Water Supply Engineering

ENV 330

Course Instructor:
[Link] Khanal
Lecturer
Pokhara University
School of Engineering

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 Course Contents

Unit II: Sources and Collection of Water (6 hrs)

2.1 Surface sources: Lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, impounded reservoirs

2.2 Underground sources: Springs, wells, infiltration galleries
2.3 Rainwater harvesting system
2.4 Measurement of yield from different sources (springs, streams, wells)
2.5 Selection of source for water supply system
2.6 Intake works: Components (spring intake and river intake) and selection
of site

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 Sources and Collection of Water
• The majority of water acquired from precipitation is
• either percolated into the ground
• trapped in surface depressions before being carried away as surface
runoff into natural streams or rivers.
• We currently use more than half of the world’s reliable runoff of surface
water
• Fresh potable water is a major issue in developing countries like
Nepal,India,Nigeria etc.

SOURCES OF WATER
All the sources of water can be broadly divided into
1. Surfaces sources
2. Sub surface (Ground) sources

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Surface sources:

Lakes:
• A large natural depression or hollow on earth’s surface, which gets filled
with water is a lake.
• Found in mountainous and hilly areas
• Quantity of depends upon size, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity
of ground and geological formation.
• Quality varies

Ponds:
• Natural/Artificial depression found in plain areas
• Bad quality of water
• Not used as water supply source
• Less quantity of water
• Can be used for animal bathing and irrigation purposes.

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Streams:

 Natural drainage that carries surface runoff

 May be perennial or non perennial
 Less catchment area
 Source: Melting snow or precipitation
 Found in hilly, mountain areas
 Low quantity of water
 Potable water

Rivers:

 Natural channel
 Main source: either natural precipitation or snow-fed
 Perennial and non-perennial rivers
 Vast catchment area; hence, amount of water is large
 Contaminated source

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Impounded reservoirs:
• An impounding reservoir is a basin constructed in the valley of a
stream or river to hold stream flow so that the stored water can
be used when the supply of water is insufficient. E.g. Sundarijal
Dam
• The dam is constructed across the river in such places where
minimum area of land is submerged, where river width is less
and the reservoir basin remains cup shaped having maximum
possible depth of water.
• Hence, it is defined as an artificial lake created by the
construction of a dam across the valley containing a watercourse.
• Functions:
i) To impound water for beneficial use
ii) To retard flood
• The location of impounded reservoir depends upon the quality
and quantity of water available, existence of suitable dam site,
distance and elevation of reservoir, density and distribution of
population, geological conditions, etc.
• The water quality is the same as in streams and rivers.
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 Underground sources:
Spring:
• It is a natural outflow of ground water
appearing at the earth’s surface.
• The quality of water in spring is
generally good which does not require
any treatment.

Spring may be classified into:

1. Those resulting from gravitational forces (Gravity
Spring) and
2. Those resulting from non gravitational forces
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1. Gravity Springs
These springs result from water flowing under hydrostatic pressure.
When the ground water table rise high and water overflow throughout the head of
natural valley, it is called gravity spring.

Types:
i. Depression Spring
• When the surface of the earth drops sharply and the water table is
exposed to the atmosphere than water emerges on the surface of the
earth is known as depression spring.
• These springs are formed due to overflowing of water table
• These are usually found along the hillside and cliffs

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ii. Surface Spring or Contact Spring
• Formed when permeable water bearing formation over lying a less permeable
formation that intersects the ground surface.

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iii. Artesian Spring
• These springs result from release of water under pressure from
confined aquifers either at an outcrop of the aquifer or through
an opening in the confining bed.
• The amount of water available in an artesian spring may be large
if the catchment area is large.
• The flow may be slightly increased by removal of obstructions
from the mouth of the spring.

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2. Non-gravity Spring:
• It include volcanic spring and fissure springs.
• The volcanic springs associated with volcanic rocks and fissure
spring result from the fractures extending to great depths in the
earth’s crust.
• These are usually thermal springs (Hot Springs) and contain high
minerals as well as Sulphur.

Figure: Spring due to fault in the rock 12

a) Wells:
Wells are holes or shaft, usually vertically excavated for bringing ground water
to the surface. Wells are classified as:
1) Open wells/Dug/Draw wells
2) Tube wells

1) Open wells/Dug/Draw wells

They are of large diameters (1 to 10 m), low yields and not very deep (2 to 20
m). These are constructed by digging hence also called dug wells. The walls may
be of brick, stone masonry or precast rings and thickness varies from 0.5 to 0.75
m depending upon the depth of the well. It is also further classified as following
two types:
i. Shallow Open Well
Shallow wells are those wells that rest in top water bearing strata and draw their
supplies from surrounding materials. There is more chance of contamination in
shallow wells. The yield from shallow wells is less.
ii. Deep Open Well
Deep wells are those wells that rest in impervious strata and draw its supplies
from the pervious formation lying below the impervious strata through bore
holes. The chance of contamination in the deep well is less but there is the
presence of minerals in high amount. The yield from deep wells is more. 13
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b) Tube Well
• A tube well is a long pipe sunk to the ground intercepting
one or more water bearing strata.
• It is the well made of small diameter pipe installed after
boring and inserted deep to trap water from different
aquifers.
• The depth of tube wells up to 30 m is shallow tube wells
and up to 600 m are deep tube wells.
• These tube wells may be classified as:
i. Strainer type tube well
ii. Cavity type tube well
iii. Slotted type tube well
iv. Perforated type tube well

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i. Strainer type tube well

• This type of tube well is consists of

strainer pipes and blind pipes.
• These pipes are alternately placed into
the ground
• The strainer pipes are located in the
water bearing strata whereas blind
pipes are located in non water bearing
strata.
• The water enters into the well through
strainer
• The strainer is consists of slotted pipe
wrapped with a wire mesh to prevent
sand particles from entering into the
well.

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ii. Cavity type tube well
• A cavity type of tube well consists
of a pipe sunk into the ground and
resting on the bottom of a strong
clay layer.
• It draws its supplies from the
bottom and not from the sides.
• In the initial stages of pumping
fine sand comes out with water and
consequently a cavity is formed at
the bottom.
• The water from the aquifer enters
the well pipe through this cavity.

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iii. Slotted type tube well
• It consists of pipe that is
slotted for part of its length at
one end and the rest of the
length is a plain pipe.
• The mixture of gravel and
coarse sand is placed around
the pipe to prevent the fine
sand entering from the well
pipe.

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iv. Perforated type tube
well
• It is a shallow depth
tube well and used for a
short duration such as in
construction site.
• Pipes having covered by
jute ropes act as a
strainer and prevents the
fine particles from
entering the well pipe.

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Artesian well:
• It is the well from where water flows automatically under
pressure.
• Mostly they are found in the valley portion of the hills where
aquifers on the both sides are inclined towards valley.
• The Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) passes much above the
mouth of well.

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Infiltration Galleries:
Infiltration galleries are also
known as horizontal wells.
Groundwater moving towards,
river, stream, and lakes is
intercepted and collected by
constructing a tunnel is called an
infiltration gallery.
It is generally located near a
perennial recharge source such as
the bank or under bed of a river
and 3 to 10 meters below the
ground.
The galleries are generally
constructed of masonry walls with
RCC roof slabs and extract water
from the aquifer by various lateral
drainpipes located at the suitable
intervals in the gallery.

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Infiltration Wells:
Infiltration wells are the shallow wells
constructed in series along the banks of a
river, in order to collect water seeping
through the bank of the river.
These wells are constructed of brick
masonry with open joints and RCC slab
in the top with manhole.
The water infiltrates through the walls
and bottom of these wells and has to pass
through sand bed and gets purified to
some extent.
Various infiltration wells are connected
by porous pipes and collected to the
collecting sump well called Jack from
where it can be conveyed for water
supply. 22
Rainwater harvesting system

• Alternative source of water

• Pani Ghainto
• Conservation pond
• Fog collection
• Rain water, which is the first forms of water
& hence primary source of water.
• Thus, to minimize the flow of rain water
without being its best use, it is the technique
or activity of direct collection of rain water.
• The conservation of rain water so collected
water can be stored for direct use or re-
charge in to the ground.
• It also called artificial recharge technique.

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Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting:
In Artificial recharge techniques normally address to following issues:
i. To enhance the sustainable yield in areas where over development has depleted
the aquifer.
ii. To utilize the rainfall runoff, which is going to sewer or storm water drain.
iii. Conservation and storage of excess surface water for future requirements, since
these requirements often change within a season or a period.
iv. Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on
ground water.
v. Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rainwater into the sub soil has decreased
drastically and recharge of ground water has diminished.
vi. To arrest seawater ingress.
vii. To improve the vegetation cover and reduce flood hazard
viii. To raise the water levels in wells and bore wells that are drying up.
ix. To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste water so
that water is suitable for reuse.
x. To improve the quality of existing Ground Water through dilution.
xi. To reduce power consumption.

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There are two main techniques of rainwater
harvesting:
i. Storage of rain water on surface for future use
ii. Recharge to ground water
Rain Water Harvesting from Roofs Consists of
collecting, storing and putting to use rooftop
rainwater from houses or any construction is rooftop
rainwater harvesting.
Rainwater harvesting can also he collecting, filtering
and recharging Ground Water through percolation
pits, open wells or bore wells.

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Measurement of yield from different sources
Yield: Amount of water that can be supplied from source/reservoir in
the specified interval of time. For small distribution reservoir, yield
interval can be in day and for large it can be measured in year.
Safe yield or firm yield: Maximum quantity of water that can be
guaranteed during a critical dry period is known as the safe yield or
firm yield.
Secondary yield: Secondary yield is the quantity of water available
in excess of safe yield during period of high flood
Average yield: The arithmetic average of the firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long period of time is called average yield
Reservoir capacity is determined with the help of mass inflow curve
and demand curve.

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 Measurement of yield from different sources
Generally yield form the spring and wells
are measured using Mug and bucket
methods
In case of stream / river, yield is
measured using floating boat method and
current meter method.

Fig: Volumetric rate of water flow measurement;

Fig: Current meter for river/stream it can be used to measure yield from springs and
velocity measurement bored well where discharge is high.
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 Selection of source for water supply system
The selection of the sources of water depends upon the following factors:
A. Location:
• It should be near to the consumer’s area or town as far as possible.
B. Quantity: sufficient
• It should have sufficient quantity of water to meet the demand for that design period
in the wet and dry seasons also. Two or more sources can be joined for required
quantity.
C. Quality: wholesome – less impurities
D. Cost:
• It should be able to supply water of good quality and quantity at the less cost.
• Gravity system of flow is generally cheaper than pumping.
• Lesser the impurities, lesser the treatment and cost is reduced.
• Cost analysis is necessary for various options and suitable one is selected.
E. Sustainable and safe
F. Reliable
G. Non confliction among users
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Intake
• Intakes are the structures used for collecting water from the surface sources
(i.e., river, reservoir or lake), and conveying it further to the treatment plant.
• These structures are masonry or concrete structures and provides relatively
clean water, free from pollution, sand and objectionable floating material.
Function:
• Safe withdrawing of water
• Support to screen and valves
• Conveying water to TP or supply

COMPONENTS OF INTAKE
a. An intake conduit:
• Fine screen
• valve
b. A structure:
• Water withdrawal
• Support and protect for conduit, valve etc.
• Block or tower
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 selection of site for an intake
Site selection of an intake
• Factors governing location of intake:
1. It may supply water even in the worst condition of flow in the river. If
possible, intake should be located sufficiently inside the shore line.
2. Should be close to the treatment unit as possible
3. Place of good quality of water
4. Avoid navigation channel or should not interfere the river traffic
5. Possibility of further expansion if necessary
6. Shouldn’t be flooded.
7. Place less affected by scoring, silting, storms and high currents.
8. Good approach roads.
9. Safe from wind currents, landslides etc.

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Classification of intake:

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 RIVER INTAKE
• It is the structure constructed with an objective of withdrawing water
from the rivers.
• River intake is located sufficiently inside the river so that demands of
water met with in all season of the year.
• Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed and water is led to the
intake tower.

• It consists of masonry or RCC inlet

tower which is provided with several
inlets called penstocks.
• The entry ports contain valves which
can be operated from the upper part of
the Well
• The penstocks are provided with valves
to control the entry of water through
them.
• If the river bed is soft or unstable, the
intake tower may be founded slightly
away form the river bed 32
Spring Intake:
• Springs are mostly found on hilly slopes due to geological formation
as impervious layer outcrops.
• There is availability of spring source in hilly areas at higher elevation
from where it is possible to flow water under gravity
• The quality of water is relatively good in most of the springs and
complicated treatment are not necessary
• The design and construction of spring intake is relatively simple and
easy to construct

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 Discharge calculation of wells and capacity determination of
impounded reservoirs by analytical and graphical methods.

1. Analytical method of computing reservoir capacity

Capacity of the reservoir (S) = maximum sum of Σ (D – I)
Where,
D = demand and
I = inflow in the reservoir

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Numerical:
Example 1:The following data gives the monthly inflows during the
critical low flow period at the site of a proposed dam across a river.
Determine analytically the storage capacity required of the
impounded reservoir to maintain a constant draft of 6202 million
liters of water per month.

Month Inflow(m3/s) Month Inflow(m3/s)

January 2.97 July 2.00
February 1.99 August 3.00
March 1.00 September 4.00
April 0.00 October 5.00
May 0.51 November 4.00
June 1.00 December 2.80

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Solution:
Demand = 6202 million liter per month
= 6202*106 liter/month
1 m3/sec = 86.4*106 lit/day

Inflow
No. of days in Volume= Demand Surplus Deficit
Month
each month (Rate m3/s) q*d*86.4 (*106) (*106)lit (*106)lit (*106)
lit
January 31 2.97 7954.848 6202 1752.848

February 28 1.99 4814.208 6202 - 1387.792

March 31 1 2678.4 6202 - 3523.6

April 30 0 0 6202 - 6202

May 31 0.51 1365.984 6202 - 4836.016

June 30 1 2592 6202 - 3610

July 31 2 5356.8 6202 - 845.2
August 31 3 8035.2 6202 1833.2 -
September 30 4 10368 6202 4166 -

October 31 5 13392 6202 7190 -

November 30 4 10368 6202 4166 -

December 31 2.8 7499.52 6202 1297.52 -

∑ 20405.568 20404.6

Storage Capacity required=Total deficit=20404.60 Million Liters (ML).

Total deficit is smaller than Surplus hence the project is feasible. 36
2. Mass Inflow Curve (Graphical) Method:
• A mass inflow curve is a plot between cumulative inflow in the
reservoir with time.
• The reservoir capacity corresponding to a specified yield is
determined with the help of mass inflow curve and the demand curve.
• A mass inflow curve continuously rises as shows accumulated inflow.

• If there is no inflow during

certain period, the mass inflow
curve will be horizontal during
that period.
• The mass inflow curve will rise
very sharply during the period of
high flood.
• The steepness of the curve
indicates the rate of inflow.

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Demand Curve:
• A Demand curve is a plot between accumulated
demand with time.
• Uniform rate of demand is a straight line have the
slope equal to the demand rate.
• It is curve when the rate of demand is variable.

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Procedure:
1. Prepare the mass inflow curve
and mass curve of demand of the
same scale from the flood
hydrograph
2. Draw tangent from the apices
A1, A2, A3 and so on parallel to
the demand curve
3. Measure the maximum vertical
intercepts E1D1, E2D2, E3D3
and so on between the tangent
and the mass curve
4. The biggest the vertical ordinates
amongst E1D1, E2D2, E3D3,
etc. represents the reservoir
capacity

Example: For a period corresponding to the point A1 and C1, C1D1 represents the
net inflow while C1E1 represents the net demand. Hence volume D1E1 has to be
provided from the reservoir storage
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 Assignment:
1. A city has a average demand of 6000 million liter per
month. Calculate the capacity of impounded reservoir. The
inflow available is given below:
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Inflow 2.9 2 1 0.2 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 4 3

(m3/s)

2. What are artesian wells? Describe about Infiltration gallery.

3. Discuss the selection criteria to choose sources of water
supply.
4. What are the criteria for selection of source for water
supply system?
5. Write short Notes on:
1. Intake
2. Characteristics of Spring Intake
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6. From the following record of average monthly
stream flows during an extended period of draught,
determine the required reservoir size to provide a
uniform draft of 10000 m3/day.
Month Monthly flow, Month Monthly flow,
(106m3) (106m3)
January 0.18 August 0.08
February 1.02 September 0.07
March 1.32 October 0.04
April 0.51 November 0.10
May 0.87 December 0.26
June 0.67 January 0.20
July 0.19 February 1.10

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7. A distribution reservoir is constructed for supplying water to a city. Water is pumped
from wells to the distribution reservoir at a uniform rate of 2.5 cumecs. The
estimated requirements for the maximum day are tabulated below. Estimate the
capacity of the distribution reservoir.
Ans: 24.3 Million Liters

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