
Author's name in text Magny develops this argument (67-69).
Author's name in reference This argument has been developed elsewhere (Magny 67-69).
Two authors' names in reference The most notorious foreign lobby in Washington is the "Sugar Mafia" (Howe
and Trott 134).
Quotation found in indirect or The philosopher Alain states that "admiration is not pleasure but a kind of
"secondhand" source attention. . ." (qtd. in Magny 66).
Creating a Works Cited Page
With MLA style, you must include a Works Cited page at the end of your paper. A Works Cited
page is an alphabetical listing of the resources cited in your paper. Below are some examples of MLA style
citations. Note: Some instructors may require access dates for websites or other pieces of information.
Please check with your instructor if you have any questions.
Material Type Works Cited
Book in print Card, Claudia. The Atrocity Paradigm: A Theory of Evil. Oxford UP, 2005.
eBook Gaither, Milton. Homeschool: An American History. Palgrave Macmillan,
2017. SpringerLink, [Link]/10.1057/978-1-349-95056-0.

An article in a print journal Doggart, Julia. "Minding the Gap: Realizing Our Ideal Community Writing
Assistance Program." The Community Literacy Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2007,
pp. 71-80.
An article in an electronic journal Sherrard-Johnson, Cherene. "'A Plea for Color': Nella Larsen's Iconography
of the Mulatta." American Literature, vol. 76, no. 4, 2004, pp. 833-869,
doi:10.1215/00029831-76-4-833.
A encyclopedia entry “Patanjali.” Benét’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, edited by Bruce Murphy, 4th
ed., HarperCollins Publishers, 1996, p. 782.
A government publication United States, Federal Maritime Commission. Hawaiian Trade Study: An
Economic Analysis. Government Printing Office, 1978.
An interview you conducted Brandt, Deborah. Personal interview. 28 May 2008.

(Note: List the interview under the name of the interviewee)

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 5 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

A film/DVD Note: This depends on the focus of your work. Please see the MLA Style
blog for a detailed explanation.
A Page on a Website with no "Stunning Lakeside View on Lake Erie." VisitPA, Commonwealth of
author Pennsylvania, 7 June 2018, [Link]/article/stunning-lakeside-
views-lake-erie.
A Page on a Website with an Del Castillo, Inigo. "How Not to Kill Your Houseplants, According to
author Botanists." Apartment Therapy, 29 Jan. 2020,
[Link]/houseplant-tips-botanists-36710191.
Artwork - from website Sherald, Amy. Former First Lady, Michelle Obama. 2018. National Portrait
Gallery, [Link]/object/npg_NPG.2018.15.

APA (American Psychological Association) Style is widely used in the social sciences, business,
and some of the life sciences. APA Style uses brief in-text citations in the text that refer to an alphabetical
list of references appearing the end of the work.

Material Type In-text Citation Bibliography

A book (Sapolsky, 2017) Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The biology of
humans at our best and worst. Penguin Books.
Chapter in an edited book (Dillard, 2020) Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the study of
persuasion. In M. B. Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J.
(If the chapter is from an Bryant (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory
authored book, use the book and research (4th ed., pp. 115–129). Routledge.
citation)
An article in a print journal (Weinstein, 2009) Weinstein, J. (2009). “The market in Plato’s
Republic.” Classical Philology, 104(4), 439-458.
An article in an electronic (Grady et al., 2019) Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., &
journal Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in storybooks: A
comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic
and racial groups in the United
States. Psychology of Popular Media
Culture, 8(3), 207–
217. [Link]
A website (Bologna, 2019) Bologna, C. (2019, October 31). Why some
people with anxiety love watching horror movies.
HuffPost. [Link]
love-watching-horror-
movies_l_5d277587e4b02a5a5d57b59e

Chicago is a documentation syle that has been published by the Chicago University Press since
1906. This citation style incorporates rules of grammar and punctuation common in American English.
Typically, Chicago style presents two basic documentation systems: (1) notes and bibliography and (2)
author-date. Choosing between the two often depends on subject matter and the nature of sources cited,
as each system is favored by different groups of scholars.
The notes and bibliography style is preferred by many in the humanities, including those in
literature, history, and the arts. This style presents bibliographic information in notes and, often, a
bibliography.
Material Type Notes/Bibliography Style

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 6 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

A book in print Note Style: 1. Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of
Four Meals (New York: Penguin, 2006), 99–100.
Duplicate Note: 2. Pollan, Omnivore's Dilemma, 3.
Bibliography: Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's Dilemma: A Natural History of
Four Meals. New York: Penguin, 2006.
An article in a print journal Note Style: 1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in Plato’s Republic," Classical
Philology 104 (2009): 440.
Duplicate Note: 2. Weinstein, "Plato’s Republic," 452–53.
Bibliography: Weinstein, Joshua I. "The Market in Plato’s Republic." Classical
Philology 104 (2009): 439–58.
An article in an electronic Note Style: 1. Gueorgi Kossinets and Duncan J. Watts, “Origins of Homophily
journal in an Evolving Social Network,” American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009):
411, accessed February 28, 2010, doi:10.1086/599247.
Duplicate Note: Kossinets and Watts, “Origins of Homophily,” 439.
Bibliography: Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. “Origins of Homophily
in an Evolving Social Network.” American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009):
405–50. Accessed February 28, 2010. doi:10.1086/599247.
A website Note Style: 1.“Google Privacy Policy,” last modified March 11, 2009,
[Link]
Duplicate Note: “Google Privacy Policy.”
Bibliography: Google. “Google Privacy Policy.” Last modified March 11, 2009.
[Link]

The author-date style has long been used by those in the physical, natural, and social sciences. In
this system, sources are briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and date of
publication. The short citations are amplified in a list of references, where full bibliographic information is
provided.
Author/Date Style In-text Citation Bibliography
A book (Pollan 2006, 99–100) Pollan, Michael. 2006. The Omnivore’s
Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals. New
York: Penguin.
An article in a print journal (Weinstein 2009, 440) Weinstein, Joshua I. 2009. “The Market in
Plato’s Republic.” Classical Philology 104:439–
58.
An article in an electronic (Kossinets and Watts 2009, Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J. Watts. 2009.
journal 411) “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social
Network.” American Journal of
Sociology 115:405–50. Accessed February 28,
2010. doi:10.1086/599247.
A website (Google 2009) Google. 2009. “Google Privacy Policy.” Last
modified March 11.
[Link]
(Source: Official Chicago Manual
website)

Formulating a Conceptual and Theoretical Framework

The terms theoretical framework and conceptual framework are often used interchangeably to
mean the same thing. Although they are both used to understand a research problem and guide the
development, collection, and analysis of research, it's important to understand the difference between the
two. When working on coursework or dissertation research, make sure to clarify what is being asked and
any specific course or program requirements.

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 7 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

A theoretical framework is a single formal theory. When a study is designed around a theoretical
framework, the theory is the primary means in which the research problem is understood and investigated.

A conceptual framework includes one or more formal theories (in part or whole) as well as other
concepts and empirical findings from the literature. It is used to show relationships among these ideas and
how they relate to the research study.

For this research, we will be using the IPO (Input-Output-Process) Model.

Example:

The Use of Hypothesis in Research

A hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research problem that is advanced so that it can be tested.
It is appropriate to use a hypothesis when you are testing a theory. Your immediate answer to this may be
'I'm not testing a theory'; however, remember that our definition of theory is very broad - 'an idea about how
things relate to each other'. If you have an expectation of how your research question will be answered (the
outcome) then it is fair to say you have a theory in mind. If you ask of your research question 'What is the
expected outcome?' and have an answer, you can ask why? What is my thinking behind this prediction?
This is essentially the theory that you will be testing.

Developing a hypothesis from a research question

Our definition of a hypothesis stresses that it can be tested. To meet this criterion the hypothesis
must be operationalized - that is the concepts employed in the hypothesis must be measurable.

Developing hypotheses requires that you identify one character, variable or descriptor of a sampling unit
that causes, affects, or has an influence on, another character, variable or descriptor of the same or other
sampling units. The character, variable or descriptor that affects other variables or sampling units is called
the independent variable. The character, variable or descriptor which is affected by the independent
variable is called the dependent variable or response variable.

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 8 of 10

 LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

Characteristics of a well formulated hypothesis

1. Empirical statement.
2. Plausible
3. Specific
4. Formulated in the manner it will be tested
5. Testable.

Null hypothesis (H0)

The null hypothesis states that a population parameter (such as the mean, the standard deviation,
and so on) is equal to a hypothesized value. The null hypothesis is often an initial claim that is based on
previous analyses or specialized knowledge.

Alternative Hypothesis (H1)

The alternative hypothesis states that a population parameter is smaller, greater, or different than
the hypothesized value in the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis is what you might believe to be
true or hope to prove true.

Defining Key Terms in Research

Research studies usually include terms that must be carefully and precisely defined, so that others
know exactly what has been done and there are no ambiguities. Two types of definitions can be given:
conceptual definitions and operational definitions.

Loosely speaking, a conceptual definition explains what to measure or observe (what a word or a
term means for your study), and an operational definition defines exactly how to measure or observe it.

For example, in a study of stress in students during a university semester. A conceptual definition
would describe what is meant by ‘stress.’ An operational definition would describe how the ‘stress’ would be
measured.
A conceptual definition articulates what exactly is to be measured or observed in a study. An
operational definition articulates how to capture (identify, create, measure, assess etc.) the value.

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 9 of 10

LA SALETTE OF RAMON INC.
Ramon, Isabela – 3319 Philippines
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
Tel. No. (072) 323-0550, (072) 323-0454, E-mail: lasaletteoframon@[Link]
Re-Accredited by Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities – Level II

Prepared by: DR. THOMAS B. FERNANDEZ, JR. Page 10 of 10