Table 2.

1 Position of the
Car at Various Times
Position t (s) x (m)
Ⓐ 0 30
Ⓑ 10 52
Ⓒ 20 38
Ⓓ 30 0
Ⓔ 40 237
Ⓕ 50 253

Example 2.1    Calculating the Average Velocity and Speed

Find the displacement, average velocity, and average speed of the car in Figure 2.1a between positions Ⓐ and Ⓕ.

SOLUTION
Consult Figure 2.1 to form a mental image of the car and its motion. We model the car as a particle. From the position–time
graph given in Figure 2.1b, notice that x Ⓐ 5 30 m at t Ⓐ 5 0 s and that x Ⓕ 5 253 m at t Ⓕ 5 50 s.

Use Equation 2.1 to find the displacement of the car: Dx 5 x Ⓕ 2 x Ⓐ 5 253 m 2 30 m 5 283 m

This result means that the car ends up 83 m in the negative direction (to the left, in this case) from where it started. This
number has the correct units and is of the same order of magnitude as the supplied data. A quick look at Figure 2.1a indicates
that it is the correct answer.
xⒻ 2 xⒶ
Use Equation 2.2 to find the car’s average velocity: vx,avg 5
tⒻ 2 tⒶ
253 m 2 30 m 283 m
5 5 5 21.7 mys
50 s 2 0 s 50 s

We cannot unambiguously find the average speed of the car from the data in Table 2.1 because we do not have information
about the positions of the car between the data points. If we adopt the assumption that the details of the car’s position are
described by the curve in Figure 2.1b, the distance traveled is 22 m (from Ⓐ to Ⓑ) plus 105 m (from Ⓑ to Ⓕ), for a total of 127 m.
127 m
Use Equation 2.3 to find the car’s average speed: vavg 5 5 2.5 mys
50 s
Notice that the average speed is positive, as it must be. Suppose the red-brown curve in Figure 2.1b were different so that
between 0 s and 10 s it went from Ⓐ up to 100 m and then came back down to Ⓑ. The average speed of the car would change
because the distance is different, but the average velocity would not change.

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 Conceptual Example 2.2    The Velocity of Different Objects

Consider the following one-dimensional motions: (A) a ball thrown directly upward rises to a highest point and falls back
into the thrower’s hand; (B) a race car starts from rest and speeds up to 100 m/s; and (C) a spacecraft drifts through space
at constant velocity. Are there any points in the motion of these objects at which the instantaneous velocity has the same
value as the average velocity over the entire motion? If so, identify the point(s).

SOLUTION
(A) The average velocity for the thrown ball is zero because the ball returns to the starting point; therefore, its displacement is
zero. There is one point at which the instantaneous velocity is zero: at the top of the motion.
(B) The car’s average velocity cannot be evaluated unambiguously with the information given, but it must have some value
between 0 and 100 m/s. Because the car will have every instantaneous velocity between 0 and 100 m/s at some time during
the interval, there must be some instant at which the instantaneous velocity is equal to the average velocity over the entire
motion.
(C) Because the spacecraft’s instantaneous velocity is constant, its instantaneous velocity at any time and its average velocity
over any time interval are the same.

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 x (m)
Example 2.3 Average and Instantaneous Velocity 10
8
A particle moves along the x axis. Its position varies with time according to the expres- Slope  4 m/s
6
sion x 5 24t 1 2t 2, where x is in meters and t is in seconds.4 The position–time graph Slope  2 m/s 
4
for this motion is shown in Figure 2.4a. Because the position of the particle is given by a
mathematical function, the motion of the particle is known at all times, unlike that of the 2
car in Figure 2.1, where data is only provided at six instants of time. Notice that the parti-  
0 t (s)
cle moves in the negative x direction for the first second of motion, is momentarily at rest
2
at the moment t 5 1 s, and moves in the positive x direction at times t . 1 s. 
4
(A) Determine the displacement of the particle in the time intervals t 5 0 to t 5 1 s and 0 1 2 3 4
t 5 1 s to t 5 3 s. a
   
SOLUTION x
4 2 0 2 4 6 8
From the graph in Figure 2.4a, form a mental representation of the particle’s motion. Keep b
in mind that the particle does not move in a curved path in space such as that shown by the
red-brown curve in the graphical representation. The particle moves only along the x axis Figure 2.4 (Example 2.3)
in one dimension as shown in Figure 2.4b. At t 5 0, is it moving to the right or to the left? (a) Position–time graph for a particle
During the first time interval, the slope is negative and hence the average velocity is having an x coordinate that varies in
negative. Therefore, we know that the displacement between Ⓐ and Ⓑ must be a negative time according to the expression
number having units of meters. Similarly, we expect the displacement between Ⓑ and Ⓓ to x 5 24t 1 2t 2. (b) The particle moves
in one dimension along the x axis.
be positive.
2.3 c o n t i n u e d
In the first time interval, set ti 5 t Ⓐ 5 0 and tf 5 t Ⓑ 5 1 s. Dx ⒶSⒷ 5 xf 2 xi 5 x Ⓑ 2 x Ⓐ
Substitute these values into x 5 24t 1 2t 2 and use
5 [24(1) 1 2(1)2] 2 [24(0) 1 2(0)2] 5 22 m
Equation 2.1 to find the displacement:

For the second time interval (t 5 1 s to t 5 3 s), set ti 5 Dx ⒷSⒹ 5 xf 2 xi 5 x Ⓓ 2 x Ⓑ

t Ⓑ 5 1 s and tf 5 t Ⓓ 5 3 s:
5 [24(3) 1 2(3)2] 2 [24(1) 1 2(1)2] 5 18 m
These displacements can also be read directly from the position–time graph.

(B) Calculate the average velocity during these two time intervals.

SOLUTION
DxⒶ S Ⓑ 22 m
In the first time interval, use Equation 2.2 with Dt 5 vx,avg sⒶ S Ⓑd 5 5 5 22 mys
Dt 1s
tf 2 ti 5 t Ⓑ 2 t Ⓐ 5 1 s:
Dx Ⓑ S Ⓓ 8m
In the second time interval, Dt 5 2 s: vx,avg sⒷ S Ⓓd 5 5 5 14 mys
Dt 2s
These values are the same as the slopes of the blue lines joining these points in Figure 2.4a.

(C) Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at t 5 2.5 s.

SOLUTION x=-4t+2t2
10 m 2 s24 md
Calculate the slope of the green line at t 5 2.5 s (point Ⓒ) vx 5 5 16 mys dx/dt=-4+4t=v(t)
3.8 s 2 1.5 s v(2.5)=-4+4(2.5)=6m/s
in Figure 2.4a by reading position and time values for the
ends of the green line from the graph:

Notice that this instantaneous velocity is on the same order of magnitude as our previous results, that is, a few meters per
second. Is that what you would have expected?

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 Example 2.4    Modeling a Runner as a Particle

A kinesiologist is studying the biomechanics of the human body. (Kinesiology is the study of the movement of the human
body. Notice the connection to the word kinematics.) She determines the velocity of an experimental subject while he runs
along a straight line at a constant rate. The kinesiologist starts the stopwatch at the moment the runner passes a given point
and stops it after the runner has passed another point 20 m away. The time interval indicated on the stopwatch is 4.0 s.

(A) What is the runner’s velocity?

SOLUTION
Conceptualize We model the moving runner as a particle because the size of the runner and the movement of arms and
legs are unnecessary details.

Categorize Because the problem states that the subject runs “at a constant rate,” we can model him as a particle under
constant velocity.

Dx xf 2 xi 20 m 2 0
Analyze Having identified the model, we can use Equation 2.6 to vx 5 5 5 5 5.0 mys
Dt Dt 4.0 s
find the constant velocity of the runner:

(B) If the runner continues his motion after the stopwatch is stopped, what is his position after 10 s have passed?

SOLUTION
Use Equation 2.7 and the velocity found in part (A) to xf 5 xi 1 vxt 5 0 1 (5.0 m/s)(10 s) 5 50 m
find the position of the particle at time t 5 10 s:

Finalize Is the result for part (A) a reasonable speed for a human? How does it compare to world-record speeds in 100-m and
200-m sprints? Notice the value in part (B) is more than twice that of the 20-m position at which the stopwatch was stopped. Is
this value consistent with the time of 10 s being more than twice the time of 4.0 s?

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 Example 2.7    Carrier Landing

A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at a speed of 140 mi/h (< 63 m/s).

(A) What is its acceleration (assumed constant) if it stops in 2.0 s due to an arresting cable that snags the jet and brings it to
a stop?

SOLUTION
Conceptualize You might have seen movies or television shows in which a jet lands on an aircraft carrier and is brought to rest
surprisingly fast by an arresting cable. A careful reading of the problem reveals that in addition to being given the initial speed
of 63 m/s, we also know that the final speed is zero. We define our x axis as the direction of motion of the jet. Notice that we
have no information about the change in position of the jet while it is slowing down.

Categorize Because the acceleration of the jet is assumed constant, we model it as a particle under constant acceleration.

vxf 2 vxi 0 2 63 mys

Analyze Equation 2.13 is the only equation in the particle ax 5 <
t 2.0 s
under constant acceleration model that does not involve
position, so we use it to find the acceleration of the jet, 5 232 m/s2
modeled as a particle:

(B) If the jet touches down at position xi 5 0, what is its final position?

SOLUTION
Use Equation 2.15 to solve for the final position: xf 5 xi 1 12svxi 1 vxfdt 5 0 1 12s63 mys 1 0ds2.0 sd 5 63 m

Finalize Given the size of aircraft carriers, a length of 63 m seems reasonable for stopping the jet. The idea of using arresting
cables to slow down landing aircraft and enable them to land safely on ships originated at about the time of World War I. The
cables are still a vital part of the operation of modern aircraft carriers.

w h a t i f ? Suppose the jet lands on the deck of the aircraft carrier with a speed faster than 63 m/s but has the same
acceleration due to the cable as that calculated in part (A). How will that change the answer to part (B)?
Answer If the jet is traveling faster at the beginning, it will stop farther away from its starting point, so the answer to part (B)
should be larger. Mathematically, we see in Equation 2.15 that if vxi is larger, then xf will be larger.

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 Example 2.8 Watch Out for the Speed Limit!
t   1.00 s t  0 t  ?
You are driving at a constant speed of 45.0 m/s when you pass a
trooper on a motorcycle hidden behind a billboard. One second   
after your car passes the billboard, the trooper sets out from the
billboard to catch you, accelerating at a constant rate of 3.00 m/s2.
How long does it take the trooper to overtake your car?

SOLUTION
Conceptualize This example represents a class of problems called
context-rich problems. These problems involve real-world situations
that one might encounter in one’s daily life. These problems also Figure 2.13 (Example 2.8) You are in a speeding car that
involve “you” as opposed to an unspecified particle or object. With passes a hidden trooper.
you as the character in the problem, you can make the connection
between physics and everyday life!

Categorize A pictorial representation (Fig. 2.13) helps clarify the sequence of events. Your car is modeled as a particle under
constant velocity, and the trooper is modeled as a particle under constant acceleration.

Analyze First, we write expressions for the position of each vehicle as a function of time. It is convenient to choose the position
of the billboard as the origin and to set t Ⓑ 5 0 as the time the trooper begins moving. At that instant, your car has already
traveled a distance of 45.0 m from the billboard because it has traveled at a constant speed of vx 5 45.0 m/s for 1 s. Therefore,
the initial position of your car is xⒷ 5 45.0 m.

Using the particle under constant velocity model, apply x car 5 x Ⓑ 1 vx car t
Equation 2.7 to give your car’s position at any time t:

A quick check shows that at t 5 0, this expression gives your car’s correct initial position when the trooper begins to
move: x car 5 x Ⓑ 5 45.0 m.

The trooper starts from rest at t Ⓑ 5 0 and accelerates at xf 5 xi 1 vxit 1 12ax t 2

ax 5 3.00 m/s2 away from the origin. Use Equation 2.16 x trooper 5 0 1 s0dt 1 12ax t 2 5 12ax t 2
to give her position at any time t:

Set the positions of your car and the trooper equal to x trooper 5 x car
represent the trooper overtaking your car at position Ⓒ: 1
2 ax t
2
5 xⒷ 1 vx cart
1 2
Rearrange to give a quadratic equation: 2 ax t 2 vx cart 2 xⒷ 5 0

vx car 6 Ïvx2car 1 2axxⒷ

Solve the quadratic equation for the time at which the t5
ax
trooper catches your car (for help in solving quadratic
equations, see Appendix B.2):
(1) t 5
vx car
ax
6 Î vx2 car
ax 2
1
2xⒷ
ax

Evaluate the solution, choosing the positive root because

that is the only choice consistent with a time t . 0:
t5
45.0 mys
3.00 mys2
1 Î s45.0 mysd2
1
2s45.0 md
s3.00 mys2d2 3.00 mys2
5 31.0 s

Finalize Why didn’t we choose t 5 0 as the time at which your car passes the trooper? If we did so, we would not be able to use
the particle under constant acceleration model for the trooper. Her acceleration would be zero for the first second and then
3.00 m/s2 for the remaining time. By defining the time t 5 0 as when the trooper begins moving, we can use the particle under
constant acceleration model for her movement for all positive times.

w h at if ? What if the trooper had a more powerful motorcycle with a larger acceleration? How would that change the
time at which the trooper catches your car?
Answer If the motorcycle has a larger acceleration, the trooper should catch up to your car sooner, so the answer for the time
should be less than 31 s. Because all terms on the right side of Equation (1) have the acceleration ax in the denominator, we see
symbolically that increasing the acceleration will decrease the time at which the trooper catches your car.

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 Example 2.10    Not a Bad Throw for a Rookie!  t   2.04 s
y   20.4 m
A stone thrown from the top of a building is given an initial velocity vy   0
ay   9.80 m/s2
of 20.0 m/s straight upward. The stone is launched 50.0 m above the
ground, and the stone just misses the edge of the roof on its way down
as shown in Figure 2.14.
(A) Using t Ⓐ 5 0 as the time the stone leaves the thrower’s hand t  0
y  0
at position Ⓐ, determine the time at which the stone reaches its max-
vy   20.0 m/s
imum height. ay   9.80 m/s2  t   4.08 s
y  0
 vy   20.0 m/s
ay   9.80 m/s2
SOLUTION
Conceptualize You most likely Figure 2.14 (Example 2.10) Position,
have experience with dropping velocity, and acceleration values at
objects or throwing them upward various times for a freely falling stone
and watching them fall, so this thrown initially upward with a velocity
problem should describe a familiar vyi 5 20.0 m/s. Many of the quantities
in the labels for points in the motion
experience. To simulate this situa-
of the stone are calculated in the
tion, toss a small object upward and
example. Can you verify the other val-
notice the time interval required ues that are not?  t   5.00 s
for it to fall to the floor. Now imag- y   22.5 m
50.0 m
ine throwing that object upward vy   29.0 m/s
from the roof of a building. ay   9.80 m/s2

Categorize Because the stone is in free fall, it is modeled as a particle under

constant acceleration due to gravity.

Analyze Recognize that the initial velocity is positive because the

stone is launched upward. The velocity will change sign after the stone
reaches its highest point, but the acceleration of the stone will always be t   5.83 s
downward so that it will always have a negative value. Choose an initial y   50.0 m
point just after the stone leaves the person’s hand and a final point at  vy   37.1 m/s2
ay   9.80 m/s
the top of its flight.
vyf 2 vyi vyⒷ 2 vyⒶ
Use Equation 2.13 to calculate the time at which the vyf 5 vyi 1 ayt S t 5 5
ay 2g
stone reaches its maximum height:
0 2 20.0 mys
Substitute numerical values, recognizing that v = 0 at point Ⓑ: t 5 tⒷ 5 5 2.04 s
29.80 mys2

(B) Find the maximum height of the stone.

SOLUTION
As in part (A), choose the initial and final points at the beginning and the end of the upward flight.
Set y Ⓐ 5 0 and substitute the time from part (A) ymax 5 yⒷ 5 yⒶ 1 vx Ⓐ t 1 12ayt 2
into Equation 2.16 to find the maximum height:
yⒷ 5 0 1 s20.0 mysds2.04 sd 1 12s29.80 mys2ds2.04 sd2 5 20.4 m

(C) Determine the velocity of the stone when it returns to the height from which it was thrown.

SOLUTION
Choose the initial point where the stone is launched and the final point when it passes this position coming down.

Substitute known values into Equation 2.17: vyⒸ2 5 vyⒶ2 1 2ay(y Ⓒ 2 y Ⓐ)

vyⒸ2 5 (20.0 m/s)2 1 2(29.80 m/s2)(0 2 0) 5 400 m2/s2

vyⒸ 5 220.0 m/s

continued
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2.10 c o n t i n u e d
When taking the square root, we could choose either a positive or a negative root. We choose the negative root because we
know that the stone is moving downward at point Ⓒ. The velocity of the stone when it arrives back at its original height is equal
in magnitude to its initial velocity but is opposite in direction.

(D) Find the velocity and position of the stone at t 5 5.00 s.

SOLUTION
Choose the initial point just after the throw and the final point 5.00 s later.

Calculate the velocity at Ⓓ from Equation 2.13: vyⒹ5 vyⒶ 1 ayt 5 20.0 m/s 1 (29.80 m/s2)(5.00 s) 5 229.0 m/s

Use Equation 2.16 to find the position of  yⒹ 5 yⒶ 1 vyⒶ t 1 12ayt 2

the stone at t Ⓓ 5 5.00 s: 5 0 1 (20.0 m/s)(5.00 s) 1 12(29.80 m/s2)(5.00 s)2
5 222.5 m

Finalize The choice of the time defined as t 5 0 is arbitrary and up to you to select as the problem solver. As an example of
this arbitrariness, choose t 5 0 as the time at which the stone is at the highest point in its motion. Then solve parts (C) and (D)
again using this new initial instant and notice that your answers are the same as those above.

w h at if ? What if the throw were from 30.0 m above the ground instead of 50.0 m? Which answers in parts (A) to (D)
would change?
Answer None of the answers would change. All the motion takes place in the air during the first 5.00 s. (Notice that even for
a throw from 30.0 m, the stone is above the ground at t 5 5.00 s.) Therefore, the height from which the stone is thrown is not
an issue. Mathematically, if we look back over our calculations, we see that we never entered the height from which the stone
is thrown into any equation.

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