Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

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Results in Optics
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Design of a fiber-optic sensor with ultrahigh resolution for nitrogen dioxide

detection based on gain-enhanced surface plasmon resonance
Bhabya Sinha a, Arunima Adhikary a, Praveen Nandini a, Venkatesh Chakravartula a,
R. Narayanamoorthi b, Samiappan Dhanalakshmi a, *
a
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai 603203, India
b
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai 603203, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Surface plasmon resonance in optical fibers can result in the creation of a highly sensitive device, compact and
Surface plasmon resonance robust sensor. Nitrogen dioxide is one of the foremost greenhouse gases responsible for deteoriation of ecosystem
Fiber bragg grating and breathing disorder, it plays a direct role in global climate change. To date, all studies on surface plasmon
Gold thin films
resonance in optical fibers have relied on passive excitation. For the very first time, we propose a novel sensor
Finite element method
architecture based on a gain enhancement of surface plasmons in optical fibers in this paper to detect nitrogen
Finite-difference time-domain simulation
Eigenmode expansion method dioxide in the atmosphere. Hence, a pair of fiber gratings is embedded in the core, resulting in the formation of a
cavity in which incident light with the Bragg wavelength is confined and simulated first in absence of NO2
environment and then by introducing NO2 concentration ranging from (10–100) ppm to accomplish our work,
we observed change in reflectance peak varying in accordance with increasing concentration. Thus, the
constructive interference between these waves results in optical field gain by a magnitude of 4. Our results
indicate that a significant improvement in sensor performance is obtained on active surface plasmon excitation,
anticipating to be of importance in high-precision applications.

1. Introduction particles have been shown to have negative impacts on human health
and the environment. There are several negative consequences of rising
Under polluted conditions or when electrically active storms are nitrogen dioxide levels in the environment (Praveen et al., 2021).Ta­
present, NO2 can play a significant role in the absorption of radiation bles 1 and 2.
(Restrepo, 2021). Nitrogen dioxide detection is critical in air quality Due to high sensitivity and label-free detection, SPR is the most
monitoring because it plays a major role in aerosphere pollution. In ordinarily used sensing strategy on the market. To excite SPR on a metal
smart cities, regular observation of air quality and early identification of surface generally, SPR sensors (Li et al., 2015) utilize prism configura­
contaminants are extremely desirable. Surface Plasmon Resonance tion, which makes the system bulky and too large for applications
(SPR) curves obtained under static conditions after interaction with a thereby necessitates precise alignments (Adhi et al., 2018; Nandini et al.,
low concentration (1 ppm) of NO2 gas shows a significant shift in 2021; Vikas, 2019). SPR’s prism-based system can be used in a variety of
resonance angle (Paliwal et al., 2015). The spectral response to various configurations (Dhanalakshmi et al., 2022b). The downside of these
NO2 concentrations is investigated and analysed independently on the sensors is that they are not very small and do not have enough sensitivity
four fiber optic sensors (Theoderaj et al., 2019). The fluorescence of dye- to be used in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) applications (Bakaic et al., 2020;
doped deoxyribonucleic acid thin films was excited using SPR (Naga­ Verma et al., 2015). LOCs must be a particular size, thickness, and other
mura et al., 2003). Some previous literature has been mentioned based parameters. A distributed Bragg reflector, Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG), is
on detection of NO2 gas. But ambient concentrations vary widely a kind of distributed Bragg reflector. It’s made up of small segments of
depending on local sources and sinks, but they can exceed a total con­ optical fiber that help reflect a specific wavelength of light (Niu et al.,
centration. Unless highly advanced monitoring systems are applied, it is 2020). Only if a periodic change occurs in the refractive index of the
difficult to determine failure modes. Large concentrations of silver fiber core, it can be assembled. This produces a dielectric mirror in the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dhanalas@[Link] (S. Dhanalakshmi).

[Link]
Received 28 July 2022; Received in revised form 3 February 2023; Accepted 4 February 2023
Available online 6 February 2023
2666-9501/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

Table 1 The technologies that we’ve used until date have many drawbacks,
No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (SPR with thin gold film). so Fiber Bragg Grating has a considerably better scope (Pires et al.,
Concentration of NO2 (ppm) Reflectance 2014). In previous studies related to humidity detection, there were
several features like relatively small dimensions, electromagnetic
0 0.54472
10 0.54478 interference immunity but these FO-based humidity sensors lacked a
20 0.54480 wide range and high level of precision. They are also not suited for use in
30 0.54484 risky or destructive circumstances. Applications of fiber optic sensors in
40 0.54486 marine and aerospace fields. FO sensor monitoring system for safety and
50 0.54489
60 0.54491
security, structural integrity, non-destructive evaluation, and the power
70 0.54495 sector. As in late 1990s FO-based sensors were utilized for navigation
80 0.54498 and medicated resons. The reason for extreme utilization in the field of
90 0.54500 optoelectronics is due to simple integrating method that changes into
100 0.54503
less interference with different structures and its sensing phenomenon
that is strain, corrosion etc (Yeo et al., 2008). There has also been works
related to temperature monitoring and measurement which involve
Table 2 fiber optic sensors but they have a drawback where the installation of
No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (Fiber optic sensor with gold such sensors can only be done during the manufacturing stage and not in
film). the upcoming stages if required (Ansari et al., 2019). Fiber optic sensors
Concentration of No2 (ppm) Reflectance
have precedence above available optical sensors due to their compact
size, electromagnetic interference immunity, high sensitivity (Kim et al.,
0 0.54474
2012), ease of signal light transmission, large bandwidth and geometric
10 0.54482
20 0.54485 flexibility, as fiber sensors can be configured into any shape (Samiappan
30 0.54487 et al., 2020; Zhan et al., 2021). In the medical industry, the equipment
40 0.54490 used by the surgeons might have issues with accuracy and precision
50 0.54493 where certain FBGs-based tools have been proposed to deal with the
60 0.54496
70 0.54497
challenges (Presti, 2020).
80 0.54500 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) a combined oscillation of negative
90 0.54504 charge particles presents in a delocalized band of energy levels in
100 0.54505 resonance with the incident beam’s oscillating electric field, which
produces energetic plasmonic electrons via non-radiative excitation
end. An FBG’s primary use is in optical systems. Each optical channel (Vikas, 2019; He, 2013). The detection of DNA hybridization is
may measure dozens of FBG sensors, in contrast to electrical sensing demonstrated using a surface plasmon resonance optical fibre biosensor
systems. This decreases the measurement system’s size, weight, and coated with graphene (Sullivan, 2013). Humidity has no impact on FBG,
complexity. The Bragg wavelength is sensitive to temperature and strain and only strain or stress can affect the Bragg wavelength (Sidhu et al.,
and that is why it can be applied as a sensing component in optical 2018). FBG combined with MZI gives a broader temperature detection
sensors [14]. It is the key element to FBG sensors which are highly range (Kostina et al., 2019). During the recent covid pandemic, re­
recommendable these days. The Bragg wavelength is calculated as searchers used FBG and Graphene oxide (GO) to experiment with the
covid virus while taking all required procedures to ensure the safety of
follows:
healthcare professionals and patients (Zhu, 2021). The sensors’ resolu­
λ = 2nΛ (1) tion and efficiency factor have been harmed as the amplitude of surface-
plasmon waves has decreased (Yoon et al., 2005; Rahman et al., 2017;
where, Λ is the grating period,’n’ is the refractive index and Bragg Ma et al., 2014).
wavelength is denoted by λ. This work has a great impact on high-precision applications such as

Fig. 1. Block diagram of Sensor Operation.

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B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

in measuring ocean salinity (He and Chen, 2013; Biswal et al., 2021;
̃z
Biswal et al., 2020), in monitoring drinking water quality and deter­ ∂Ez ∂Ey
− = ( − μx x/c0 )
∂H
(2)
mining the quantity of plasma proteins in blood tests. Fig. 1 explains ∂y ∂z ∂t
Block diagram of sensor operation of our proposed model, where a Super ∂Ez
denotes partial derivative of Electric field in’z’ direction with
∂y
Luminescent Diode is used as a light source, emitted on cladding and two
respect to’y’,
FBGs that are placed in cavity between core with gold coating. Due to ∂Ey
consecutive reflections from FBGs, at Bragg wavelength counter- ∂z denotes partial derivative of Electric field in’y’ direction with
propagating light waves are produced which results in intensity pro­ respect to’z’,
file of two interfering surface plasmons along fiber length. And then the µ is magnetic permeability,
output light with change in amplitude wavelength is absorbed in pho­ c0 is the wave travelling at the speed of the light,
todetectors through another side of cladding in which gold layers are ∂H̃z
∂t is partial derivative of vector of magnetic field in ‘x’ direction
inscribed and the results are observed in present and absence of NO2 with respect to time’t’.
environment at different concentrations (10–100) ppm. A consistent
increase in peak of reflectance has been calculated in accordance with 2.1.2. Finite element method (FEM)
increasing concentration of NO2. The structure domain in a FEM model is segregated into 86 compo­
To calculate the ideal excitation of surface plasmons, SPR analyses nents, which are small segments. It does, however, classify 87 structural
the reflected power from a prism coupler as a function of incident angle behaviours based on stress and strain the Null field method, an optical
or wavelength. (Samiappan and Sudhakar, 2020). This process helps in component with a certain period split and diffract into eighty-eight short
observing minute changes in nanometre scale. This method has the sections, and therefore the signal provoked from every section is addi­
capability of operating when ellipsometry fails to produce a result tional along to supply the eighty-nine total mirrored signals (Mihailov,
(Taverne et al., 2018; Salvi and Barchiesi, 2014). The salinity sensor for 2018). By scrutiny the number of brief sections employed by the null
seawater is constructed using the high sensitivity of chalcogenide sur­ field method approach to the quantity of parts within the FEM model,
face plasmon resonance (SPR) structures with chalcogenide films the FBG reflected spectrum is simulated employing a FEM model (Min
(Leslie, 2021). SPR imaging is utilised to screen blood plasma of Mye­ et al., 2021). The theorem of variation, domain decomposition, and
lodysplastic Syndrome (MDS) patients at the same time. SPR is a label- interpolation function are used to interpret a partial differential equa­
free, direct approach for quantifying and monitoring protein-protein tion (PDE) that meet the boundary conditions in FEM (Meng et al.,
interactions in real time. 2017). The two theoretical modes must be mathematically orthogonal to
each other. As a result, the orthogonal values equation is:
2. Sensor architecture ∫∞ ∫∞
Et v* Ht μ.̂z dA = Et μ* Ht v.̂z dA = 0, forv ∕
=μ (3)
A fibre optic sensor based on surface plasmon resonance is used to A A

concurrently compute temperature and refractive index (Zhan et al., Et and Ht are the electric field and magnetic field respectively,
2021). A long-range SPR sensor with a high sensitivity refractive index ‘y’ is the displacement and μ is the permeability,
centred on side polished optical fibre (Zakaria et al., 2021). There has
z is the unit z polarized vector.
′ ̂′
been previous work where contaminated honey was analysed using gold
nanoparticles layered FBG Sensor based on SPR (Kostina et al., 2019).
2.1.3. Eigenmode expansion method (EEM)
Temperature and pressure sensors are frequently used with FBGs
This method allows the directed modes to carry out power transfers
(Samiappan et al., 2019). In this study, we provide a novel sensor ar­
in an optical fiber framework. It’s a medium of simulating electromag­
chitecture that relies on surface plasmon gain amplification in an optical
netic propagation that relies on the fragmentation of electromagnetic
fibre for the first time (Verma et al., 2015). In all preceding works,
fields into a series of local eigenmodes in the device’s cross section. In
surface plasmon resonance in optical fibers are primarily contingent
each local cross-section, the eigenmodes are determined by solving
on’Passive Excitement’ (Prabowo, 2016). Our findings have a significant
Maxwell’s equations (Raju et al., 2022). It can be conveyed mathemat­
advantage over theirs since they show a significant increase in sensor
ically as:
performance that was attained using active surface plasmons excitation.
A pair of fibre Bragg gratings are inscribed in the centre of our device, E(x, y, z) = E(x, y)eiβz (4)
forming a cavity in which incident light of the Bragg wavelength is
for a single wavelength and form’s time dependence exp(-iωt).
confined (Shushama et al., 2017). Thus, consecutive reflections of light
Now, in terms of a superposition of forward and backward propa­
at the wavelength in the cavity results in the excitation of two counter-
gating modes, here are Maxwell’s equations:
propagating surface plasmon waves (Gupta et al., 2016; Dhanalakshmi
∑M (
et al., 2022a). As a result, constructive interaction between these two E(x, y, z) =
)
ak e(iβk z) + bk e(− iβk z) Ek (x, y) (5)
waves has been shown, resulting in a fourfold increase in optical field k=1

gain. where, ak and bk are the normalized vector that specifies the path of the
electric field
2.1. Numerical simulation methods ∑M ( )
H(x, y, z) = k=1
ak e(iβk z) − bk e(− iβk z) Hk (x, y) (6)
2.1.1. Finite-difference time-domain simulation (FDTD)
One of the most important algorithms for the integration of the time where, ak and bk are the normalized vector that specifies the path of the
dependent form of Maxwell’s equations in order to explain the optical magnetic field.
response of metals is the FDTD process. As we are calculating our results
in P polarized phase, that is reflection vs angle of the incidence of Re­
flected wave-length using a gold layer that is inscribed instead of clad­ 2.2. Model simulation and performance
ding. Since gold thickness is proportional to the free electron charge, it
denotes peak mode attenuation, or the shape and location of the SPR dip In this work, simulations were carried out in COMSOL Multiphysics.
(Ueno and Misawa, 2013). As a result, we use the Auxiliary differential FEM simulations were calculated by plotting reflectance vs number of
equation (ADE) approach to implement a Finite-Difference Time- NO2 particles peak wavelength at 1555 nm. A fbg was designed in
Domain Simulation formulation (FDTD) (Wang et al., 2006). COMSOL by adding 50 gratings in its core and the effects of varying

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B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

Light Source Photodetector

NO2 particles

Au thin
Film(400×300)nm
SiO2
Waveguide(600×400)nm

Fig. 2. Block diagram of SPR with thin gold film in presence of NO2 particles.

Fig. 3. Block diagram of Fiber Optic Sensor with thin gold film in presence of NO2 particles.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Physically Controlled
Surface Plasmon Parametric sweep in a
Full vector complex mesh with a controlled
resonance calculator range of (500-700) nm
mode theory parameter in frequency
using FDTD at the step of 5
domain

Fig. 4. Numerical simulation under physics of Electromagnetic waves, frequency domain in COMSOL.

concentrations NO2 particles on SPR’s electric field for SPR (Surface relevant parameters as graphical input using FEM concept. Fig. 2 and
Plasmon Resonance). Electric field is analysed by increasing the con­ Fig. 3 explains the block diagram of SPR and Fiber optic sensor presence
centration up to 100 NO2 particles of refractive index 1.449 with Au thin of 10 NO2 particles respectively. Physics controlled mesh has been used
films present in core in between cladding. Thus, an indigenous Fiber with a controlled parameter in COMSOL in frequency domain. Para­
Bragg grating has been designed such that in core an array of 50 gratings metric sweep has been taken in a range of (500–700) nm at the step of 5.
has been placed in between cladding. Therefore, the observed results Thus, Numerical simulation has been conducted by COMSOL under
were differentiated from SPR with a gold film of 50 nm plating. physics of Electromagnetic waves, frequency domain (Fig. 4).
A cladding was introduced of silver glass material with dimensions of
(600×400) nm and refractive index of 1.4457 and a gold film with di­ 2.3. Performance specifications
mensions of (400×300) nm were simulated. Two 25 gratings of silver
glass with dimension of (20×300) nm were inscribed in core, distanced A sensor’s performance can be described by a number of factors,
at 100 nm. NO2 particles with a radius of 10 nm to 15 nm and with a including its sensitivity. The change in resonance angle Δθres and vari­
1.449 refractive index were first put into the simulation with different ation of the refractive index Δns ratio is termed as Sensitivity (Biswal
concentration, such that Fiber Grating solver was used to calculate the et al., 2020).
response of fiber gratings response with full-vector complex mode the­
ory and surface plasmon resonance calculator were used to calculate at

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B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

Table 3 Hence, it’s sensitivity.

Comparison table for specificity data in presence of other gases with NO2 gas. S= 42
nm/ppm.
◦

0.1580=265.822
Types of Gases R.I(ngas) Δ n(ngas – Detection limit
nno2) (ppb) 2.3.2. Limit of detection (LOD)-
Ammonia (NH3) (Pawar and 1.000376 − 0.4486 0.1 Here, resolution of detector unit is 1.8nє and sensitivity calculated
Kale, 2019) above is 265.822. Hence, limit of detection will be
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (Pawar 1.000449 − 0.4485 3
and Kale, 2019) 3 × 1.8n ∈
Helium (He) (Pawar and Kale, 1.000035 − 0.4489 3 265.822
2019)
Methane (CH4) (Pawar and Kale, 1.000444 − 0.4485 1.5 = 0.1799 ppm.
2019)

3. Results and discussion

Table 4 The results have been analysed for SPR and a Fiber optic sensor with
A comparison table for existing fiber-optic sensors with the proposed sensor. SPR in presence and absence of NO2 initially, and the graphs for
Types of Sensors Detection Limit of Sensitivity respective simulation has been plotted along with standard error graph.
Range Detection (LoD) Gold is used because it produces an SPR signal at a variety of
Fiber Optic based CH4 Sensor ( 10–100 ppm 0.2 % 0.3 nm/ppm reflectance angle and wavelength combinations. It interacts with free
Pawar and Kale, 2019) electron constellations on the gold surface, due to electric field energy of
Fiber Optic based NH3 Sensor ( 0–500 ppm 0.154 ppm 2.15 pm/ photons. These are electrons from the outer shell and the conduction
Pawar and Kale, 2019) ppm
band. R-squared has been calculated for each plot as in a regression
Graphene based Fiber Optic 0–1000 ppm 0.04 ppm 3 pm/ppm
NH3 Sensor (Pawar and model, R-squared (R2) is a statistical measure that quantifies the pro­
Kale, 2019) portion of variation explained by an independent variable or variables.
Fiber Optic based NO2 Sensor 0–100 ppm 0.1799 ppm 265.822 nm/ Later, a comparison graph has been plotted in order to compute the
(Proposed work) ppm
gain enhancement of our proposed model in comparison with SPR with
thin gold films.
Δθres As, NO2 has refractive index of 1.449 and detection limit of 10 ppb,
S = (7) that has been presented in the Table 3 (Pawar and Kale, 2019). Also,
Δns
comparison of different types of sensors based on detection range, LOD,
The limit of Detection can be calculated based on enhancing reso­ sensitivity has been classified in Table 4 (Pawar and Kale, 2019).
lution around three times by the sensitivity of the sensor (Raju et al.,
2022).
3.1. SPR with thin gold films in presence and absence of NO2 particles.
3 × Resolution of Detector unit
LOD = (8)
Sensor Sensitivity
Fig. 5 represents the reflection vs no. of NO2 particles graph of SPR in
absence and presence of nitrogen dioxide environment with 50–60 nm
2.3.1. Sensitivity calculation in presence of gold thin films-
gold thin films. The reflectance of SPR in absence of NO2 is 0.54472 at
The change in resonance angle Δθres and variation of the refractive
the peak wavelength of 1500–1555 nm.
index.Δns of SPR with thin gold films are 42◦ and 0.1580 respectively.
NO2 particles have been observed at the range of 0–100 ppm. It was

Fig. 5. No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (SPR with thin gold film).

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B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

Fig. 6. Error graph of No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (SPR with thin gold film).

Fig. 7. No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (Fiber optic sensor with thin gold film).

observed that increasing the concentration of NO2 , brings out a differ­ NO2 particles have been observed in the range of 0–100 ppm. It was
ence of 0.000039(approx) in reflectance. The reflectance of SPR in seen that increasing the concentration of NO2 , brings out a difference of
presence of NO2 at 100 ppm is observed as 0.54503 at the peak wave­ 0.00003 (approx) in reflectance. The reflectance of SPR in presence of
length of 1520–1540 nm. Also, the difference calculated for reflectance NO2 at 100 ppm is observed as 0.54503 at the peak wavelength of
in absence and presence of NO2 environment is calculated as 0.00006. R- 520–700 nm. Also, the difference calculated for reflectance in absence
squared value has been calculated as 0.957 which depicts the linear and presence of NO2 the environment is calculated as 0.00011. In this
regression model. plot R-squared is calculated as 0.9733, which represents the linear fit of
Fig. 6 is plotted to determine the standard error graph for no. of NO2 the graph.
particles with respect to reflectance of SPR in presence of gold film. Fig. 8 is plotted to determine the standard error graph for no. of NO2
particles with respect to reflectance of Fiber optic sensor in presence of
gold film.
3.2. SPR with fiber optic sensor with thin gold films in absence and
presence of NO2 particle
3.3. Fiber optic sensor vs SPR in presence and absence of NO2
Fig. 7 represents the reflection vs wavelength graph of proposed environment
design in absence of nitrogen dioxide particles with 50–60 nm gold thin
films. The reflectance of SPR in absence of Nitrogen dioxide is 0.54474 Fig. 9 explains the comparison graph of proposed model vs SPR in
at the peak wavelength of 500–700 nm. presence and absence of NO2 . With increasing the concentration of NO2 ,

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B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

Fig. 8. Error graph of No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (Fiber optic sensor with thin gold film).

Fig. 9. No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (Fiber optic sensor vs SPR in presence).

Fig. 10. Error graph of No. of NO2 particles vs Reflectance (Fiber optic sensor vs SPR with thin gold film).

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B. Sinha et al. Results in Optics 11 (2023) 100381

the reflectance is also increasing, stating a difference of 0.00005 and Acknowledgements

0.00004 approximately in the value of respective reflectance in absence
and presence of the compared graph. Number of NO2 particles range We would like to express our appreciation to SRM Institute of Science
from 0 to 100 ppm. and Technology for providing the necessary research facilities for the
After adding gold layers instead of cladding, we observed a reflec­ experimental study.
tance peak of 0.54503 and 0.544505 for SPR and SPR with a fiber optic
sensor respectively with a difference in reflectance of 0.00002, when References
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