Chapter 1
Vector Analysis
Vector Notation
•The unit vector in the direction of a vector A
is determined by dividing A by its absolute
value:
•By use of the unit vectors ax , ay, az along the
x, y, and z axes, respectively, of a Cartesian
coordinate system, an arbitrary vector can be
written in component form:
•In terms of components, the absolute value
of a vector is defined by
EXAMPLE 1. A vector drawn from point M (2, 2, 0) to
point N (4, 5, 6) is shown by
magnitude is
Its direction is given by the unit vector
Vector Functions
A vector function in a three-dimensional space
assigns a vector to each point in that space. It
specifies the magnitude and direction of the
vector at that point. The spatial components of
the vector are, in general, functions of the
coordinates of the location. Electric and
magnetic fields are examples of vector
functions.
EXAMPLE 2. The electric field intensity due
to a point charge Q placed at the origin is
where aR is the radial unit vector. Express E in
the Cartesian coordinate system and find its
value at the points K(3, 4, 12), L(2, 6, 9), M(1,
4, 8), and N(4, 5, 6).
These points are located on concentric
spheres with radii 13, 11, 9, and 7,
respectively.
Vector Algebra
1. Vectors may be added and subtracted.
2. The associative, distributive, and
commutative laws apply.
3. The dot product of two vectors is, by
definition,
where θ is the smaller angle between A and B.
In Example 3 it is shown that
EXAMPLE 3. The dot product obeys the
distributive and scalar multiplication laws
However,
because the cos θ in the dot product is unity
when the angle is zero. And when θ 90°, cos
θ is zero; hence, all other dot products of the
unit vectors are zero. Thus,
4. The cross product of two vectors is, by
definition,
where θ is the smaller angle between A and B, and an
is a unit vector normal to the plane determined by A
and B when they are drawn from a common point.
There are two normals to the plane, so further
specification is needed. The normal selected is the
one in the direction of advance of a right-hand screw
when A is turned toward B (Fig. 2-1). Because of this
direction requirement, the commutative law does
not apply to the cross product; instead,
Expanding the cross product in component form,
which is conveniently expressed as a
determinant:
Coordinate Systems
A point P is described by three coordinates, in Cartesian (x,
y, z), in circular cylindrical (r, φ, z), and in spherical (r, θ, φ),
as shown in Fig. 2-2. The order of specifying the
coordinates is important and should be carefully followed.
The angle φ is the same angle in both the cylindrical and
spherical systems. But, in the order of the coordinates, φ
appears in the second position in cylindrical, (r, φ, z), and
the third position in spherical, (r, θ, φ). The same symbol, r,
is used in both cylindrical and spherical for two quite
different things.
A point is also defined by the intersection of
three orthogonal surfaces, as shown in Fig. 2-3.
In Cartesian coordinates the surfaces are the
infinite planes x const., y const., and z const.
In cylindrical coordinates, z const. is the same
infinite plane as in the Cartesian case; φ const.,
is a half plane with its edge along the z axis; r
const. is a right circular cylinder. These three
surfaces are orthogonal and their intersection
locates point P.
In spherical coordinates, φ = const, is the
same half plane as in cylindrical; r = const, is
a sphere with its center at the origin; θ const.
is a right circular cone whose axis is the z axis
and whose vertex is at the origin. Note that θ
is limited to the range 0≤ θ ≤ π.
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SOLVED PROBLEMS
2.1. Show that the vector
directed from M(x1, y1, z1) to
N(x2, y2, z 2) in Fig. 2-6 is given
by
The coordinates of M and N are used to write the two position
vectors A and B in Fig. 2-6.
2.3. Find the distance between (5, 3π /2, 0) and (5, π /2, 10) in
cylindrical coordinates. First, obtain the Cartesian position vectors
A and B (see Fig. 2-7).
Then B- A = 10 ay - 10 az and the required distance
between the points is
The cylindrical coordinates of the points cannot be used to
obtain a vector between the points in the same manner
as was employed in Problem 2.1 in Cartesian coordinates.
2.4. Show that A = 4ax -2ay -az and B = ax +4ay -4az
are mutually perpendicular. Since the dot product
contains cos θ, a dot product of zero from any two
nonzero vectors implies that θ = 90°.
2.5. Given A =2ax + 4ay and B = 6ay - 4az , find the smaller
angle between them using (a) the cross product, (b) the dot
product.
2.6. Given F = (y - 1)ax + 2xay, find the vector at (2, 2, 1) and
its projection on B, where B = 5ax- ay + 2az .
As indicated in Fig. 2-8, the projection of one vector
on a second vector is obtained by expressing the unit
vector in the direction of the second vector and
taking the dot product.
Thus, at (2, 2, 1),
2.7. Given A = ax + ay , B = ax + 2az and C = 2ay + az , find (A x
B) x C and compare it with A x (B x C).
2.9. Express the unit vector which points from z = h on the z
axis toward (r, φ, 0) in cylindrical coordinates. See Fig. 2-9.
2.10. Express the unit vector which is directed toward the
origin from an arbitrary point on the plane z = - 5,
as shown in Fig. 2-10.
Since the problem is in Cartesian coordinates, the two-point
formula of Problem 2.1 applies.
2.11. Use the spherical coordinate system to find the area
of the strip α ≤ θ ≤ β on the spherical shell of radius a (Fig.
2-11). What results when α = 0 and β = π ?
The differential surface
element is [see Fig. 2-5(c)]
When α = 0 and β = π, A = 4πa2, the surface area of
the entire sphere.
2.12. Obtain the expression
for the volume of a sphere of
radius a from the differential
volume.
2.13. Use the cylindrical coordinate system to find the area of the
curved surface of a right circular cylinder where r = 2 m, h = 5 m,
and 30° ≤φ ≤120° (see Fig. 2-12).
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2.14. Transform
from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates.
Referring to Fig. 2-2(b),
2.15. A vector of magnitude 10 points from (5, 5π /4, 0) in cylindrical
coordinates toward the origin (Fig. 2-13). Express the vector in
Cartesian coordinates.
In cylindrical coordinates, the vector
may be expressed as 10ar , where φ =
π /4. Hence,
Notice that the value of the radial coordinate, 5, is immaterial.
Gradient, Divergence,
Curl, and Laplacian
Gradient
The gradient is a vector defined for each point in a
scalar field (e.g., potential in an electric field or the
height of points in a terrain). It is shown by the symbol
∇ applied to the scalar field (e.g., ∇V is the gradient of
V ). The gradient will be defined such that the change
in the scalar function, dV, when traversed over a path
dr is the dot product of ∇V and dr.
In the Cartesian coordinate system, this leads to the
following expression for the gradient ∇V.
To verify this, refer to Fig. 5-1(a). It shows two neighboring
points, M and N, of the region in which a scalar function V is
defined.
The vector separation of the two points is
Construction of the dot product of ∇V and dr results in
But, from the calculus, the change in V from M to N is
and it follows that
The vector field ∇ V (also written grad V ) is called the
gradient of the scalar function V. It is seen that, for
fixed |dr|, the change in V in a given direction dr is
proportional to the projection of ∇V in that direction.
Thus, ∇ V lies in the direction of maximum increase
of the function V.
Another view of the gradient is obtained by allowing the
points M and N to lie on the same equipotential (if V is a
potential) surface, V(x, y, z) = c1 [see Fig. 5-1(b)]. Then dV =
0, which implies that ∇V is perpendicular to dr. But dr is
tangent to the equipotential surface; indeed, for a suitable
location of N, it represents any tangent through M.
Therefore, ∇V must be along the surface normal at M. Since
∇V is in the direction of increasing V, it points from V(x, y, z)
= c1 to V(x, y, z) = c2 , where c2 > c1. The gradient of a
potential function is a vector field that is everywhere
normal to the equipotential surfaces.
The gradient in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems
follows directly from that in the Cartesian system. It is noted that
each term contains the partial derivative of V with respect to
distance in the direction of that particular unit vector.
While ∇V is written for grad V in any coordinate system, it
must be remembered that the del operator is defined
only in Cartesian coordinates.
The Del Operator
Vector analysis has its own shorthand notation
which the reader must note with care. The ∇ vector
operator in Cartesian coordinates is defined by
In the calculus, the differential operator D is
sometimes used to represent d/dx. The symbols and
are also operators; standing alone, they give no
indication of what they are to operate on. They look
strange. And so ∇, standing alone, simply suggests
the taking of certain partial derivatives, each
followed by application of a unit vector in each of the
three coordinates system directions. The del
operator is defined only in Cartesian coordinates.
The Del Operator and Gradient
When ∇ operates on the scalar function V, the result is the
gradient vector
Warning: ∇ is defined only in Cartesian coordinates. While
∇V is written for grad V in any coordinate system, it does
not lead to the notion that a del operator can be defined for
all these systems. For example, the gradient in cylindrical
coordinates is written as
This does not imply that
in cylindrical coordinates. In fact, such a ∇ operator
expression would give false results when determining ∇· A
(the divergence, Section 5.5) or ∇ x A (the curl, Section
5.10) in the same cylindrical coordinate system.
Divergence
There are two main indicators of the manner in which a
vector field changes from point to point throughout
space. The first of these is divergence, which will be
examined here. It is scalar and bears a similarity to the
derivative of a function. The second is curl, a vector
which will be examined when magnetic fields are
discussed in Chapter 10.
When the divergence of a vector field is nonzero, that region
is said to contain sources or sinks—sources when the
divergence is positive and sinks when negative. In static
electric fields there is a correspondence between positive
divergence, sources, and positive electric charge Q. Electric
flux Ψ by definition originates on positive charges. Thus, a
region which contains positive charges contains the sources
of Ψ. The divergence of the electric flux density D will be
positive in this region. A similar correspondence exists
between negative divergence, sinks, and negative electric
charge.
Divergence of the vector field A at the point P is defined by
Here the integration is over the surface of an infinitesimal
volume Δv that shrinks to point P.
Expressions for Divergence in Coordinate Systems
The divergence can be expressed for any vector field in any
coordinate system. For the development in Cartesian
coordinates, a cube is selected with edges Δx, Δy, and Δz
parallel to the x, y, and z axes, respectively, as shown in
Fig. 5-2. Then the vector field A is defined at P, the corner
of the cube with the lowest values of the coordinates x, y,
and z.
In order to express A · dS for the cube, all six faces
must be covered. On each face, the direction of dS is
outward. Since the faces are normal to the three
axes, only one component of A will cross any two
parallel faces. In Fig. 5-3 the cube is turned such that
face 1 is in full view; the x components of A over the
faces to the left and right of 1 are indicated. Since the
faces are small,
so that the total for these two faces is
The same procedure is applied to the remaining two pairs of faces
and the results combined.
The same approach may be used in cylindrical (Problem 5.1) and
spherical coordinates.
The Del Operator and Divergence
The del operator was defined in Cartesian coordinates by
When ∇ is dotted with a vector A, the result is the divergence of A.
Hereafter, the divergence of a vector field will be written
∇ · A.
Warning: The del operator is defined only in Cartesian
coordinates. When ∇A is written for the divergence of A in
other coordinates systems, it does not mean that a del
operator can be defined for these systems. For example,
the divergence in cylindrical coordinates will be written as
This does not imply that
in cylindrical coordinates. In fact, the expression would
give false results when used in determining ∇V (the
gradient, Section 5.2) or ∇ x A (the curl, Section 5.10).
Divergence of D
From Gauss’s law (Section 4.3),
This important result is one of Maxwell’s equations
for static fields:
If is constant throughout the region under
examination (if not, divE = ρ). Thus, both E and D
fields will have a divergence of zero in any isotropic
charge-free region.
The Divergence Theorem
Gauss’s law states that the closed surface integral of D · dS
is equal to the charge enclosed. If the charge density
function ρ is known throughout the volume, then the
charge enclosed may be obtained from an integration of ρ
throughout the volume. Thus,
This is the divergence theorem, also known as Gauss’s
divergence theorem. It is a three-dimensional analog of
Green’s theorem for the plane. While it was arrived at from
known relationships among D, Q, and ρ, the theorem is
applicable to any sufficiently regular vector field.
Of course, the volume v is that which is enclosed by the
surface S.
EXAMPLE 5. The region r ≤ a in spherical coordinates
has an electric field intensity
Examine both sides of the divergence theorem for this vector field.
For S, choose the spherical surface r = b ≤ a.
The divergence theorem applies to time-varying as
well as static fields in any coordinate system. The
theorem is used most often in derivations where it
becomes necessary to change from a closed surface
integration to a volume integration. But it may also be
used to convert the volume integral of a function that
can be expressed as the divergence of a vector field
into a closed surface integral.
Curl
The curl of a vector field A is another
vector field. Point P in Fig. 5-4 lies in
a plane area ∇S bounded by a closed
curve C. In the integration that
defines the curl, C is traversed such
that the enclosed area is on the left.
The unit normal an , determined by
the right-hand rule, is as shown in
the figure. Then the component of
the curl of A in the direction an is
defined as
In the various coordinate systems, curl A is completely specified
by its components along the three unit vectors. For example, the x
component in Cartesian coordinates is defined by taking as the
contour C a square in the x = const. plane through P, as shown in
Fig. 5-5.
The y and z components can be determined in a
similar fashion. Combining the three components,
A third-order determinant can be written, the expansion of which
gives the Cartesian curl of A.
The elements of the second row are the components of the del
operator. This suggests (see Section 2.4) that ∇ x A can be
written for curl A. As with other expressions from vector analysis,
this convenient notation is used for curl A in other coordinate
systems, even though ∇ is defined only in Cartesian coordinates.
Expressions for curl A in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
can be derived in the same manner as above, though with
more difficulty.
Frequently useful are two properties of the curl operator:
(1) The divergence of a curl is the zero scalar; that is,
for any vector field A.
(2) The curl of a gradient is the zero vector; that is,
for any scalar function of position ƒ (see Problem 5.24).
Under static conditions, E = ∇V, and so, from (2),
Laplacian
The divergence of the gradient of a scalar is called the
Laplacian, ∇2 . In the Cartesian coordinate system,
Explicit forms of the Laplacian in cylindrical and spherical
coordinates are given in the next section (see also Section 9.3).
EXAMPLE 6. In a charge-free region with uniform permittivity, ∇2V = 0.
The Laplacian of a vector can be defined using the Laplacian of its
coordinates components. For example, the Laplacian of a vector
specified by its Cartesian coordinate, A = Axax + Ayay + Azaz , is as
follows
EXAMPLE 7. The following identity can be verified by
direct substitution
Summary of Vector Operations
SOLVED PROBLEMS
5.1. Develop the expression for
divergence in cylindrical coordinates.
A delta-volume is shown in Fig. 5-6
with edges Δr, r Δφ, and Δz. The vector
field A is defined at P, the corner with
the lowest values of the coordinates r,
φ, and z, as
By definition,
Over the left face,
and over the right face,
where the term in (Δr)2 has been neglected. The net contribution of
this pair of faces is then
for a net contribution of
and the faces normal to az yield
for a net contribution of
When (2), (3), and (4) are combined to give A · dS, (1) yields
5.2. Show that ∇ · E is zero for the field of a uniform line charge.
For a line charge, in cylindrical coordinates,
Then
The divergence of E for this charge configuration is zero everywhere
except at r = 0, where the expression is indeterminate.
5.3. Show that the D field due to a point charge has a
divergence of zero.
For a point charge, in spherical coordinates,
Then, for r > 0,
The charge distribution
is shown in Fig. 5-8.
5.16. Given that D = (10x3/3)ax (C/m2 ), evaluate both sides of the
divergence theorem for the volume of a cube, 2 m on an edge,
centered at the origin and with edges parallel to the axes.
Since D has only an x component, D · dS is zero on all but the faces
at x = 1 m and x =- 1 m (see Fig. 5-9).
Now for the right side of the divergence theorem. Since ∇ · D = 10x2,
5.17. Given that A = 30e-rar -
2zaz in cylindrical
coordinates, evaluate both
sides of the divergence
theorem for the volume
enclosed by r = 2, z = 0, and z
= 5 (Fig. 5-10).
It is noted that Az=0 for z = 0 and hence A · dS is zero over that part
of the surface.
For the right side of the divergence theorem: