CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The effectiveness of teaching strategies in achieving desired academic outcomes has continued to

be a major concern among educators and stakeholders in the educational sector. In recent years,

the shift from traditional, teacher-centered approaches to student-centered learning strategies has

led to the adoption of inquiry-based learning (IBL) as a viable pedagogical method, especially in

science education. Inquiry-based learning involves an active learning process where students

engage in questioning, investigating, and constructing new understandings from firsthand

experiences. This method has been recognized globally as a transformative approach that fosters

critical thinking, creativity, and meaningful learning, particularly in the sciences (Hmelo-Silver,

Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Pedaste et al., 2015).

The focus of this study basic science represents an integrated curriculum designed to expose

students to the foundational principles of biology, chemistry, and physics at the junior secondary

school level. Academic achievement in this context refers to students’ performance on assessments

and their ability to comprehend and apply scientific concepts. The success or failure of students in

Basic Science is often influenced by the instructional approaches employed by teachers.

Traditional methods such as lecture-based or rote learning have proven inadequate in fostering

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deep understanding and long-term retention of knowledge (Adesoji & Olatunbosun, 2008;

Omorogbe & Celestine, 2013). These approaches typically position the teacher as the primary

source of knowledge, with students playing passive roles in the learning process.

Inquiry-based learning counters this narrative by placing students at the center of learning. It

promotes exploration, experimentation, and reflection, which are essential components of science

education. Through IBL, students are not only exposed to scientific facts but are also trained to act

like scientists asking questions, formulating hypotheses, designing investigations, gathering data,

analyzing results, and drawing conclusions (Chin & Chia, 2004). Such active engagement has been

found to enhance students’ interest, motivation, and ultimately their academic performance (Kuhn,

Black, Keselman, & Kaplan, 2000; Nwagbo, 2006).

Several studies have underscored the significance of inquiry-based learning in improving students’

learning outcomes. For instance, Zion and Mendelovici (2012) reported a positive correlation

between inquiry-based instruction and improved problem-solving skills among middle school

students. Similarly, Okebukola (2002) found that students taught with inquiry methods in Nigerian

classrooms performed significantly better than those taught with traditional approaches. Moreover,

Eggen and Kauchak (2012) emphasized that inquiry-based instruction allows for the development

of higher-order thinking skills, which are vital for the mastery of scientific concepts.

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Despite the compelling evidence in support of IBL, its adoption in Nigerian classrooms,

particularly in Basic Science, has been slow and inconsistent due to various challenges. These

include large class sizes, lack of instructional materials, insufficient teacher training, and rigid

curricular structures (Ogunniyi, 2006; Udeani & Okafor, 2012). This study, therefore, seeks to

explore the extent to which inquiry-based learning has impacted students’ achievement in Basic

Science in the Nigerian context, particularly in junior secondary schools. By reviewing relevant

literature and empirical studies, this chapter provides the theoretical and empirical foundation upon

which the current research is built.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Concept of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL)

Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) is an educational approach that centers on student investigation,

questioning, and exploration to build knowledge, develop understanding, and foster critical

thinking skills. It contrasts sharply with didactic methods by promoting active learning where

students construct their own understanding through hands-on activities and guided discovery

(Bruner, 1961; Dewey, 1938). IBL encourages learners to identify problems, formulate hypotheses,

gather and analyze data, and draw conclusions, effectively mirroring the scientific method (Pedaste

et al., 2015). This approach is deeply rooted in constructivist theories, where learners actively build

new knowledge based on prior experiences and interactions with their environment (Vygotsky,

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1978; Jonassen, 1999). Inquiry learning can range from structured inquiry, where the teacher

provides the question and procedure, to open inquiry, where students independently frame the

problems and methods (Harlen, 2013). The flexibility and adaptability of IBL have made it a

widely endorsed strategy for science education worldwide due to its capacity to develop not only

content knowledge but also skills such as problem-solving, communication, and collaboration

(Bell, Smetana, & Binns, 2005; Llewellyn, 2002).

2.2.2 Students’ Academic Achievement in Basic Science

Academic achievement in Basic Science refers to the measurable performance outcomes of

students in understanding scientific concepts, principles, and processes typically assessed through

examinations, assignments, and practical evaluations. Basic Science at the junior secondary level

integrates elements of biology, chemistry, and physics to build foundational scientific literacy

essential for further education and everyday life (Osokoya, 2005). Achievement is influenced by

cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains, encompassing knowledge retention, positive

attitudes towards science, and hands-on skills (Ezeudu & Oke, 2012). Higher academic

achievement in Basic Science is often linked to increased student motivation, effective teaching

methodologies, and the availability of resources (Adeyemo, 2010; Olaleye, 2011). As science

education is fundamental to technological and societal development, students’ performance in

Basic Science is a critical indicator of their preparedness for advanced studies and future careers

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in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields (National Research Council,

2012). Poor achievement, conversely, can limit access to these opportunities and hinder national

development efforts (UNESCO, 2015).

2.2.3 Inquiry-Based Learning vs Traditional Teaching Methods

Traditional teaching methods in science education often involve teacher-centered approaches

characterized by direct instruction, memorization, and passive learning where students receive

knowledge without significant interaction or exploration (Chukwu & Adeniji, 2013). This

approach has been criticized for fostering rote learning and failing to engage students in critical

thinking or problem-solving activities (Alake-Tuenter, Biemans, Tobi, Mulder, & Wals, 2013). In

contrast, Inquiry-Based Learning is student-centered, promoting active participation, curiosity, and

investigation (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007). While traditional methods emphasize content delivery

and factual recall, IBL focuses on the processes of learning, encouraging students to question,

experiment, and derive conclusions, thereby deepening conceptual understanding (Kuhn et al.,

2000). Empirical studies have demonstrated that students taught through IBL show higher

motivation, better retention, and improved academic achievement compared to those taught by

traditional methods (Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Minner, Levy, & Century, 2010). However, challenges

such as the need for extensive teacher preparation, longer instructional time, and classroom

management have limited the widespread adoption of IBL, especially in resource-constrained

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settings (Llewellyn, 2002; Ogunniyi, 2006). Nonetheless, the growing consensus favors IBL as an

effective pedagogical tool that aligns with the demands of modern science education, which seeks

to develop not only knowledge but also scientific inquiry skills and attitudes.

2.3 Empirical Review of Related Studies

2.3.1 Studies on the Effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning in Science Education

Numerous studies globally have established the effectiveness of Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) as

a potent instructional strategy in science education. Minner, Levy, and Century (2010) conducted

a meta-analysis of over 70 studies and found that inquiry-based instruction significantly improved

students’ understanding of scientific concepts and processes compared to traditional methods.

Their results showed that students engaged in IBL demonstrated greater problem-solving abilities

and retained knowledge more effectively. Similarly, a study by Furtak et al. (2012) confirmed that

IBL promotes higher-order thinking skills and conceptual understanding when properly

implemented, highlighting the importance of scaffolding and teacher guidance during the inquiry

process. In another investigation, Lazonder and Harmsen (2016) emphasized that inquiry activities

foster student engagement, motivation, and autonomy, which contribute positively to science

learning outcomes. The active nature of IBL also supports diverse learners by allowing multiple

entry points to content and varying cognitive challenges (Erduran & Dagher, 2014). Despite these

benefits, research also pointed out that the effectiveness of IBL is contingent on adequate teacher

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training, curriculum support, and resource availability (Passmore, Stewart, & Songer, 2009; Furtak

et al., 2012).

2.3.2 Studies on Inquiry-Based Learning and Students’ Academic Achievement

Several empirical studies have investigated the direct impact of Inquiry-Based Learning on

students’ academic achievement, often reporting positive outcomes. A study by Tekkaya, Ozkan,

and Sungur (2001) demonstrated that students taught with inquiry-based methods scored

significantly higher in science achievement tests than those taught with lecture-based approaches.

Similarly, Han, Capraro, and Capraro (2015) found that inquiry instruction led to improved

academic performance in middle school science students, attributing this to increased student

interaction and conceptual engagement. In the Nigerian context, Ogbondah and Nwosu (2018)

examined the effects of inquiry and conventional teaching methods on Basic Science achievement

and observed that the inquiry group outperformed their peers significantly. These findings align

with those of Alabi (2019), who reported that inquiry learning positively influenced students’

cognitive achievement and critical thinking in science classrooms. However, some researchers

note the challenges of implementing IBL on a large scale due to constraints such as class size, time

limits, and insufficient instructional materials (Prince & Felder, 2006; Okebukola, 2010).

Nonetheless, the consensus remains that IBL has a strong positive correlation with improved

academic achievement when these challenges are addressed.

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2.3.3 Empirical Review in Nigerian Context (Basic Science Education)

In Nigeria, empirical studies specifically focusing on Basic Science education and inquiry-based

approaches are growing but still limited compared to global research. Adewale (2017) investigated

the effects of inquiry-based teaching on junior secondary school students’ achievement in Basic

Science in Lagos State and found significant improvement in academic performance, particularly

among students who engaged actively in practical activities. Similarly, Obayi and Ifediora (2019)

reported that inquiry-based instructional strategies enhanced students’ problem-solving skills and

understanding of scientific concepts in Nigerian secondary schools. Research by Onasanya and

Kolawole (2020) indicated that inquiry methods improved students’ attitudes towards Basic

Science, which in turn positively affected their academic performance. Despite these positive

findings, challenges such as inadequate laboratory facilities, large class sizes, and teachers’ limited

knowledge of inquiry pedagogy were frequently cited as impediments to effective IBL

implementation (Ekundayo & Ayodele, 2014; Ogunbameru & Ajiboye, 2015). These studies

collectively highlight the promising role of IBL in improving Basic Science education in Nigeria

while emphasizing the need for policy and infrastructural support.

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2.4 Factors Influencing Students' Achievement in Basic Science

2.4.1 Role of Teaching Methodologies

Teaching methodologies play a pivotal role in shaping students’ achievement in Basic Science.

The choice of instructional approach directly affects how students comprehend scientific concepts,

engage with content, and apply knowledge. Studies have repeatedly shown that active, student-

centered methods such as Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) significantly enhance understanding and

retention of science content compared to traditional lecture-based approaches (Akerson, Cullen, &

Hanson, 2009; Alabi, 2019). Teaching methods that promote exploration, questioning, and hands-

on activities enable learners to construct knowledge meaningfully, thereby fostering deeper

learning (Prince & Felder, 2006). Moreover, research by Orji, Omoifo, and Iyamu (2018) revealed

that students exposed to varied instructional strategies, including demonstrations and experiments,

performed better in Basic Science assessments. Conversely, rote learning and didactic teaching

tend to limit critical thinking and problem-solving skills, negatively impacting academic

achievement (Adeyemo, 2017). The effectiveness of any teaching methodology is also influenced

by the teacher’s competence and familiarity with the method, highlighting the need for ongoing

professional development (Ekundayo & Ayodele, 2014).

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2.4.2 Classroom Environment and Resources

The classroom environment and availability of teaching resources are critical determinants of

students’ success in Basic Science. A well-organized, resource-rich classroom provides the

necessary context for effective learning and inquiry. According to Fraser (2012), a positive

classroom environment characterized by safety, support, and encouragement fosters students’

motivation and willingness to engage with science content. Adequate laboratory facilities and

teaching aids such as models, charts, and multimedia tools facilitate practical activities that are

essential for science learning (Onasanya & Kolawole, 2020). In contrast, many Nigerian schools

face challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, insufficient laboratory equipment, and lack of

teaching materials, which hamper the effective delivery of Basic Science curricula (Ogunbameru

& Ajiboye, 2015). Studies by Olumide and Olatunji (2019) confirmed that students in schools with

better infrastructural support achieved higher academic outcomes. Furthermore, the integration of

technology in the classroom has been shown to enhance understanding and stimulate interest in

science subjects (Sangwin, 2018). Therefore, ensuring a conducive learning environment and

adequate resources is indispensable for improving students’ academic achievement.

2.4.3 Student-Teacher Interaction and Engagement

The quality of interaction between students and teachers significantly influences achievement in

Basic Science. Effective communication, timely feedback, and supportive teacher behaviors

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encourage students to actively participate in learning activities and develop confidence in scientific

inquiry (Alake & Adetoro, 2016). Research indicates that classrooms where teachers foster

dialogue, encourage questions, and nurture curiosity tend to have higher student achievement

(Furtak et al., 2012). In a study by Ifegbo and Ugwu (2017), enhanced student-teacher engagement

was linked to better academic performance and positive attitudes toward science subjects.

Furthermore, personalized attention and mentorship help address individual learning difficulties,

thereby improving outcomes (Okeke, 2019). Conversely, teacher-centered classrooms with

minimal interaction often lead to student passivity and poor performance (Afolabi & Olaleye,

2018). Active engagement strategies such as group discussions, peer teaching, and collaborative

projects have been shown to deepen conceptual understanding and foster critical thinking (Prince

& Felder, 2006). Therefore, fostering dynamic student-teacher interactions is crucial for elevating

students’ achievement in Basic Science.

2.5 Challenges of Implementing Inquiry-Based Learning in Basic Science

2.5.1 Teacher Preparedness and Professional Development

One of the significant challenges hindering the successful implementation of Inquiry-Based

Learning (IBL) in Basic Science is inadequate teacher preparedness. Effective facilitation of IBL

requires teachers to possess deep content knowledge, strong pedagogical skills, and confidence in

managing student-led investigations (Harris, 2017). However, many science teachers, particularly

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in developing countries like Nigeria, often lack adequate training on inquiry methods (Ogunyemi

& Ajibade, 2019). Professional development programs have frequently been insufficient, irregular,

or poorly designed to equip teachers with the necessary skills to transition from traditional didactic

instruction to a facilitative role (Mbah, 2020). Moreover, resistance to change among teachers

accustomed to lecture-based teaching styles further impedes IBL adoption (Okeke & Uche, 2018).

This gap in teacher readiness often leads to improper or superficial application of inquiry

strategies, thereby limiting its potential benefits on student achievement (Adedoyin & Bada, 2021).

Sustained, targeted professional development and support are therefore critical to overcoming this

barrier.

2.5.2 Curriculum Constraints and Time Limitations

Curriculum design and time allocation represent another major barrier to implementing IBL

effectively in Basic Science. Inquiry-based approaches typically require more classroom time due

to the hands-on, exploratory nature of the activities (NRC, 2012). However, the existing curricula

in many Nigerian schools are densely packed with content, leaving limited time for open-ended

inquiry (Eze, 2018). The pressure to complete syllabus coverage for examinations often forces

teachers to revert to faster, more teacher-centered methods (Osakwe & Omoifo, 2017).

Additionally, the lack of flexibility within the curriculum framework restricts teachers' ability to

adapt lessons for inquiry-based activities (Adeyemi, 2019). This time crunch not only limits

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students’ opportunities to engage deeply with scientific concepts but also affects the quality of the

inquiry process itself (Akinbobola & Afolabi, 2020). Therefore, curriculum reform that integrates

inquiry-based activities and allows adequate time is essential for successful implementation.

2.5.3 Assessment Limitations in IBL Contexts

Assessment practices in Basic Science education also present challenges to IBL adoption.

Conventional assessment methods predominantly focus on rote memorization and recall of facts,

which do not align with the inquiry-based approach that emphasizes critical thinking, problem-

solving, and conceptual understanding (Black & Wiliam, 2009). This misalignment discourages

both teachers and students from fully engaging in inquiry activities, as exam success remains the

priority (Taiwo & Adewale, 2021). Furthermore, standardized testing formats often fail to capture

the complex learning outcomes of IBL, such as inquiry skills and scientific reasoning (Banchi &

Bell, 2008). The absence of reliable, valid, and practical assessment tools tailored for inquiry-

based learning environments undermines efforts to evaluate students' true achievement and

progress effectively (Oluwole & Ojo, 2020). Innovative assessment strategies that reflect the

nature of inquiry learning, such as formative assessments, project-based evaluations, and peer

assessment, are needed to support and reinforce IBL implementation.

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2.6 Summary of Literature Review

The literature reviewed in this chapter highlighted the key concepts, theories, and empirical

findings related to inquiry-based learning and students’ academic achievement in Basic Science.

Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) was established as a student-centered approach that promotes active

engagement, critical thinking, and scientific inquiry skills, contrasting with traditional teacher-

centered methods. Studies consistently showed that IBL positively influences students’ academic

achievement by fostering deeper conceptual understanding and motivation. However, the

successful implementation of IBL depends on multiple factors such as teacher preparedness,

adequate training, curriculum flexibility, and appropriate assessment methods. Empirical research,

both globally and within the Nigerian context, supports the effectiveness of IBL but also points to

challenges such as limited resources, time constraints, and resistance to pedagogical change. The

review also identified significant factors affecting students’ achievement in Basic Science,

including teaching methodologies, classroom environment, and teacher-student interaction.

Overall, the literature underscores the potential of IBL to improve learning outcomes in Basic

Science if the identified challenges are addressed through systemic support and reforms. This

review provided a foundation for investigating the impact of inquiry-based learning on students’

achievement in Basic Science, guiding the research design and focus of the current study.

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Adeyemi, T. O. (2019). Curriculum flexibility and inquiry-based learning in Nigerian secondary

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