Mathematics for Natural Science

Chapter Three
Functions

Mekashaw Ali(Ph.D.)

January 31, 2025

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 Main topics of the chapter

Review of relations and functions

Real Valued functions and their properties

Types of functions and inverse of a function

Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions

and their graphs

Definition and basic properties of logarithmic,

exponential, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
and their graphs
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 Review of relations and functions
• Cartesian Product
Definition
Suppose A and B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, de-
noted by A × B, is the set which contains every ordered pair whose
first coordinate is an element of A and second coordinate is an ele-
ment of B, i.e.,

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 1
For A = {2, 4} and B = {−1, 3}, we have
(a) A × B = {(2, −1), (2, 3), (4, −1), (4, 3)}, and
(b) B × A = {(−1, 2), (−1, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4)}.
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 Definition (Equality of Ordered Pairs)

Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and
b = d.

Definition (Relation from A into B)

If A and B are sets, any subset of A × B is called a relation from A

into B.

Example 2
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}, then form a relation from:
1 A to B
2 B to A
3 A to A
4 B to B
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 Definition Let R be a relation from A into B. Then
(a) the domain of R, denoted by Dom(R), is the set of first
coordinates of the elements of R, i.e.,

Dom(R) = {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R}

(b) the range of R, denoted by Range(R), is the set of second

coordinates of elements of R, i.e.,

Range(R) = {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R}

(c.) the set B is called the codomain of the relation R .

The range of relation is always a subset of the codomain.

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Example 3
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 67}.
Let R = {(x , y ) ∈ A × B : y is the cube of x }. Find:
(a) R
(b) Dom(R)
(c) Range(R)
(d) The codomain of R

Remark:
i) A relation R on a set A is called
(a) universal relation if R = A × A
(b) identity relation if R = {((a, a) : a ∈ A)}
(c) void or empty relation if R = ∅

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 ii) If R is a relation from A into B, then the inverse relation of R,
denoted by R −1 , is a relation from B to A and is given by:

R −1 = {(y , x ) : (x , y ) ∈ R}

iiii) Observe that Dom(R) = Range(R −1 ) and Range(R) = Dom(R −1 ).

Example 4
Let R be a relation defined on N by R = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ N, a + 2b = 11}.
Then find:
a) R
b) R −1
c) Dom(R) and Range(R)
d) Dom(R)−1 and Range(R)−1
e) The codomain of R and R −1
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 Functions
Definition (Function)

A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corre-

sponds to exactly one element of the range.

Example 5
Determine whether the following relations are functions.
a) R = {(5, 2), (5, 3), (3, 7)}
b) R(2, 4), (3, 4), (6, 4)
c) R = {(x , y ) : y = |x |}
d) R = {(x , y ) : x = |y |}
√
e) R = {(x , y ) : y = x }
f) R = {(x , y ) : y if the father of x
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 Definition (Function)

A relation f from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted

by
f
f :A→B or A→B

if and only if
1 Dom(f ) = A
2 No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in
B, i.e., if (x , y ) ∈ f and (x , z) ∈ f , then y = z.

Q1: n
Let f be
the subset of Qo× Z defined by
p
f = q , p | p, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0 . Is f a function? (NO) Verify!!
Q2: Let f be the subset of Z × Z defined by
f = {(mn, m + n) | m, n ∈ Z}. Is f a function? (NO) Verify!!

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 Domain, codomain and range of a function

For a function f : A → B:
1 The set A is called the domain of f .
2 The set B is called the codomain of f .
3 The set {f (x ) | x ∈ A} of all images of elements of A is called the
range of f .

Example 6
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, . . . , 10}. Let f : A → B be the
correspondence which assigns to each element in A its square. Thus, we
have f (1) = 1, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 9. Therefore, f is a function and
Dom(f ) = {1, 2, 3}, the codomain of f is {1, 2, . . . , 10} and
Ran(f ) = {1, 4, 9}.

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Example 7
Determine whether the following equations determine y as a function of x ;
if so, find the domain of the function.
a) y = −3x + 5
2x
b) y = 3x −5
c) y 2 = x

Solution:
a) It is a function and Dom(f ) = R
b) It is a function and Dom(f ) = R ̸= { 53 }
c) It is NOT a function. Because (−2, 4), (2, 4) can be elements of f.

Example 8
√
Find the domain of the function y = 3x − x 2 .

AN: Dom(f ) = [0, 3]

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Real Valued functions and their properties

Let f be a function from set A to set B. If B is a subset of the set of

real numbers R, then f is called a real valued function, and in
particular if A is also a subset of R, then f : A → B is called a real
valued function.

Example 9
1. The function f : R → R defined by f (x ) = x 2 + 3x + 7, x ∈ R is a
real valued function.
2. The function f : R → R defined as f (x ) = |x | is also a real valued
function.
√
3. The function f : R → C defined by f (x ) = x 2 + 3x + 7 + i x , x ∈ R
is NOT a real valued function.

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 Operations on functions
Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions
Let f (x ) and g(x ) be two functions. We define the following four
functions:
1 (f + g)(x ) = f (x ) + g(x ) (The sum of the two functions.)
2 (f − g)(x ) = f (x ) − g(x ) (The difference of the two functions.)
3 (f · g)(x ) = f (x ) · g(x ) (The product of the two functions.)
 
f f (x )
4
g (x ) = g(x ) (provided g(x ) ̸= 0) (The quotient of the two
functions.)

Note:
Dom(f ± g) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g)
Dom(f × g) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g)
(Dom(f /g) = Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g)) \{g(x ) = 0}
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Example 10
√ √
Let f (x ) = x + 1 and g(x ) = 9 − x 2 , with respective domains [−1, ∞)
and [−3, 3].

Find formulas for f + g, f − g, f · g, and f 3 and give their domains.

Solution:
Formula Domain
√ √
(f + g)(x ) = f (x ) + g(x ) = x +1+ 9 − x2 [−1, 3]
√ √
(f − g)(x ) = f (x ) − g(x ) = x + 1 − 9 − x2 [−1, 3]
√ √
(f · g)(x ) = f (x ) · g(x ) = x + 1 · 9 − x 2 [−1, 3]
  √
f (x )
f
g (x ) = g(x ) =
√ x +1 [−1, 3)
9−x 2
3 3
√
3
f (x ) = (f (x )) = x + 1 = (x + 1)3/2 [−1, ∞)

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 Composition of functions

Given two functions f (x ) and g(x ), the composition of the two

functions is denoted by f ◦ g and is defined by:

(f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x )).

(f ◦ g)(x ) is read as "f composed with g of x ."

In (f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x ))
g(x ) is in the domain of f .

Domain of f ◦ g ⊆ Domain of g.

Range of f ◦ g ⊆ Range of f .

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Example 11
1 Given f (x ) = 5x 2 − 3x + 2 and g(x ) = 4x − 3, find:
a) (f ◦ g)(x )
b) (g ◦ f )(x )
c) (f ◦ g)(−2)
d) (g ◦ f )(2)
x 2
2 Given f (x ) = x +1 and g(x ) = x −1 , find:
a) (f ◦ g)(x ) and its domain
b) (g ◦ f )(−1) and its domain
3 Let the functions g(x ) and f (x ) be defined as follows:
 
x + 2 if x < 0 2x if x < 1
g(x ) = and f (x ) =
x 2 if x ≥ 0 3 if x ≥ 1

Then compute (f ◦ g)(x ), (f ◦ g)(2) and (f ◦ g)(−1)

4 Let f (x ) = 5x + 4 and g ◦ f (x ) = 7x − 1. Find g(x ).
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 Definition (Equality of functions)

Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two
conditions hold:
1 The functions have the same domain.
2 Their functional values are equal at each element of the
domain.

Example 12
1 Let f : Z → Z ∪ {0} and g : Z → Z ∪ {0} be defined by
f (n) = {(n, n2 )} for n ∈ Z and g(n) = {(n, |n|2 )} for n ∈ Z. Now, for
all n ∈ Z, f (n) = n2 = |n|2 = g(n). Thus, f = g.
x 2 −25
2 Let f (x ) = x −5 , x ∈ R and g(x ) = x + 5, x ∈ R. The functions
f and g are not equal because Dom(f ) ̸= Dom(g).

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Types of functions and inverse of a function

There are different types of functions. These are:

One-to-one function (Injective function)
Onto function (Surjective function)
One-to-one correspondence (Bijective)
One-to-one function (Injective function)
If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in
the co-domain, then the function is said to be one-to-one function.
Definition
A function f : A → B is called one-to-one, often written 1 − 1, if
and only if for all x1 , x2 ∈ A, f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 .

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Example 13
Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = 3x + 5. Show that f is one-to-one.

Solution:
Let x1 , x2 ∈ R such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). This implies: 3x1 + 5 = 3x2 + 5
Subtracting 5 from both sides, we get: 3x1 = 3x2 . Dividing both sides by
3, we have: x1 = x2 Therefore, f is one-to-one.
Horizontal Line Test (HLT) is used to identify 1-1 function using
their graphs.
i.e. A function f : A → B is one-to-one, if and only if any horizontal line
crosses its graph at most once.!!!

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Example 14
Show whether the following functions are one-to-one functions or not
using the above definition or horizontal line test.
a. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = 2x + 3
b. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = x 2
c. Let f : [0, ∞) → R given by f (x ) = x 2
d. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = |x − 1|
e. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = 2x
f. A is the set of ordered pairs (x , y ) : y is the mother of x (Assume
that the mother has more than one child.)

Solution: Only a, c and e are 1-1or injective functions.

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Example 15 (Identify the 1-1 function from the following.)

Solution: f (x ) and n(x ) are 1-1, but g(x ) and m(x ) are Not.

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Onto function (Surjective function)
A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain
has at least one pre – image in the domain.
Definition
Let f be a function from a set A into a set B. Then f is called an
onto function (or f maps onto B) if every element of B is an image
of some element in A, i.e.,

Range(f ) = B.

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Example 16 (Identify the onto function from the following.)

Solution: a onto and not 1-1 b both 1-1 and onto

c 1-1 and not onto d not 1-1 and not onto.

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Example 17
Show whether the following functions are one-to-one functions or not
using the above definition or horizontal line test.
a. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = 2x + 3
b. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = x 2
c. Let f : [0, ∞) → R given by f (x ) = x 2
d. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = |x − 1|
e. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = 2x
f. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = 3x
g. Let f : [0, 3] → R given by f (x ) = 2x + 4

Solution: Only a and e are onto or surjective functions.

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 One to one correspondence (Bijective function)
Definition
A function f : A → B is said to be a one-to-one correspondence if f
is both one to one and onto.

Example 18
Show whether the following functions are injective, surjective, both
injective and surjective function.
a. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = −4x + 3
b. Let f : (0, ∞) → R given by f (x ) = logx4
c. Let f : R → [0, ∞) given by f (x ) = x 2
d. Let f : R → R given by f (x ) = |x + 2|
e. Let f : R → (0, ∞) given by f (x ) = 3x
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Example 19 (Which of the following sets of values represent an
injective, surjective, bijective function?)

Solution: f neither g 1-1, onto, 1-1 corrsp.

n 1-1 m surjective.
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Note:
a. Linear function, exponential functions and logarithmic functions are
special classes of bijective function.
b. Constant function is surjective, but not injective function.
c. Let A be a finite set. If f : A → A is onto, then it is one to one.

Inverse of a function
Definition

The inverse of a function f is denoted by f −1 , and defined by

f −1 = {(y , x ) : (x , y ) ∈ f }

.
Thus, Dom(f ) = Ran(f −1 ) and Dom(f −1 ) = Ran(f )

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A one to one function is special because only one to one functions
have inverse.
If a function is one to one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps
below:
1. Interchange x and y in the equation y = f (x ).
2. Solving the resulting equation for y to obtaining the inverse function.

Example 20
1. Find f −1 with its domain and range for the following given functions.

a. y = x3
x
b. y=
x +2
x −2
2. Find the range of f if f (x ) = 3x +1 .

√
Ans: 1 a f −1 (x ) = 3
x b. f −1 (x ) = 2x
1−x . 2. Ran(f ) = R\{ 13 }

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Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions
and their graphs
Polynomial Functions

Definition A polynomial function is a function of the form

y = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , an ̸= 0.

Thus;
i. Each ai is assumed to be a real number, and n is a
non-negative integer.
ii. an is called the leading coefficient.
iii. n is called degree of the polynomial.
iv. a0 is called the constant term.
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Remark:
1 The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real
numbers.
2 A polynomial of degree 0 is called a constant function.
3 A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
4 A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic function.
5 A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
Example 21
Find the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term of the following
polynomial functions:
3
1 f (x ) = 3x 3 − 9x 2 + 5x + 2
2 h(x ) = −5x 4 + 8x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 7
3 g(x ) = −2 + 3x 2 + 52 x 2 − x 4 + 4x 5 + 5x
 
1
4 g(x ) = 2 x 4 + 2 − 2 + x + x4 + 1

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Note
There are two ways to check whether a given function is not a polynomial
function.
Its domain is not all real numbers.
It does not take the form or unable to transform it to the form

p(x ) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 ,

where n is a non-negative integer (0 or positive integers) and

an , an−1 , . . . , a2 , a1 , a0 are real numbers with an ̸= 0.

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Example 22
Which of the following are polynomial functions? For those which are
polynomials, find the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term.
a) f (x ) = 32 x 4 − 12x 2 + x + 7
8
x +1
b) g(x ) = x +1
c) f (x ) = 2x −4 − x 2 + 8x + 1
x 2 +1
d) h(x ) = x 2 +1
√ √
e) k(x ) = (1 − 2x )(1 + 2x )
8 15
f) g(x ) = 15 x
6
g) f (x ) = y

Solution: a, d, e and f are polynomial functions.

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 Properties of Polynomial function

1 The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word

smooth means that the graph does not have any sharp corners as
turning points.
2 If p is a polynomial of degree n, then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a
quadratic polynomial has at most 2 zeros.
3 The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most
n − 1 turning points. Thus, the graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can
have at most 4 turning points.
4 The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as
|x | gets very large, |y | gets very large.

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 Definition
A polynomial function p(x ) is said to be:
1 a polynomial function over integers if the coefficients of p(x )
are all integers.
2 a polynomial function over rational numbers if the coefficients
of p(x ) are all rational numbers.
3 a polynomial function over real numbers if the coefficients of
p(x ) are all real numbers.

Note:
i. A polynomial function over integers can be a polynomial function
over rational number and real number.
ii. A polynomial function over rational number can be a polynomial
function over real number.
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Example 23
Identify the following polynomial functions as polynomial functions over
integers, polynomial functions over rational numbers, or polynomial
functions over real numbers:
√ 3
1 f (x ) = 5x − 6x + 10
11 − x − 9
2 g(x ) = 3x 5 + 2x 4 − 23x 3 + 25x 2 − 45
3 k(x ) = 3.5x 4 + 45 x 3 + 2x 2 − 55

Solution:
1. A polynomial function over rational number and real number.
2. A polynomial function over integers, rational number and real number.
3. A polynomial function over rational number and real number.

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 Operations on Polynomial Functions

Definition
Let f and g be two polynomial functions. Then,
a. (f + g)(x ) = f (x ) + g(x ) for all real numbers x .
b. (f − g)(x ) = f (x )g(x ) for all real numbers x .
c. (f × g)(x ) = f (x ) × g(x ) for all real numbers x .
f f (x )
d.
g (x ) = g(x ) for all real numbers x and g(x ) ̸= 0.

Example 24
Let f (x ) = 4x 3 + 4x 2 − x + 4 and g(x ) = 2x − 1 be two polynomials.
Then find f + g, f − g, f × g and f ÷ g.

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Observation
a. If f (x ) and g(x ) have the same degree, the degree of their sum or
their difference may be lower or equal to either degree of f or degree
of g.
b. The sum of two polynomial functions is a polynomial function.
c. For any two non-zero polynomial functions f and g, the degree of
f · g is m + n if the degree of f is m and the degree of g is n.
d. If either f or g is the zero polynomial then f · g becomes the zero
polynomial and has no degree.
e. The product of two polynomial functions is a polynomial function.

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 Theorems on Polynomials
Polynomial Division Theorem

If f (x ) and d(x ) are polynomials such that d(x ) ̸= 0, and the degree
of d(x ) is less than or equal to the degree of f (x ), then there exist
unique polynomials q(x ) and r (x ) such that

f (x ) = d(x ) · q(x ) + r (x )

where, r (x ) = 0 or the degree of r (x ) is less than the degree of d(x ).

If the remainder r (x ) is zero, d(x ) divides f (x ) exactly.

Example 25
Let f (x ) = x 4 + 1 and d(x ) = x 2 + 2x , then find polynomials q(x ) and
r (x ) such that f (x ) = d(x ) · q(x ) + r (x )
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The Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial p(x ) of degree at least 1 is divided by x − r , then
the remainder is p(r ).

The Factor Theorem

x − r is a factor of p(x ) if and only if p(r ) = 0.

Location Theorem
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such
that a < b. If f (a)f (b) < 0, then there is at least one zero of f
between a and b.

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Example 26
1. Find the remainder when the polynomial f (x ) = x 2 − x + 3 is divided
by the polynomial x − 1 and x = 2
2. Find the value of a and b such that when x 3 + ax 2 + bx − 9 is divided
by x + 1 and x − 2, the remainder is 4 and 5 respectively.
3. Show that x + 1 and x − 2 are factors but x + 2 is not a factor of
f (x ) = x 4 − x 3 − x 2 − x − 2.
4. Find the values of a and b in the polynomial x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 6
such that x + 1 and x − 2 are its factors.
5. Using the location theorem, show that the polynomial function
f (x ) = x 5 − 2x 4 − 4x 2 + 4x + 4 has a zero between x = 1 and x = 2.

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 Zeros of a Polynomial Function

Definition
For a polynomial function f (x ) and a real number c, if f (c) = 0 then
c is a zero of f .

Example 27
1 Find the zeros of f (x ) = (x − 2)(3x + 4)(1 − 4x ).
2 Determine the zeros of f (x ) = x 4 − 13x 2 + 36.
3 If x = 1 is one zero of f (x ) = −x 3 − 6x 2 + 11x − 6, then find the rest
of the real zeros and rewrite f (x ) as a product of its factors.

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 Definition

If (x − c)k is a factor of a polynomial function f (x ), but (x − c)k+1

is not, then c is said to be a zero of multiplicity k of f (x ).

1 Given that x = −1 is a zero of f (x ) = x 3 − x 2 − 5x − 3, find its

multiplicity.
2 Find a polynomial function f (x ) of degree two whose zeros are 1 and
−2 and satisfying the condition f (3) = 30.

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 The Linear Factorization Theorem

If p(x ) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , where n ≥ 1 and an ̸= 0,

then
p(x ) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ),

where the ri are complex numbers (possible real and not necessarily
distinct).

Example 28

p(x ) = x 3 − 6x 2 − 16x =x (x 2 − 6x − 16)

=x (x − 8)(x + 2)

Therefore, the zeros of p(x ) are 0, 8, and −2 each of multiplicity one.

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 Conjugate Roots Theorem

Let p(x ) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number

a + bi (where a and b are real numbers) is a zero of p(x ), then so is
its conjugate a − bi.

Example 29
√
Let r (x ) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 26x − 20. Given that 1 − 3i is a zero, find
the other zero of r (x ).

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 √
Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1 − 3i is a
√
zero, then its conjugate, 1 + 3i, must also be a zero. Therefore,
√ √
x − (1 − 3)i and x − (1 + 3)i are both factors of r (x ). Again their
product is also a factor of r (x ). So,
√ √
(x − (1 − 3i))(x − (1 + 3i)) = x 2 − 2x + 4 is a factor of r (x ).

Dividing r (x ) by x 2 − 2x + 4, we obtain

r (x ) = (x 2 − 2x + 4)(x 2 + 4x − 5).
√ √
Thus, the zeros of r (x ) are 1 − 3i, 1 + 3i,, -5 and 1.
Q1: If 2 − 3i is a root of p(x ) = 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 14x + 39, find the remaining
zeros of p(x ).

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 Rational Root Test

Rational root test

Suppose that all the coefficients of the polynomial function described
by
f (x ) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0
p
are integers with an ̸= 0 and a0 ̸= 0. If q is a root of f (x ) in lowest
terms, then p is a factor of a0 and q is a factor of an .

Example 30
Find all the zeros of the function p(x ) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12.

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Example 31
p
Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if q is a rational root
of the given equation, then p must be a factor of a0 and q must be a
factor of an . We have:
Possible values of p : ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12
Possible values of q : ±1, ±2
Calculating possible rational roots pq :

1 3 2 3 4 6 12
±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12 and ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ±
2 2 1 1 1 1 1
We may check these possible roots by substituting the values into p(x ).
Now p(1) = −30 and p(−1) = 12. Since p(−1) is positive, by location
theorem, p(x ) has a root between −1 and 1. Since p( −1
2 ) = 0, then
−1
(x + 2) is a factor of p(x ). And, therefore, the zeros of p(x ) are 2 , −4,
and 3.
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 Rational Functions and their Graphs

Definition
Given two polynomials p(x ) and q(x ) with q(x ) ̸= 0, an
p(x )
expression that can be expressed in the form is called a
q(x )
rational expression.
p(x )
In a rational expression , the polynomial p(x ) is called the
q(x )
numerator and q(x ) is called the denominator.
p(x )
The domain of is {x ∈ R : q(x ) ̸= 0}.
q(x )

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Example 32
Which of the following are rational expressions?. For those which are
rational expressions find their domain.
2x + 3
1
2
5x + 9x − 4
6x 3 + 4x − 7
2
x2 + 1
2
3
3
x −1
4 x 3 + 3x − 1

2x 2 + x
5 √
x2 + 1

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 Graphs of Rational Functions

Asymptotes to the graph of a Rational Function

p(x )
Consider a rational function f (x ) = , where
q(x )
p(x ) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a0 , with an ̸= 0 and
q(x ) = bm x m + bm−1 x m−1 + . . . + b0 with bm ̸= 0. Then,
1. If p(a) ̸= 0 and q(a) = 0, then the line x = a is a vertical asymptote
to the graph of f (x ).
2. If both p(a) = 0 and q(a) = 0, then the graph of f (x ) has a “hole”
at x = a and we have to make further simplification to decide.
3. If n < m, then the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph
of f (x ).
an
4. If n = m, then y = bm is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of
f (x ).
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 5. If n = m + 1, then the graph of f (x ) has an asymptote
y = ax + b, a ̸= 0, and because the line is an oblique line, y = ax + b
is called an oblique asymptote to the graph of f (x ).
5. If n > m + 1, the graph of f (x ) has no horizontal asymptote and it
has no oblique asymptote.

Example 33
Find the vertical, horizontal or oblique asymptotes to the graph of each of
the following functions (if any):
1
1 f (x ) = x −2
x +1
2 g(x ) = x 2 +3x +2
3x 2 +1
3 h(x ) = x 2 +4x +4
3
4 l(x ) = x x+3x
2 +1
+1

3 2 +x +1
5 m(x ) = x +xx +2

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Graphs of a rational functions
p(x )
To sketch the graph of a given rational function f (x ) = q(x ) , the
following points are important:
1. Determine the domain of the given function.
2. Determine x-intercept(s) and y-intercept(s) (if any).
3. Determine the all asymptote(s) (if any).

Example 34
1
Sketch the graph of the rational function f (x ) =
x2

Solution:
Domain R\{0}
x-intercept: No and y-intercept: No
Asymptote(s): VA: x=0 line, HA: y=0 line, Hole: No, OA: No
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 1
Figure: Graph of f (x ) =
x2

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Example 35
x +1
Sketch the graph of the rational function g(x ) =
x2 + 5x + 6

Solution:
Domain: x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0 =⇒ x = −2 or x = −3. Thus,
Dom(g) = {x ∈ R | x ̸= −2, −3}.
 
Intercepts: (−1, 0) is the x-intercept and 0, 61 is the y-intercept of
the graph of g(x ).
Symptote(s): x = −2 and x = −3 are vertical asymptotes and the
line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of g(x ).

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 x +1
Figure: Graph of f (x ) =
x 2 + 5x + 6

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Example 36
x3 + 1
Sketch the graph of the rational functionf (x ) = .
x 2 + 4x + 4

Solution:
Domain: Dom(l) = {x ∈ R | x ̸= −2}.
 
Intercepts: (−1, 0) is the x-intercept and 0, 41 is the y-intercept of
the graph of l(x ).
Symptote(s): The line x = −2 is vertical asymptotes. Again, The
degree of x 3 + 1 is 3, the degree of x 2 + 4x + 4 is 2 and 3 > 2.
Then, using long division we can write:

x3 + 1 12x + 17
2
= (x − 4) + 2
x + 4x + 4 x + 4x + 4
Therefore, the line y = x − 4 is an oblique asymptote to
the graph of l(x ).
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 x3 + 1
Figure: Graph of f (x ) =
x 2 + 4x + 4

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Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential,
trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and their graphs

Exponents and radicals

Definition
For a natural number n and a real number x , read "the nth power of
x " or " x raised to n", is defined as follows:

xn = x| · x{z· · · x}
n factors each equal to x

In the symbol x n , x is called the base and n is called the exponent.

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Definition (Zero and Negative Exponents)

Definition of Zero Exponent: Definition of Negative Exponent:

x0 =1 (x ̸= 0) x −n = 1
xn (x ̸= 0)

Note: 00 is undefined.

Rules for Integer Exponents

1 x m · x n = x m+n
2 (x m )n = x mn
xm
3
xn = x m−n
4 (xy )n = x n y n
 n
x xn
5 = n, y ̸= 0
y y

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 1
Definition (Rational Exponent a n )
1
If n is an odd positive integer, then a n = b if and only if b n = a.
1
If n is an even positive integer and a ≥ 0, then a n = |b| if and only
if b n = a.

m
Definition (Rational Exponent a n )
1 m √
If a n is a real number, then a n = n
am (i.e., the nth root of a raised
to the mth power).

Example 37
√ √
a. 4 3 ×4 12
√ √
2 5 ×2 20
b. √
8 5

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 Exponential Functions

Definition (Exponential Function)

A function of the form y = f (x ) = b x , where b > 0 and b ̸= 1, is

called an exponential function.

Example 38
a f (x ) = 2x
b g(x ) = 3−x
 x
1
c h(x ) = 2 are examples of exponential function.

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 Graph of an exponential functions

Example 39
 x
3
Sketch the graphs of f (x ) = 2x and g(x ) = .
2

 x
3
Figure: Graphs of f (x ) = 2x and g(x ) = using the same co-ordinate
2
system.
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Basic Properties
The graph of f (x ) = b x , b > 1 has the following basic properties:

1 The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2 The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point (0, 1), i.e., the y -intercept is 1.
4 The function is increasing.
5 The values of the function are greater than 1 for x > 0 and
between 0 and 1 for x < 0.
6 The graph approaches the x -axis as an asymptote on the left
and increases without bound on the right.

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Example 40
 x  x
1 2
Sketch the graphs of f (x ) = and g(x ) = .
2 3

 x
x 3
Figure: Graphs of f (x ) = 2 and g(x ) = using the same co-ordinate
2
system.

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Basic Properties
The graph of f (x ) = b x , 0 < b < 1 has the following basic properties:

1 The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2 The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point (0, 1), i.e., the y -intercept is 1.
4 The function is decreasing.
5 The values of the function are greater than 1 for x < 0 and
between 0 and 1 for x > 0.
6 The graph approaches the x -axis as an asymptote on the
right and decreases without bound on the left.

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Example 41
Sketch the graphs of the following functions and state their properties.
i y = 3x + 1
ii y = 3x +1
iii y = −9−x + 3

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 Logarithmic Functions

Definition
For a > 0, a ̸= 1, and c > 0:

loga c = b if and only if ab = c

Note: The value of loga c is the answer to the question: “To what
power must b be raised to produce c?”.

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 Laws of Logarithms

If a, b, c, x and y are positive numbers and a ̸= 1, b ̸= 1, then

1. logb (xy
 
) = logb x + logb y
x
2. logb y = logb x − logb y
(k n )
3. For any real number k, logb = n · logkb
4. logbb = 1
5. log1b = 0
logxb
6. logxa = logab ... change of base law
7. b logxb =x
8. logxb k = 1
k logxb

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 Graph of logarithmic functions

Example 42
Sketch the graphs of f (x ) = logx2 and g(x ) = logx3 .
2

Figure: Graphs of f (x ) = logx2 and g(x ) = logx3 using the same co-ordinate
2
system.
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Basic Properties
The graph of y = logb x (b > 1) has the following properties:

1 The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.

2 The range is the set of all real numbers.
3 The graph includes the point (1, 0), i.e., the x-intercept of the
graph is 1.
4 The function increases, as x increases.
5 The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
6 The values of the function are negative for 0 < x < 1 and they
are positive for x > 1.

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Example 43
Sketch the graphs of f (x ) = logx1 and g(x ) = logx2 .
2 3

Figure: Graphs of f (x ) = logx1 and g(x ) = logx2 . using the same co-ordinate
2 3
system.

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Basic Properties
The graph of y = logb x (0 < b < 1) has the following properties:

1 The domain is the set of all positive real numbers.

2 The range is the set of all real numbers.
3 The graph has its x-intercept at (1, 0), i.e., the x-intercept is 1.
4 The function decreases as x increases.
5 The y-axis is an asymptote of the graph.
6 The values of the function are positive when 0 < x < 1 and
they are negative when x > 1.

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 Definition (Common Logarithm)

f (x ) = log10 x is called the common logarithm function. We write

log10 x = log x .

Definition (Natural Logarithm)

f (x ) = loge x is called the natural logarithm function. We write

loge x = ln x .

Example 44
1 Evaluate log10000
10 .
2 Find the inverse of f (x ) = ln(x − 1).

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 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic equations

Example 45
 2x
1 1
a. 27 = 9

b. 3−x = 81
2 −2
c. 2x =4
2
d. 7x +x = 49

e. 36(x +2) = 9x +2
  2x −1  2x
27 3 32
f. 3 8 =2 243

g. log5 (x ) + log5 (x + 1) = log5 2

h. log4 (36(x +2) ) − log4 (9x +2 ) = 0

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1 What is the universe of the logarithmic expression
(x −2) (x +1)
log2 + log3 ? A. x > −1 B. x ≥ 2 C. x > 2 D. x ≥ −1
2 −8x
2 What is the solution set for the logarithmic equation, logx3 = 2?
A. {9} B. {−1} C. {−1, 9} D. ∅
√
3
3 If log3a = x and log2a = y , then find log √
3 in terms of x and y .
2
A. x /2y B. 2x /3y C. 3x /2y D. 3x /y
4 If 16(3x ) = 81(2x ) then x is ——- A. 4 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3
5 The solution set of the 42x +1 = 42x −1 + 15 A. 4 B. 1 C. 0.5 D. 3
 2−√5x +1 √
1
6 If = 4 (2) 5x +1 , then x=———- A. 5 B. 2 C. 7 D. 8
4
7 Given that log 6 = 0.7782, then the three times of the mantissa of
log 0.06 is —— A. 0.7782 B. 2.3346 C. 1.4323 D. 1.0034
8 The solution set of the equation (2)|2x −3| = (8)x −1 is:
A. {0, 56 } B. {0} C. {0, − 56 } D. { 65 }
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 Trigonometric functions and their graphs
Angle Measurement
An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common
end point.
The common end point is called the vertex of the angle.

The two measures that are most frequently used are degree and
radian.
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 Rule of conversion
1 To convert radians to degrees, multiply the given degree
180◦
measure by π .

2 To convert degrees to radians, multiply the given degree

π
measure by 180◦ .

Example 46
1 convert the following to radian measure.
a. 90◦ b. 270◦
2 convert the following to radian measure.
π 3π
a. b.
6 5

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If θ is the angle in standard position, and the point (x , y ) is on the
terminal side if θ, so that its distance from the origin r, we define the
six trigonometric functions as follow:

Name of
Abbreviation Definition
function
y
Sine θ sin θ sin θ = r
x
Cosine θ cos θ cos θ = r
y
Tangent θ tan θ tan θ = x
r
Cosecant θ csc θ csc θ = y
r
Secant θ sec θ sec θ = x
x
Cotangent θ cot θ cot θ = y

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 Graphs of y = sin θ and y = cos θ

Example 47
Sketch the graph of y = sin θ on [−3600 , 3600 ] or [−2π, 2π]

Figure: The graph of y = sin θ and y = cos θ

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Note:
a In general, sin θ = sin(θ ± n(3600 )) and cos θ = cos(θ ± n(3600 ))
where n is an integer.
b The domain of the sine and cosine functions is the set of all real
numbers.
c The range of the sine and cosine functions is {y | − 1 ≤ y ≤ 1}
d The sine and cosine functions repeats after every 3600 or 2π radians.
Therefore, 3600 or 2π is called the period of the sine and cosine
functions.

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 Graph of y = tan θ

Example 48
Sketch the graph of y = tan θ on [−3600 , 3600 ]

Figure: The graph of y = tan θ

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Note:
a In general, sin θ = sin(θ ± n(1800 )) where n is an integer.
b The domain of the sine function is the set of all real numbers except
nπ
the zeros of cosine function(i.e. R\{ , n ∈ odd integers}).
2
c The range of the tangent function is the set of all real numbers.
d The tangent function repeats after every 1800 or π radians.
Therefore, 1800 or π is called the period of the tangent function.

Definition 49
Definition (Periodic Function)
A function y = f (x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that
f (x + p) = f (x ) for all x in the domain of f . The smallest such number p
is called the period of the function.

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Definition 50
Definition (Amplitude of a periodic function)
The amplitude of a periodic function f (x ) is

1
A= (maximum value of f (x ) − minimum value of f (x )) .
2

Definition 51
Definition (Frequency of a periodic function)
The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an
interval of length equal to 2π is called its frequency.

• Graph of y = a sin(kx ) and y = a cos(kx )

Amplitude = |a|
2π
Period =
|k|

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Example 52
Find the amplitude and period of the following functions.
1 f (x ) = 3 sin(2x )
2 f (x ) = 4 cos(πx )
 
3 f (x ) = cos − 41 x
4 f (x ) = 3 cos(2x )
 
5 f (x ) = 4 cos − 32 x
   
2x 2x
6 6 sin 5 cos 5
x x



7 4 sin 3 cos 3

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 Trigonometric Identities

The Reciprocal Identities

1
1 csc x = sin x
1
2 sec x = cos x
1
3 cot x = tan x

The Quotient Identities

sin x
4 tan x = cos x
cos x
5 cot x = sin x

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The Pythagorean Identities

6 sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
7 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
8 1 + cot2 x = csc2 x

The Addition and Subtraction Formula

(a) sin(x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
(b) sin(x − y ) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y

(a) cos(x + y ) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y

(b) cos(x − y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
tan x +tan y
(a) tan(x + y ) = 1−tan x tan y
tan x −tan y
(b) tan(x − y ) = 1+tan x tan y

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The Double Angle Formula
12 sin(2x ) = 2 sin x cos x
13 cos(2x ) = cos2 x − sin2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1
2 tan x
14 tan(2x ) = 1−tan2 x

The Half-Angle Formula

q
x 1−cos x


15 sin 2 =± 2
q
x 1+cos x


16 cos 2 =± 2
q
x 1−cos x


17 tan 2 =± 1+cos x

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Hyperbolic functions and their graphs

The hyperbolic functions are certain combinations of exponential

functions, that occur in various applications, with properties similar to
those of the trigonometric functions.
Among many other applications they are used to describe the
formation of satellite rings around the planets, to describe the shape
of a rope hanging from two points, and have application in relativity
theory.
The two basic hyperbolic functions are the hyperbolic sine and
hyperbolic cosine functions. They are defined as follows:

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Definition

1. The hyperbolic sine func- 2. The hyperbolic cosine func-

tion is defined by: tion is defined by:

e x − e −x e x + e −x
sinh x = cosh x =
2 2

The domain of sinh x is R. The domain of cosh x is also R.

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Remark:
a Since e −x > 0 for all x ∈ R, we see that cosh x > sinh x for every
x ∈R
e x +e −x e −x +e x
b If f (x ) = 2 , then f (−x ) = 2 = f (x ). Thus, cosh x is an
even function.
 
e x −e −x e x −e −x e −x −e x
c If f (x ) = 2 , then f (−x ) = 2 =− 2 = −f (x ).
Thus, sinh x is an odd function.
d The sine and cosine, the hyperbolic functions are NOT periodic.

Example 53
Using definitions, show that:
1 cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
2 sinh(x + y ) = cosh x sinh y + sinh x cosh y
3 sinh(x + y ) = sinh y cosh x + cosh y sinh x
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 Graph of y = cosh x

Since cosh x is an even function, its graph is symmetric about the

y -axis.
Its y -intercept is (0, 1), because cosh(0) = 1.
e x +e −x
As x tends to infinity, cosh x = 2 tends to infinity because e x
goes to infinity and e −x approaches 0.
e −x
When x is a large negative number, cosh x acts like 2 , because e x
gets close to 0.
Its domain is the set of real number and its range is [1, ∞) as shown
from the following graph.
Thus, the graph of y = cosh x looks like:

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 Figure: Graph of y = cosh x

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Graph of y = sinh x

Since sinh x is an odd function, its graph is symmetric about the

origin.
The graph passes through the origin because sinh(0) = 0.
ex
As x gets large, sinh x acts like 2 and when x is a large negative
−x
number, sinh x acts like −e2 .
Its domain and range of the set of all real number as shown from the
following graph.
Thus, the graph of y = sinh x looks like:

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 Figure: Graph of y = sinh x

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 The remaining four hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of cosh
x and sinh x by analogy with trigonometry.

sinh x ex − e −x
tanh x = = (The domain of tanh x is R)
cosh x ex + e −x
cosh x ex + e −x
coth x = = x (The domain of coth x is R \ {0})
sinh x e − e −x
1 2
sechx = = x (The domain of sechx is R)
cosh x e + e −x
1 2
cschx = = x (The domain of cschx is R \ {0})
sinh x e − e −x

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 The End

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