COURSE CODE: RES 321
Module 4
2nd Semester, S.Y. 2025-2026
Week 7- 9 (Feb. 23, 2026 – Mar.13, 2026)
Introduction
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Hello Trailblazers!
This module is designed for you to help you understand the
meaning, importance, and practical application of research data analysis.
The concepts discussed here can be directly applied in thesis writing,
feasibility studies, case studies, and other academic research outputs.
Intended Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
Identify and explain the different types of data, such as descriptions,
scores, and opinions, used in a study.
Determine the appropriate sources (participants, records, etc.) and
procedures (notation, questioning, testing, etc.) for gathering
information.
Apply guidelines for creating valid, reliable instruments like
questionnaires and interview guides.
Developing Procedures and Tools for Data Gathering
In order to answer the problems posed in your study, you need to collect
data or information. However, you have to plan carefully how to obtain
data that are appropriate for your type of research and directed towards
research questions and hypotheses. You need to give meticulous
attention to identify sources of data, planning out for gathering desired
data, selecting tools to use in data collection and organizing new data.
We are going to explore the procedures and tools employed in collecting
research data.
Types of Data Needed in Research
Different types of research suggest the need for certain kinds of data,
such as verbal descriptions, scores, measurements, opinions, statements
and analyses (Charles, 1998). Let us describe them very briefly:
Descriptions are verbal representation of participants, objects,
procedures, and setting. They can be given in summary form or in
greater detail. An account of how student nurses carry out nursing
procedure is a descriptive type of data.
Scores are numerical values assigned to test performance. The
15 points obtained by Gary in Anatomy and Physiology quiz is an
example of a score.
Measurements are appraisals made with measuring instruments
other than tests. Measurements are usually stated numerically.
Rey's weight of 40 kilos is an example of measurement data.
Opinions are views expressed by participants and informants
which can indicate status of thought, attitude or value. What
student leaders say about tuition fee hike is an example of an
opinion.
Statements are informed verbal descriptions or opinions as may
be given by authorities or eyewitnesses. What a certain professor
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says, when interviewed on television, is an example of a
statement.
Analyses are clarifications and conclusions arrived at through a
scrutiny or logic. When a researcher examines the content of
President Arroyo's speeches to be able to identify her philosophy
of leadership, the data being collected are of the analysis type.
Sources of Data
After knowing the type of data to be collected, it is important that we
know where these data will be obtained. Data in research can be
obtained from one or more of the following sources:
Participants. They are individuals selected to undergo scrutiny
in a study. Rank and file employees involved in an experiment to
find out whether sensitivity training can improve morale are
examples or research participants or subjects of the study.
Procedures. They are formalized ways of operating in a
particular setting. They are ways by which things are done in a
given setting. How performance in one company is rated is an
example of a procedure.
Settings. They are specific environments in which behavior
occurs or is intended to occur. Examples of settings are
classrooms, hospitals, streets, military camps and the like.
Objects. They are inanimate things like books, supplies,
materials, and artifacts.
Records. They are highly summarized reports of performance,
expenditures and the like which are kept for later or future
reference.
Documents. They are written papers and reports in their
entirety, like journal articles, technical papers, curriculum guides,
photographs, drawings, and other illustrations.
Informants. They are people other than the participants of the
study from where opinions, informed views and expert testimony
are obtained. When a certain supervisor explained to an
interviewer how he dealt with poor performance of employees
under his charge, he became an informant.
Validity and Reliability in Data Collection
Two concepts that must be considered in data collection are validity and
reliability.
Validity, as an essential quality in research data, has to do with
whether the data collection tool measures what it intends to
measure. To determine the leadership styles of a group of bank
executives, for instance, a researcher needs to ensure that the
data collection tool to be employed has the capability of
identifying these styles.
Reliability, on the other hand, refers to consistency of results. If
a researcher determined the reading levels of a group of students
at two different times and was able to obtain almost parallel
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results, the data collection he used can be considered reliable.
Procedures in Data Collection
Once the researcher has identified the problems he is to study, and has
located appropriate sources of information, he now has to go about
collecting the needed data to answer the research question or test the
hypothesis. Data, however, can be collected by means of the following
general procedures (Charles, 1998): notation; description; analysis;
questioning; testing and measurement.
1. Notation
Definition: Notation is a process of making very brief, written
notes, tally marks, or evaluation symbols about people, objects,
settings, or events being observed. It is associated or tied to
observation. Here the researcher observes and make notes of
what is seen or heard.
Tools: Paper and pencil and other marking devices are needed
for notation.
Data Format: Data in notation are recorded in sequence they are
observed of slotted into categories that correspond to the
elements receiving special attention in research. For instance, a
researcher trying to determine the type of questions used by HR
managers in interviewing potential candidates for vacant positions
in a business processing outsourcing industry may observe how
the HR manager asks questions and tally the number of times a
certain type of question is raised.
2. Description
Definition: Description is the process of putting observations into
verbal form by conveying the complete picture replete with
details. It is used when information cannot be measured but only
observed and described, as is typically the case for behaviors,
motives, and interactions. This method is usually employed in
ethnographic and descriptive action researches.
Tools: Pencil, notebook, audio and video recorders.
Data Format: Data obtained through written descriptions are
presented as notes and organized according to the research
questions or hypotheses.
3. Analysis
Definition: It is a process of obtaining data from objects,
settings, and procedures which involves a careful scrutiny to
discover traits, meanings, and relationships.
Tools: To ensure quality of data obtained by analysis, a guide
should be used in the process. Such guide should identify what is
being sought and may include criteria and examples for
determining the presence and quantity of the desired elements.
Data Format: Data resulting from analysis may either be verbal
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or numerical. These data should be put into formats paralleling
the structure of the analysis guide.
4. Questioning
Definition: Questioning is a prompting process used in eliciting
and probing responses from participants to informants. In
research, it is typically done through interview and survey.
Methods: * Interview: Conducted in person. The interviewer
asks questions directly, either face-to-face or by telephone. It
involves a one-to-one exchange that permits the interviewer to
pose questions and probe for clearer response. Interviews are
time and cost intensive.
Survey: Usually done by means of printed questionnaires
mailed to large samples, though it can also be done
through the telephone. A survey tends to be broader in
scope and less personal in nature than the interview.
Tools: The collection of data through questioning is done by
means of the following tools: interview guide; questionnaire, Likert
scale; and semantic differential scale.
5. Testing
Definition: Testing is the process of obtaining data by having
respondents answer written or oral examination.
Tools: Two types of tests are commonly used in research,
namely: researcher-made; and standardized.
Researcher-made test: Designed by the researcher
himself, based on the purpose of the study. The researcher
needs to establish its validity and reliability prior to use.
Standardized test: Constructed with great precision by a
professional test maker. It is often accompanied by norms
that permit comparisons of individuals, institutions, and
systems, with very high level of validity and reliability.
Data Format: Most of the data collected through testing are
initially raw numerical scores. These raw scores can be converted
into percentiles, stanines or other derived scores.
6. Measurement
Definition: This method of data collection assesses traits and
abilities through non-testing techniques or schemes. The
assessments are usually assigned numerical values or can be
placed in categories or rankings.
Scales: It utilizes the following measurement scales: interval;
ordinal; and nominal.
o Interval Scale: Consists of raw numbers, like 30, 40, 50,
and 60.
o Ordinal Scale: Shows the position of an individual in
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terms of rank.
o Nominal Scale: Assigns individuals to some categories.
Tools: Numerous and varied, designed to obtain indices of traits,
physical performance or mental acuity. Researchers often prepare
their own scale when ready-made scales are not available.
Data Format: Data collected through measurement are most
often numerical, although they also be verbal, nominal or ordinal.
Guidelines on How to Design Good Questionnaire Items
1. Make items clear.
2. Avoid double-barreled questions.
3. Don't ask questions that the respondents won't accurately be able
to answer.
4. Questions should be relevant.
5. Short items are the best so that they may be read, understood
and answered quickly.
6. Avoid negative items since they tend to confuse the respondents.
7. Avoid biased items and terms.
8. Whenever possible, develop consistent response methods.
9. Arrange questions from general to specific.
10. If closed questions are used, try to develop exhaustive and
mutually exclusive response alternatives.
11. Insofar as possible, place questions with similar content together
in the survey instrument.
12. Use an attractive questionnaire format that conveys a
professional image
Activity: Answer the following questions (1/2 crosswise)
1. What is the title of your research study? What kind of data will you
be collecting for your proposed research?
2. What will be the sources of your data?
3. What method of data collection will you employ in your study?
Justify your choice of such method.
4. What data collection tool will you use? Explain your answer.
5. What data format will you use given your data collection method
and tool?
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Garcia c. & Reganit A.A. (2010). Developing competencies in research and thesis writing. Books
atpb,publishing house