Applied physics II (2003)

Module 3
Electric Charge (q)
 Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field.
 There are two types of charges – Positive charge and Negative charge.
 The force between a positive charge and a negative charge is attractive.
 The force between two positive charges or two negative charges is repulsive.
 The SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C).
 The smallest or the elementary charge is the charge of an electron or a proton and its value
is 1.6 x 10-19 C



Coulomb’s law
 Coulomb’s law states that the force of interaction between two electric charges is directly
proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between the two charges.

 According to Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force between the charges q 1 and q2 separated
by a distance ‘r’ is given by, 
1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1𝑞2 and 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟2
𝑞1𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝐹= 1 2

4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
1
 4𝜋𝜖 0 is the constant of proportionality, where 𝜖 0 is the permittivity of free space

 𝜖0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶2𝑁−1𝑚−2

Electric Field (E)
 The region around a charged particle within which another charge experiences an
electric force is called electric field.
 If a charge q experiences a force F when placed at a point in an electric field, then the
electric field intensity (E) at that point is defined as,
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞
 SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C
 Electric Potential
 The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
 The unit of electric potential is volt (V).
 The difference in electric potential between two points is called the potential difference or
voltage between the two points.
 Electric charges always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
Capacitor
 Capacitor is a system of two conductors placed close to each other with an insulating
medium in between them.
 One of the conductor is given a positive charge (+Q) and the other conductor is given an
equal negative charge (-Q).
 The potential difference between positively charged conductor and the negatively
charged conductor is called potential of the capacitor (V).

 For a given capacitor, the charge Q on the capacitor is proportional to the potential
difference V between the two conductors.
𝑄∝𝑉
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Capacitance .

 The capacitance of a capacitor is the measure of how much charge a capacitor can store.
 The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).

Electric Current
 The rate of flow of charges is called electric current.
 If q is the quantity of charge flows across an area in t seconds, then electric current (I) is
given by,
𝑞
𝐼=
𝑡

The SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A).

Distinguish between Direct current (DC) and Alternating current (AC)
Direct Current (DC)
 The current whose direction and magnitude remains constant is called direct current or DC.

 The frequency of DC supply is zero

 Obtained from Cell or Battery

Alternating Current (AC)

 The current whose direction and magnitude changes with time is called Alternating
Current or AC.

 The frequency of AC supply in India is 50 Hz

 Obtained from AC generator

Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s law states that, at constant temperature, the current (I) flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) across its ends.
𝐼∝𝑉
 𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
 The constant R is called the resistance of the conductor.
 The resistance represents the opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of current
through it.
 Unit of Resistance is ohm (Ω).
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Conductance
.
 The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance (S).
 The SI unit of conductance is ohm-1 (mho)
1 𝐼
𝑆= =
𝑅 𝑉
 Verification of Ohm’s Law

The ammeter A measures the current through the circuit and the voltmeter V measures the
potential difference across the resistance R.

When the key K is closed, current flows through the circuit.
 The rheostat is adjusted to get a particular value of potential difference across the resistance.
The corresponding ammeter reading is also noted. 
 In each case the ratio of V/I is calculated and found to be constant. This constant value gives
the resistance R of the conductor.

Specific Resistance or Resistivity (ρ)

𝑅∝𝐿
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
.
𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿
 The resistivity of a material is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of
electrical current.
 The unit of Specific resistance or Resistivity is ohm m (Ωm).

Specific conductance or Conductivity (σ)

 The reciprocal of specific resistance or Resistivity (ρ) is called the specific conductance or
conductivity (σ) of a material.
 1
𝜎=
𝜌
𝐿
𝜎=
𝑅𝐴
 The unit of specific conductance or Conductivity is ohm-1 m-1 (Ω-1 m-1)
Factors affecting the resistance of a conducting wire.
1 Material of the wire Materials like silver, copper, aluminium has low
resistance compared to other materials.
2 Length of the wire Resistance increases with increase in length
3 Thickness or area of cross Resistance decreases with increase in thickness or area of
section of the wire cross section
4 Temperature Resistance increases with increase in temperature

Carbon Resistors
 The most commonly used type of resistors are carbon resistors.
.
 Carbon resistors are small in size and are inexpensive.

Resistance value of Carbon resistors using colour code

Find the value of carbon resistor with colour bands Yellow, Violet, Brown, Gold.
Answer
Yellow – 4
Violet – 7
Brown – 101
Gold - ± 5%
Resistance = 47 x 101 ± 5% Ω

Series and Parallel combinations of resistors

(a) Series Combination
 Consider two resistances R1 and R2 connected in series with a voltage V
The total voltage, V = V1 + V2 (1)

V = IRs , V1 = IR1 and V2 = IR2
 Substituting the voltages in Eqn (1)
IRs = IR1 + IR2
IRs = I(R1 + R2)
Rs = R1 + R2
(b) Parallel Combination

 Consider two resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel with a voltage V.

.
 The total current 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 --------------------- (1)
 
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐼= , 𝐼1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 =
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Substituting the currents in Eqn (1)

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉 1 1
= 𝑉( + )
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐


 Kirchhoff’s first law (Junction rule)
 Kirchhoff ‘s first law states that the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction is
zero.
 In other words, the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current leaving the
junction.

 According the Kirchhoff’s first law,

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼 3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
or
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Kirchhoff’s second law (Loop rule)

 Kirchhoff ‘s second law states that the algebraic sum of the potential differences around any
closed loop in a circuit is zero.
Example:
 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law for the loop PQRSTUP
𝐼1𝑅1 + 𝐼3𝑅3 + 𝐼4𝑅4 − 𝐸 = 0
 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law for the loop PQTUP
𝐼1𝑅1 + 𝐼2𝑅2 + 𝐼4𝑅4 − 𝐸 = 0
 Applying Kirchhoff’s second law for the loop QRSTQ
𝐼3𝑅3 − 𝐼2𝑅2 = 0
Wheatstone’s Bridge
 Wheatstone’s bridge is a network of four resistances which can be used for the
measurement of resistance.
Circuit diagram of Wheatstone’s Bridge

𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖𝑔 --------------(1)
𝑖3 + 𝑖𝑔 = 𝑖4 --------------(2)
 Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule in the closed loop ABDA
 𝐼1𝑃 + 𝐼𝑔𝐺 − 𝐼3𝑅 = 0 -------- (3)
 Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule in the closed loop BCDB
𝐼2𝑋 − 𝐼4𝑆 − 𝐼𝑔𝐺 = 0 -------- (4)
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 --------------(5)
𝑖3 = 𝑖4 --------------(6)
𝐼1𝑃 = 𝐼3𝑅 -------- (7)
𝐼2𝑋 = 𝐼4𝑆 -------- (8)
 Dividing equations (7) by (8) and using equations (5) and (6)
𝐼1𝑃 𝐼3𝑅
=
𝐼2𝑋 𝐼4𝑆

𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑋 𝑆
 This is the balancing condition of
Wheatstone’s bridge.
 Using the balancing condition, we can
calculate the value of the unknown
resistance ‘X’.
Meter Bridge – Application of Wheatstone’s bridge
 Meter bridge is a practical arrangement of Wheatstone’s bridge used to measure
unknown resistance.
Circuit diagram of Meter Bridge

Principle

 Meter Bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone’s Bridge

𝑅𝑙
𝑋=
(100 − 𝑙)
Procedure

 The key is closed.

 A suitable resistance is taken as the known resistance R.

 The jockey is moved from A towards B, until the galvanometer shows the zero
deflection.
 The balancing length (AJ = l) is measured.
 Unknown resistance X is determined using the equation
𝑅𝑙
𝑋=
(100 − 𝑙)

𝑖𝑔
Magnetic Field
The region around a magnet within which another magnetic material experiences a
magnetic force is called a magnetic field
 Magnetic fields are represented using field lines.
The SI unit of magnetic field is Tesla ( T)

Magnetic Flux (Φ)

 Magnetic Flux (Φ) is the measure of total magnetic field passing through a given
area
 The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).

Electromagnetic Induction

 The phenomenon in which electric current is generated in a circuit by varying

magnetic fields is called electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction

 Faraday’s first law states that whenever the magnetic flux associated with a
circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.

Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction

 Faraday’s second law states that the induced emf produced in the circuit is equal
to the rate of change of magnetic flux through it.
 Induced emf is given by
𝐸 = 𝑑Φ 𝑑𝑡
where Φ is the magnetic flux through the circuit

Lorentz Force
 In the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, a moving charge experience
both electric and magnetic force.
 The total force on the charge is the sum of electric and magnetic forces
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 + 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑞𝐸 + 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
 This total force is called Lorentz force.

Force on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

𝐹 = 𝐵𝑖𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where
B – Magnetic Field
i – Current through the conductor
L – Length of the conductor
θ – Angle between the direction of current and direction of magnetic field

FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE

Take the middle finger, forefinger and thumb of the left hand in mutually
perpendicular direction. If the middle finger represents the direction of the current
and forefinger represents direction of magnetic field then the thumb gives direction
of the force

MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

It is used to measure the electric current

Principle

When a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it

experiences a force

Working

Principle and working

 When current flows through the coil, a torque acts on it.

 The torque, 𝜏 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵

N – Number of turns in the coil

I – Current flowing through the coil

A – Area of the coil

B – Magnetic field

 Because of this torque, the coil rotates, and then a restoring torque is
developed in the spring.

𝜏𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐶𝜃

C – Couple per unit twist

 θ – Angle of deflection

 At equilibrium, 𝐶𝜃 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵

Therefore,

𝜃∝𝐼

 The angle of deflection 𝜃 is proportional to the current I

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER

A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a small resistance

(shunt) parallel with it.

Since the connection is parallel

V=IR
IgG=(I-Ig)S
IgG
S=
(I−Ig)

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance

series with it.
V=IR
V=Ig(R+G)
𝑉
(R+G) =
𝐼𝑔

𝑉
R= -G
𝐼𝑔