CE 023: FLUID MECHANICS
MODULE 3
PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARC DANIEL LAURINA
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01 Definition
Absolute, Atmospheric and
02
Gage Pressure
03 Static Pressure Variation
04 Pressure Measurement Devices
Pressure
Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
𝑭 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑷= =
𝑨 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
Units:
SI: 𝑁 𝑚2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑃𝑎)
English: 𝑙𝑏 𝑖𝑛2 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑖, 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑠𝑓
𝑘𝑠𝑖 – 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠/𝑖𝑛^2 ; 𝑘𝑠𝑓 – 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠/𝑓𝑡^2; 1 𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 1000 𝑙𝑏
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Video
[Link] FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Type of Pressure
[Link] Pressure
[Link] Pressure
[Link] Pressure
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Absolute Pressure
• The actual pressure at a given position.
• It is measured relative to absolute vacuum or perfect vacuum where
there is no pressure at all (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
• Absolute pressures are always positive.
• 𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Perfect Vacuum, Is it possible
• There is no perfectly zero absolute
pressure location in the universe due to
the presence of trace matter and energy
everywhere, there are regions in outer
space where the pressure is exceptionally
low, approaching the conditions of a
vacuum.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Atmospheric or Air Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure
exerted by the environment or Earth's
atmosphere at a specific location and
altitude.
• It serves as the reference point for gauge
pressure measurements.
• It is typically measured using a barometer
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Atmospheric Pressure
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
[Link]
Video: Atmospheric Pressure
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
[Link]
Atmospheric Pressure
In datum or mean sea level,
1 atm = 14.7 psi
= 760 torr
= 760 mm Hg
= 101.325 kPa
1 bar = 100 kPa
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
14
Gage Pressure
• Gage pressure is measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
• Thus, a gage pressure of zero corresponds to a pressure that is
equal to the local atmospheric pressure.
• It does not account for atmospheric pressure
• Gage pressures can be either positive or negative.
• A negative gage pressure is also referred to as a suction or
vacuum pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure
• Measured by manometer (laboratory) or piezometer (field)
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Gage Pressure
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝜸𝒉
𝑷𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎 = − 𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝑷𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟎 @ 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝑳𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Video
[Link] FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 1
Convert 5 psi vacuum to absolute pressure in SI units.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 1: Solution
Convert 5 psi vacuum to absolute pressure in SI units.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 2
The air pressure within the bicycle tire is determined from a gage to be 10 psi. If
the local atmospheric pressure is 12.6 psi, determine the absolute pressure in the
tire. Report the. answer in pascals.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 2. Solution
The air pressure within the bicycle
tire is determined from a gage to be
10 psi. If the local atmospheric
pressure is 12.6 psi, determine the
absolute pressure in the tire.
Report the. answer in pascals.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure at a Point
• Pressure is the compressive force per
unit area but it is not a vector.
• Pressure at any point in a fluid is the
same in all directions.
• Pressure has magnitude but not a
specific direction, and thus it is a scalar
quantity.
Pressure is a scalar quantity,
not a vector; the pressure at a
point in a fluid is the same in
all directions.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
• For fluids at rest, the pressure gradient along the vertical
direction at any point in a fluid depends only on the specific
weight of the fluid at that point.
Hydrostatic differential equation
The negative sign indicates that the pressure will decrease as
one moves upwards in the fluid, positive z direction.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Variation for Incompressible Fluids (Liquid)
• If the fluid is assumed to be incompressible as in the case of a liquid, then
its specific weight 𝛾 is constant since its volume does not change.
𝑷 = 𝑷𝒐 + 𝜸𝒉
or
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝜸𝒉
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 3. CE Board Exam May 2015
The weight density of a mud is given by 𝛾 = 10 + 0.5ℎ, where 𝛾 is in
kN/m3 and the h is in meters. Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of
5m.
Watch: 🎥 Recorded Lecture
Video_Fluid Mechanics Part 1_53:00 – 58:30
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Variation for Incompressible Fluids (Liquid)
Different Derivation:
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Head of a Liquid
• h is referred to as the pressure head, since it indicates the height of a column of
liquid that produces the (gage) pressure P.
𝑷
𝒉=
𝜸
Same pressure, different heads of different liquids:
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Head of a Liquid
Converting Pressure head
At same intensity of pressure:
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐
𝜸𝟏 𝒉𝟏 = 𝜸𝟐 𝒉𝟐
Pressure below layer of Different Liquids
𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝑷 + 𝜮 𝜸𝒉
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
30
Example 4
A pressure in a given tank reads 277 mm of Hg. Determine the equivalent
height of column of
a. water
b. kerosene S.G.=0.82
c. glycerin S.G.=1.26
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 4. Solution
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 5. CE Board Exam May 2015
How many meter of water is equivalent to 2.75 atmospheres?
Watch: 🎥 Recorded Lecture
Video_Fluid Mechanics Part 1_36:20 – 39:20
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 6
If the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa and
absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank as
shown in the figure is 231.3. Compute
a. the specific gravity of the olive oil
b. absolute pressure at the interface of the
olive oil and the mercury.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 6. Solution
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 6. Solution
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Supplementary Example 1
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Supplementary Example 1
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids (Gas)
• When the fluid is compressible as in the case of a gas, then its specific weight 𝛾 will not be constant
throughout the fluid
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Hydrostatic Pressure Condition
• We state the following conclusions about a hydrostatic condition:
1. Pressure in a continuously distributed uniform static fluid varies only with vertical distance and is
independent of the shape of the container.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Hydrostatic Pressure Condition
• We state the following conclusions about a hydrostatic condition:
2. The pressure is the same at all points on a given horizontal plane in the fluid.
3. The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Hydrostatic Pressure Condition
The pressure increases with depth in the fluid.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pressure Condition in Gas
• For small to moderate change in
elevation in gases, the variation of
pressure is negligible, because of
their low density.
• Hence pressure in a tank containing
gas can be considered to be uniform
throughout.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
44
Example 7
Find the pressure at A, B, C and D.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 7. Solution
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 7. Solution
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pascal’s Law
• “The pressure applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure throughout by the same
amount."
• The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic lift.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 8
The figure shown shows a setup with a
vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder.
What force F is required to balance the
weight of the cylinder if the weight of the
plunger is negligible?
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 8. Solution
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 9. CE Board Exam Nov 2015
A 10-kN car is to be lifted by a hydraulic jack. If 400-N force is applied in a
25-mm diameter plunger, find the required diameter of the piston.
Watch: 🎥 Recorded Lecture
Video_Fluid Mechanics Part 1_58:30 – 1:03:30
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Some Important Facts about Pressure
Can you feel air pressure? & Ear discomfort during takeoff and landing
• When you take off or land in an aircraft, your ears may hurt or feel
uncomfortable.
• This is because your eardrums can feel changes in air pressure as the
aircraft moves quickly up and down.
• With each change in altitude, the air pressure around you changes as
well. The altitude change can be quite rapid, especially during descent.
• It's important to note that ear discomfort during takeoff and landing is
a common and usually harmless occurrence.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Some Important Facts about Pressure
Cooking takes longer time at higher altitude.
• Lower Boiling Point: Because of the lower atmospheric pressure,
water boils at a lower temperature at higher altitudes. This means
that when you're cooking, the water or other liquids in your recipe
will boil at a temperature lower than the usual 100°C at sea level.
• Cooking Time: Cooking time is affected because it takes longer to
reach the desired temperature for certain cooking processes, such as
boiling, simmering, and steaming. As a result, foods may take longer
to cook thoroughly at higher altitudes.
• Heat Loss: Additionally, as you mentioned, because the boiling point
is lower, there is an increased risk of heat loss to the atmosphere. The
lower boiling point means that the cooking temperature is closer to
the temperature of the surrounding air, so more heat is required to
maintain the cooking process.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Some Important Facts about Pressure
Nose bleeding at higher altitude
• Thinner Air: At higher altitudes, the air pressure is
lower, which can cause blood vessels in the nasal
passages to expand (dilate). This expansion can make
the blood vessels more susceptible to rupture, leading
to nosebleeds.
• As outside pressure reduces, difference of blood
pressure and atm pressure becomes more, resulting
into bursting of some veins.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Some Important Facts about Pressure
For a given temperature,
density of air is lower at
higher altitude, and thus, a
given volume contains less air
and less oxygen. Hence, we
tire more easily and
experience breathing problem
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Some Important Facts about Pressure
• Drag and lift reduces at higher altitude hence
longer runway is required at higher altitude. Drag &
lift reduces because density of air reduces and drag
& lift is proportional of air density.
• To reduce drag, airplanes cruise at higher altitude,
which leads to increased fuel efficiency.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Some Important Facts about Pressure
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Some Important Facts about Pressure
[Link] FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
59
“Success is no accident. It is hard work,
perseverance, learning, studying, sacrifice
and most of all, love of what you are
going or learning to do.”
Edson Arantes do Nascimento – Pelé
60
Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the pressure
produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3) under
standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
The length or the
cross-sectional area of
the tube has no effect
on the height of the fluid
column of a barometer,
provided that the tube
diameter is large
enough to avoid surface
tension (capillary)
effects.
The basic barometer. FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 10. CE Board Exam May 2015
Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12N/m^3, what is the approximate
height of Mount Banahaw if mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads
654 mm and at the same instant, another barometer at the top of the mountain
reads 480 mm.
Watch: 🎥 Recorded Lecture
Video_Fluid Mechanics Part 1_39:20 – 53:00
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Manometer
• It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
• A manometer contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
• Types of Manometer:
1. Piezometer Tube
2. U-Tube Manometer
The basic 3. Differential Manometer
manometer.
4. Inclined Manometer
• Manometer Rule:
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Piezometer Tube
• Piezometer tubes are simple, vertical tubes
open at the top and connected to the system
whose pressure is being measured.
• The liquid level in the tube rises to a height
proportional to the pressure in the system.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
U-Tube Manometer
• This is one of the simplest and most common
types of manometers.
• It consists of a U-shaped glass or transparent
plastic tube filled with a liquid (often mercury
or a colored fluid like water).
• One end of the tube is open to the
atmosphere, and the other end is connected
to the system whose pressure is being
measured. The difference in liquid levels in
the two legs of the U-tube indicates the
pressure difference.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 11
The atmospheric pressure is 14.6 psia, the gage
reading at A is 6.1 psi and the vapor pressure of
the alcohol is 1.7 psia. Compute x and y
Watch: 🎥 Recorded Lecture Video:
Module 3 Example 11
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Supplementary Example 2
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Supplementary Example 2
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Differential Manometer
• Differential manometers are used to measure the difference in pressure between two points in a system.
• They can be U-tube or inclined tube manometers with two legs, each connected to a different point in the
system.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 12
Find the pressure difference between A and B.
Watch: 🎥 Recorded Lecture Video:
Module 3 Example 12
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Inclined Manometer
• Inclined manometers are similar to U-tube manometers but are inclined at an angle
rather than being vertical.
• This design allows for the measurement of small pressure differences with greater
sensitivity.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Supplementary Example 3
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Supplementary Example 3
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Other Pressure Device Measurements
1. Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauges. Bourdon tube pressure
gauges are mechanical devices that use a curved,
flattened tube to measure pressure. As pressure
increases, the tube straightens, and this motion is
converted into a pressure reading on a dial.
2. Strain Gauge Pressure Transducers. Strain gauge sensors
use a thin wire or foil strain gauge bonded to a
diaphragm. As pressure changes, the strain on the gauge
changes, leading to a change in electrical resistance that
can be measured.
3. Digital Manometers. Digital manometers are electronic
devices that provide pressure readings in a digital
format. They are often portable and easy to use.
FLUID MECHANICS’ LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
REFERENCES
Cengel and Cimbala. (2014) Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals and Applications 3rd Edition
Crowe, et al. (2009) Engineering Fluid Mechanics 9th Edition
Hibbeler, R.C. (2015) Fluid Mechanics
Munson, [Link]. (2009) Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
Naylor D., Online Fluid Mechanics
White, F. M. (2016) Fluid Mechanics 8th Edition
Youtube
Google Images
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