2020 3 29

0 4
0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1 7
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 ϵ−N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 ϵ−δ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 15
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 28
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4 45
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 55
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6 68
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

1
 2016
A B

1.

wikipedia

2.

2
 [1]

Wolfram Alpha
([Link] SAGE [Link]

wikipedia

[1]
[2-4] [2]
[3] 80
[4]

[1]
[2]
[3]
[4] SB

3
 0

0.1
(set)
(element)

A A={ } = {2, 4, 6, 8, · · · }
 

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, · · · }
Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · }
p
Q = { | p ∈ Z, q ∈ N }
q
R={ }
C = {a + bi | a, b ∈ R}
 

• N

•
√
• i= −1 C ≃ R2 = {(x, y)|x, y ∈ R}

• R3 = {(x, y, z)|x, y, z ∈ R}

• N ⊂Z⊂Q⊂R⊂C

X, Y X⊂Y X Y

X x Y

∀x ∈ X, x ∈ Y

for all x in X, x belongs to Y

X ̸⊂ Y

X x Y

∃x ∈ X, x ̸∈ Y

4
 there exists x in X such that x does not belong to Y

 1 

x ϵ |x| < ϵ x=0

 

x 0 c |c| > |c|/2 ϵ = |c|/2

|x| < ϵ ϵ 2

0.2
X, Y
X Y X Y

f :X→Y

x∈X y∈Y

y = f (x)

X Y R

X x Y
f (domain)
n π πo
D = x |− <x≤
2 2
f :D→R
f (x) = sin x

(range)
R = {x | − 1 < x ≤ 1}

5
 D R R

 

a b

a<x<b (a, b)
a≤x≤b [a, b]
a<x≤b (a, b]
a≤x<b [a, b)

a −∞ b ∞ x≥0 [0, ∞)
R = (−∞, ∞)
 

6
 1

1.1
 2 

an (n = 1, 2, 3 · · · )

(1) a1 = 2, a2 = 3, a3 = 5, a4 = 7, a5 = 11, a6 = 13, · · ·

(2) a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 2, a4 = 3, a5 = 2, a6 = 4, a7 = 2, · · ·

(3) a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 2, a4 = 3, a5 = 5, a6 = 8,· · ·

(4) a1 = 1, a2 = 4, a3 = 1, a4 = 4, a5 = 2, a6 = 1, · · ·
 

(1) an n

(2) an n

(3) an an+2 = an+1 + an 13

bn = an+1 /an limn→∞ bn

√
1+ 5
2 ≈ 1.618

√ √
(4) an 2 1: 2

n M ∈R an ≤ M

n M ∈R an ≥ M

n an ≤ an+1 an ≥ an+1

7
 3 

2 (1)∼(4)
 

(1) (3)
(1) (2)

M M · · · (∗)

M +1 (1)
M +1
(∗) (2) (3)
√
(4) 0 ≤ an ≤ 9 2
an = 0 2

2(4) x p
n qn

x = p.q1 q2 q3 q4 · · ·

 1  2  3
1 1 1
x = p + q1 + q2 + q3 + ···
10 10 10

 

an
 

√
2(4) 2 xn p = 1, q1 = 4, q2 = 1.q3 = 2, · · ·
 1  2  n
1 1 1
xn = p + q1 + q2 + · · · + qn
10 10 10

√
limn→∞ xn = x = 2

1.2 ϵ−N

8
 4 

0.999 · · · = 1
 

p = 0, q1 = q2 = · · · = qn = 9 xn
 1  2  n
1 1 1
xn = 9 +9 + ··· + 9
10 10 10

limn→∞ xn xn

 k

X
n
1 1 1 n+1
− 10
10
x = lim 9 = 9 lim =1
n→∞
k=1
10 n→∞ 1 − 10
1

4 limn→∞ xn = 1 1

 n
1
ϵ |xn − 1| = <ϵ
10

 ϵ−N 

an a
ϵ (∗) N

n>N |an − a| < ϵ · · · (∗)

limn→∞ an = a
 
N n
n an n

N n an n |an − a| < ϵ

xn ϵ
−5
ϵ = 10 ϵ
( N ) ϵ = 10−5 N =5
n>N |xn − 1| < ϵ

1.∼3.

1. ϵ

2. n |an − a| < ϵ N ϵ

3. 1.∼2. ϵ

9
 ∀ϵ > 0, ∃N ∈ N s.t. ∀n > N, |an − a| < ϵ

s.t. such that

21 ϵ(−N )

 5 

ϵ−N
1
lim =0
n→∞ n
 

an = 1
n ϵ>0 |an | = | n1 | < ϵ n

2
N=
ϵ
n>N |an | < |aN | = ϵ/2 < ϵ 2

ϵ−N

 

an bn n > N |an | < |bn | limn→∞ bn = 0

limn→∞ an = 0
 

limn→∞ bn = 0 ϵ−N

∀ϵ > 0, ∃Nb ∈ N s.t. ∀n > Nb , |bn | < ϵ

Na = max {N, Nb }

n > Na n |an | < |bn | < ϵ

∀ϵ > 0, ∀n > Na s.t. |an | < ϵ

limn→∞ an = 0 2

10
1.3

R A m = max (A)

m a∈A a<m

A f max (f (A))
min (f (A))

f (x) = x2 (−1 ≤ x < 2)

0
4
x=2 f

f(x) A

∀x ∈ A |f (x)| < M M

f (x) < M f (x) > M

f (x) A

sup (f (A)) = min{ m | ∀a ∈ A, f (a) ≤ m}

inf (f (A)) = max{ m | ∀a ∈ A, f (a) ≥ m}

sup = ∞ inf = −∞

sup[0, 4) = 4 inf[0, 4) = min[0, 4) = 0 A = {1− n1 | n =

1, 2, · · · } max A sup A = 1 min A = inf A = 0

f (x) x=a

lim f (x) = l
x→a

lim f (x) = l lim f (x) = l

x→a−0 x→a+0

11
 f (x) a

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

I I

 

(1) f (x) g(x) a

f (x)
f (x) ± g(x), cf (x), f (x)g(x), ( g(a) ̸= 0)
g(x)

x=a
(2) f (x) a g(y) y = f (a) g(f (x)) x=a

 

 6 

f (∞, ∞) a

x sin 1 (x ̸= 0)
x
f (x) =
a (x = 0)
 

x=0 x sin(1/x) x→0

x=0 | sin(1/x)| ≤ 1

1
x sin ≤ |x| → 0 (x → 0)
x

limx→0 f (x) = 0 f (0) = a = 0 2

1.4 ϵ−δ

ϵ−N

12
 

f (x) x→∞ f (x) = l

ϵ (*) M ∈R

x>M |f (x) − l| < ϵ · · · (∗)

limx→∞ f (x) = l x → −∞ x<M ···

 
N ∈N M ∈R

a limx→a

 ϵ−δ 

f (x) x=a f (x) = l

ϵ (*) δ>0

|x − a| < δ |f (x) − l| < ϵ · · · (∗)

limx→a f (x) = l
 
ϵ−N N a δ
δ ϵ

 7 

ϵ−δ

lim x2 = 1
x→1
 

ϵ f (x) = x2 |f (1) − 1| < ϵ y

x=1 x δ |x − 1| < δ


|f (x) − 1| < max {|f (1 + δ) − 1|, |f (1 − δ) − 1|} = max |2δ + δ 2 |, | − 2δ + δ 2 | = 2δ + δ 2

2δ + δ 2 < ϵ ϵ−δ δ
√
0 < δ < −1 + 1 + ϵ2 δ ϵ
ϵ 2

l f (a) f (x) a

 8 

1
lim sin
x→0 x
 

13
 6 x=0 6 0
x=0

a ϵ>0 δ>0

|x| < δ |f (x) − a| < ϵ · · · (∗)

f (x) x −1 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1
|f (x) − a| ≥ 1 ϵ<1 ϵ (∗) 2

1.5

 

f (x) [a, b] f (a) < f (b) f (a) < k < f (b) k

f (c) = k c ∈ (a, b)
 

k c
I

x, y ∈ I x<y f (x) < f (y)

k c x = g(y)
−1 −1
g f y=f (x)
2
√
x x

 

sin x(−π/2 ≤ x ≤ pi/2) cos x(0 ≤ x ≤ π) tan x(−π/2 < x < π/2)

sin−1 x , cos−1 x , tan−1 x

sin−1 arcsin
−1
Sin
1 1 1
csc x = , sec x = , cot x =
sin x cos x tan x

 

14
 2

2.1
f (x) x=a

f (x) − f (a)
lim
x→a x−a
f (x) a f ′ (a) f (x) x=a
f (x) x=a f ′ (a) x=a
f (x)
y = f (x) f ′ (x) x
dy df df df (x)
dx dx dx (x) dx
df df
dx (x) dx x
df (x)
dx f x

 

a f (x) g(x)

′ ′
(f (x) ± g(x)) = f ′ (x) ± g ′ (x) , (a · f (x)) = af ′ (x)
 ′
′ ′ ′ f (x) −f (x) · g ′ (x) + f ′ (x) · g(x)
(f (x) · g(x)) = f (x) · g(x) + f (x) · g (x) , =
g(x) g(x)2
f (g(x)) y = f −1 (x)
 −1
′ ′ ′ −1

′ dx
(f (g(x))) = f (g(x)) · g (x) , f (x) =
dy
 

 9 

sin−1 x (−1 < x < 1) cos−1 x (−1 < x < 1) tan−1 x

 

15
 y = sin−1 x x = sin y
 −1
−1 ′ dx 1 1
(sin x) = = = ±√
dy cos y 1 − x2
y −π/2 < y < π/2 +
y = cos−1 x
 −1
−1 ′ dx 1 1
(cos x) = =− = ±√
dy sin y 1 − x2
y 0<y<π −
y = tan−1 x
 −1
−1 ′ dx 1
(tan x) = = cos2 y =
dy 1 + x2

x ∈ (−∞, ∞) 2

 

f (x) x=a P (a, f (a)) f (x) l

y = f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a)
 

2.2

 

f (x) c I x=c
(1) f (x) x=c f ′ (c) = 0
′
(2) f (x) x=c f (c) = 0
 

 

f (x) [a, b] (a, b) (a, b)

(1) f ′ (x) > 0 f (a) < f (b)
(2) f ′ (x) < 0 f (a) > f (b)

 

16
( ) 

f (x) [a, b] (a, b)

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c)
b−a
c ∈ (a, b)
 

 

f (x) [a, b] f (x) [a, b]

 

 

f (x) [a, b] (a, b) f (a) = f (b)

f ′ (c) = 0

c ∈ (a, b)
 

(i) f (x) f ′ (x) = 0 c

(ii)f (x) m = f (c1 ) l = f (c2 )
f (x) m l f (a) = f (b) c1
′
c2 a b c1 a b c1 f (c1 ) = 0
c c2 2

f (b)−f (a)
l= b−a F (x) = f (x) − l(x − a) F (a) = F (b) = f (a) F (x)
′ ′
F (c) = f (c) − l = 0 c l = f ′ (c)
2

( )

17
 

f (x) g(x) [a, b] (a, b) g(a) ̸= g(b) g ′ (x) ̸= 0 (a <

x < b)
f (b) − f (a) f ′ (c)
= ′
g(b) − g(a) g (c)
c ∈ (a, b)
 

f (b)−f (a)
l = g(b)−g(a) F (x) = f (x) − l(g(x) − g(a)) F (x)
′ ′ ′
F (c) = f (c) − lg (c) = 0 c l = f ′ (c)/g ′ (c) 2

0/0 ∞/∞
” ”

 

f (x) g(x) a limx→a f (x) =

′ ′
limx→a g(x) = 0 limx→a f (x)/g (x) limx→a f (x)/g(x)

f ′ (x) f (x)
lim = lim
x→a g ′ (x) x→a g(x)

a ∞ ∞/∞

 

f (a) = g(a) = 0 f (x) g(x) a

f (x) f (x) − f (a) f ′ (c)

= = ′
g(x) g(x) − g(a) g (c)
c a<c<x x<c<a x→a c→a
f ′ (x) f (x)
lim = lim
x→a g ′ (x) x→a g(x)

 10 

tan−1 x log(cos x)
(1) lim , (2) lim
x→0 x x→0 x2
cos x x−a
(3) lim , (4) lim x log
x→0 x2 x→∞ x+a
sin−1 (ax)
(5) lim ( a ̸= 0)
x→0 sin−1 x
 

18
 (1) 0/0

tan−1 x
1
1+x2
lim = lim =1
x→0 x x→0 1
(2) 0/0

log(cos x) − tan x 1
lim 2
= lim =−
x→0 x x→0 2x 2
cos x
(3) limx→0 x2 = +∞
x−a
(4) log x+a /x 0/0
x−a 2a
log x+a x2 −a2
lim = lim = −2a
x→∞ x x→∞ − 12
x

(5)
√ a
1+a2 x2
lim =a
x→0 √ 1
1+x2
2

 

I f (t) g(t)

C : x = f (t) y = g(t) (t ∈ I)

t f (t) g(t) C1
C x y f ′ (c) ̸= 0
f (t) t=c


y = g f −1 (x)

 
  ′
dy
dy g (c) dt
= =
t=c
dx x=f (c) f ′ (c) dx
dt t=c

 

 11 

x = t − sin t , y = 1 − cos t (0 < t < 2π)

dy
(1) dx
(2)
 

(1) dx
dt = 1 − cos t t ̸= 2nπ (∈ Z) dy
dx
dy
dt = sin t

dy sin t
=
dx 1 − cos t
(2) 0 < t < π π < t < 2π t=π (x, y) = (π, 2)

19
2.3
dn f
f (x) n n n f (n) (x) dxn
n f (n) (x) n Cn
C∞ I Cn C n (I)
C∞ C ∞ (I)
sin x cos x ex C∞ C ∞ ((−∞, ∞))

[a, b] y = f (x) (x, y) A(p, f (p))

f (x)
′′
f (x) f ′′ (x) = 0 f ′′ (x)

 12 

f (x) [a, b] 2
(i)f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0

(ii)f ′ (x) > 0, f ′′ (x) > 0 (a ≤ x ≤ b)

(1) f (x) = 0 [a, b] α

′
(2) cn cn+1 y = f (cn )x + f (cn ) y=0

f (cn )
c1 = b , cn+1 = cn −
f ′ (cn )

cn limn→∞ cn
(3) limn→∞ cn = α
 

(1) [a, b]

(2) cn ∈ [α, b] cn+1 = cn − ff (c n)

′ (c
n
< cn cn+1 y = f ′ (cn )(x − cn ) +
f (cn ) y=0 cn > a cn

(3) β
f (β)
β=β−
f ′ (β)
f (β) = 0 (1) β limn→∞ cn = α 2

√
f (x) = x2 − 2 = 0 α= 2 c1 = 2 c2 = 1.5
c3 = 17/12 = 1.41666 · · · c4 = 1.414257 · · · 3

20
 

f (x) g(x) I n fg n

X
n
(n) (n−k) (k)
(f g) = n Ck f g
n=0
 ! 
n
n Ck
k

 13 

n
ex 1
(1) , (2) x2 cos 2x, (2) 2
1−x x −x−2
 

x
e
Pn 1 (k)
Pn k!
(1) ( 1−x )(n) = k=0 n Ck (e
x (n−k)
) ( 1−x ) = x
k=0 n Ck e (1−x)k+1 =
Pn 1
n!ex k=0 (n−k)!(1−x)k+1
(n)
(2) (cos x) = cos(x + nπ/2) (cos 2x)(n) = 2n cos(2x + nπ/2)

1
(x2 cos 2x)(n) = x2 (cos 2x)(n) + n(x2 )′ (cos 2x)(n−1) + n(n − 1)(x2 )′′ (cos 2x)(n−2)
 2   
 nπ  (n − 1)π (n − 2)π
n 2
= 2 x cos 2x + n
+ 2 nx cos x + +2 n−2
n(n − 1) cos 2x +
2 2 2
(−1)n n!
(3) 1
x2 −x−2 = 13 ( x−2
1
− 1
x+1 )
1
( x+a )(n) = (x+a)n+1
 
(−1)n n! 1 1
− 2
3 (x − 2) n+1 (x + 1)n+1

2.4

1
2
n n n

 

f (x) I n I a b a<b

f (n) (a) f (n+1) (c)

f (b) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(b − a) + · · · + (b − a)n + (b − a)n+1
n! (n + 1)!

c a<c<b
 

  X
n
′ f (n) (x) f (k) (x)
g(x) = f (b) − f (x) + f (x)(b − a) + · · · + (b − x)n = f (b) − (b − x)k
n! k!
k=0

21
 g(b) = 0 g(a) = Rn

(b − x)n+1
h(x) = g(x) − g(a)
(b − a)n+1

h(a) = h(b) = 0 h′ (c) = 0 c a b

X
n
f (k+1) (x) X
n
f (k) (x) (n + 1)(b − x)n
h′ (x) = − (b − x)k + (b − x)k−1 + g(a)
k! (k − 1)! (b − x)n+1
k=0 k=1

X
n
f (k+1) (c) X
n
f (k) (c) (n + 1)(b − c)n
h′ (c) = − (b − c)k + (b − c)k−1 + g(a)
k! (k − 1)! (b − a)n+1
k=0 k=1
f(n+1)
(c) (n + 1)(b − x)n
=− (b − a)n + Rn = 0
n! (b − x)n+1

f (n+1) (c)
Rn = (b − a)n+1
(n + 1)!
2

c = a + θ(x − a) 0 < θ < 1 a x=a

 

f (x) I n I a x∈I

X
n
f (k) f (n+1) (a + θ(x − a))
f (x) = (x − a)k + (x − a)n+1
k! (n + 1)!
k=0

θ 0<θ<1 x=a
 
1 0! = 1
2 x=0
3
4

ex x=0 f (x) = ex
f (k) (x) = ex

X
n
xn eθx
f (x) = + xn (0 < θ < 1)
k! (n + 1)!
k=0

fn (x) = f (x) − Rn f0 (x) = 1 f1 (x) = 1 + x f2 (x) = 1 + x + (1/2)x2

f3 (x) = 1 + x + (1/2)x2 + (1/6)x3 ex x=0

X∞
f (n)
f (x) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!

22
 

x=0 (−∞, ∞)

X∞ X∞ X∞
xn (−1)n 2n+1 (−1)n 2n
ex = sin x = x cos x = x
n=0
n! n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(2n)!

x=0 (−1, 1)
∞
X ∞
X X∞
1 (−1)n+1 n
= xn (1 + x)α = α Cn x
n
log(1 + x) = x
1 − x n=0 n=0 n=1
n

α α Cn = α(α − 1) · · · (α − n + 1)/n!
 
Rn n→0

 

θ∈R
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

 

X∞
(ix)n
eix =
n=0
n!

X∞ X∞
(−1)n x2n (−1)n x2n+1
eix = +i = cos x + i sin x
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(2n + 1)!

x=π eiπ + 1 = 0

 14 

n=3 x4
√
(1) sin x , (2) 1+x
 

(1) f (x) = sin x f (k) = sin(x+nπ/2) f (0) (0) = f (2) (0) = 1 f (1) (0) = f (3) (0) = 0
3 4
sin(θx)x
f (x) = x − x6 +
√ 24
(2) f (x) = 1 + x f (k) (x) = k C1/2 (1 + x)−(2n−1)/2 f (x) = 1 + 12 x − 81 x2 + 16
1 3
x −
4
5x
128 (1 + θx)−7/2
2

23
2.5
x=0
X
n
f (k) f (n+1) (a + θ(x)) n+1
f (x) = xk + x
k! (n + 1)!
k=0

f (n+1) (a+θ(x)) n+1

xn Rn = (n+1)! x xn

 

f (x) g(x)
f (x)
lim =0
x→a g(x)

f (x) = o(g(x)) (x → a)

f (x)
lim <∞
x→a g(x)

f (x) = O(g(x)) (x → a)

 
n n+1
Rn = o(x ) Rn = O(x )

 15 

x=0 x3
1 x
(1) , (2) x
sin x + cos x e −1
x p
(3) , (4) 1 − x + x2
log(1 + x)
 

(1) sin x = x − 61 x3 + o(x3 ) cos x = 1 − 12 x2 + o(x3 )

1 1
=

sin x + cos x 1 − −x + 12 x2 + 16 x3 + o(x3 )
  −1
1 1
= 1 − −x + x2 + x3 + o(x3 )
2 6
   2  3
1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3
= 1 + −x + x + x + −x + x + x + −x + x + x + o(x3 )
2 6 2 6 2 6
3 11
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + o(x3 )
2 6

24
 (2) ex − 1 = x + 12 x2 + 16 x3 + 1 4
24 x + o(x4 )
 −1
x 1 1 2 1 3 3
= 1 + x + x + x + o(x )
e −1
x 2 6 24
   2  3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1− x + x2 + x3 + x + x2 + x3 + x + x2 + x3
2 6 24 2 6 24 2 6 24
1 1 2
= 1 − x + x + o(x3 )
2 12
(3) log(1 + x) = x − 12 x2 + 13 x3 − 14 x4 + o(x4 )
 −1
x 1 1 2 1 3
= 1 − x + x − x + o(x ) 3
log(1 + x) 2 3 4
   2  3
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1
= 1 − − x + x2 − x3 + − x + x − x + − x + x2 − x3 + o(x3 )
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
1 1 2 1 3
= 1 + x − x + x + o(x)3
2 12 24

1 2 1


(4) (1 + x)1/2
= 1 + 2 x + 2 · − 12 2!
1 1
x + 2 · − 12 · − 32 1 3 3
3! x + o(x ) = 1 + 21 x − 81 x2 + 16
1 3
x + o(x3 )

p

1/2
1 − x + x2 = 1 + −x + x2
1
1
2 1
3
=1+ −x + x2 − −x + x2 + −x + x2 + o(x3 )
2 8 16
1 3 2 3 3
= 1 − x + x + x + o(x ) 3
2 8 16
2

 16 

x=0
(1)
sin x
lim
x→0 x

(2) x=0

sin x
x
(3) x=0

sin x
cos x
x
 

(1) sin x = x − 61 x3 + o(x4 )

sin x 1
= 1 − x2 + o(x3 )
x 6
sin x
limx→0 x =1
(2) O(x) 0 O(x2 )
(3) cos x = 1 − 1 2
2x + o(x3 ) x=0 cos x < sin x
x 2

25
 17 

x=0 x3

(1) tan x , (2) (1 + x)x , (3) tan−1 x

 

(1) sin x = x − 61 x3 + o(x3 ) cos x = 1 − 12 x2 + o(x3 )

x − 16 x3 + o(x3 )
tan x =
1 − 1 x2 + o(x3 )
 2   
1 3 1 2
= x − x + o(x ) × 1 + x + o(x )
3 3
6 2
1
= x + x3 + o(x3 )
3


(2) y = (1 + x)x log y = x log(1 + x) = x x − 12 x2 + o(x2 ) = x2 − 21 x3 + o(x3 )

2
− 21 x3 +o(x3 )
y = ex
   2
1 1 1
= 1 + x2 − x3 + x2 − x3 + o(x3 )
2 2 2
1
= 1 + x2 − x3 + o(x3 )
2
(3) y = tan−1 x y′ = 1
1+x2 = 1 − x2 + x4 + o(x4 ) x 0 x

1
y = x − x3 + o(x3 )
3
2

 18 

   
1 1 1 1 1
(1) lim − , (2) lim √ − √ , (3) lim (cos x) sin2 x
x→0 sin2 x x2 x→0 x 1−x x 1+x x→0
 

(1) O(x2 )
 −2
1 1 1 1
− = x − x3 + o(x3 ) − 2
sin2 x x2 6 x
 −2 !
1 1 2
= 2 1 − x + o(x )
2
−1
x 6
 
1 1 2 1
= 2 x + o(x ) → (x → 0)
2
x 3 3

26
(2)
1 1 1 
√ − √ = (1 − x)−1/2 − (1 + x)−1/2
x 1−x x 1+x x
   
1 1 1
= 1 + x + o(x) − 1 − x + o(x)
x 2 2
1
= (x + o(x)) → 1 (x → 0)
x
1
(3) y = (cos x) sin2 x
1 1 1
log y = 2 log(cos x) = 2 log(1 − x2 + o(x3 ))
sin x sin x 2
 2  
1 1 2 3
= x + o(x )
x − 16 x3 + o(x3 ) 2
  
1 1 1 2
= 2 1 − x2 + o(x2 ) x + o(x3 )
x 3 2
1
= + o(1)
2
√
y = e1/2+o(1) → e (x → 0) 2

27
 3

3.1
f (x)
dF (x)
= f (x)
dx
F (x)
Z
F (x) = f (x) dx

f (x)
f F

[a, b] x0 = a xn = b

∆ : a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b

[a, b] |∆| = max1≤i≤n {xi − xi−1 }

[a, b] y = f (x)
X
n
f (ξi )(xi − xi−1 ) (xi−1 ≤ ξi ≤ xi )
i=1

X
n
S(f, ∆) = Mi (xi − xi−1 ) , Mi = sup {f (x)}
i=1 xi−1 ≤x≤xi

Xn
s(f, ∆) = mi (xi − xi−1 ) , mi = inf {f (x)}
xi−1 ≤x≤xi
i=1

∆ x0 , x1 , · · · , xn−1 , xn
∆′ ∆

s(f, ∆) ≤ s(f, ∆′ ) ≤ S(f, ∆′ ) ≤ S(f, ∆)

28
 ∆

S(f ) = inf {S(f, ∆)} , s(f ) = sup{s(f, ∆)}

∆ ∆

1
s(f ) ≤ S(f ) s(f ) = S(f ) = σ f [a, b] (
Pn
) lim|∆|→0 i=1 f (ξi )(xi − xi−1 )
σ
Z b
σ= f (x) dx
a

f [a, b]

 

f (x) [a, b]
 

Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt
a

 

f (x) I a∈I
Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt
a

dF (x)
= f (x)
dx
 

a<x a>x
dF (x) F (x + h) − F (x)
= lim
dx h→0 h

Z x+h
F (x + h) − F (x) = f (t) dt
x
1 ∆ n

29
 h>0 h<0
Z x+h
mh ≤ f (t) dt ≤ M h
x

M = max{f (t) | x ≤ t ≤ x + h}
m = min{f (t) | x ≤ t ≤ x + h}

h
F (x + h) − F (x)
m≤ ≤M
h
h→0 m, M → f (x)

dF (x) F (x + h) − F (x)
= lim = f (x) 2
dx h→0 h

3.2

 

f (x) g(x) [a, b]

Z b Z b Z b
{f (x) ± g(x)}dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Z b Z b
kf (x)dx = k f (x) dx k
a a

Z b
b
f (x)dx = [F (x)]a = F (b) − F (a) k
a
 

 
Z Z
f (x)dx = f (x(t))x′ (t)dt
R
G(x) = g(x) dx
Z Z
f (x)g(x)dx = f (x)G(x) − f ′ (x)G(x)dx
 

30
 
Z Z
1 1
α
x dx = x α−1
(α ̸= −1) dx = log |x|
α+1 x
Z Z Z
1 x
ex dx = ex ax dx = a (a ̸= 1, a > 0) log x dx = x log x − x
log a
Z Z
sin x dx = − cos x cos x dx = sin x
Z Z
1 x 1 1 x
√ dx = sin−1 dx = tan−1
a −x
2 2 |a| a 2 + x2 a a
 

 19 

Z Z Z
1+x 1
(1) cot x dx (2) dx (3) p dx
1 + x2 x(1 − x)
Z Z Z
−1 1 x
(4) sin x dx (5) dx (6) dx
cosh x x4 + 1
 

(1) cot x = 1/ tan x

Z Z
cos x
cot x dx = dx = log | sin x| + C( )
sin x
(2)
Z Z Z
1+x 1 x 1
dx = dx + dx = tan−1 x + log(1 + x2 ) + C( )
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2 2

(3)
Z Z  
1 dx −1 x− 1
p dx = q dx = sin 1
2
+ C = sin−1 (2x − 1) + C( )
x(1 − x) 1
− (x − 12 )2 2
4

(4)
Z Z p
x
sin−1 x dx = x sin−1 x − √ dx = x sin−1 x + log 1 − x2 + C( )
1−x 2

(5) cosh x = (ex + e−x )/2

Z Z Z
1 2 2ex
dx = dx = dx
cosh x ex + e−x e2x + 1

t = ex dt = ex dx
Z Z
2ex 2dt
dx = = 2 tan−1 t + C = 2 tan−1 ex + C( )
e2x + 1 t2 + 1

(6) x2 = t dt = 2xdx
Z Z
x 1
2 dt 1 1 √
dx = = tan−1 t + C = tan−1 x + C( ) 2
x4 + 1 t2 + 1 2 2

31
 20 

Z p
dx
(1) √
= log |x + x2 + a| (a ̸= 0)
x2 + a
Z p  p 
1 x
(2) a2 − x2 dx = x a2 − x2 + a2 sin−1 (a ̸= 0)
2 |a|
Z p
1 p 2 p 
(3) x2 + a dx = x x + a + a log x + x2 + a (a ̸= 0)
2
 

√ √ √
(1) t= x2 + a − x dt/dx = (x + x2 + a)/ x2 + a

Z Z √ Z
dx 1 x2 + a dt p
√ = √ √ dt = = log |x + x2 + a| + C( )
x2 + a x2 + a x + x2 + a t

(2)
Z p p Z
x2
a2 − x2 dx = x a2 − x2 + √ dx
a2 − x2
√
a2 − x2
Z p Z Z
a2 − x2 −1 x x2
a − x dx =
2 2 √ 2
dx = a sin − √ dx
a2 − x2 |a| a2 − x2

(3)
Z p p Z
x2
x2 + a dx = x x2 + a − √
x2 + a
√
x2 + a
Z p Z Z p
x2 + a x2
x2 + a dx = √ = √ + log |x + x2 + a|
x2 + a x2 + a

 

f (x) f (x) 3

a ax + b
(1) (2) (3) =0
(x + b)m (x2 + cx + d)n
 

32
 21 

Z Z Z
x4 + 1 1 1
(1) dx (2) dx (3) dx
x3 − x 3
x +1 (x2 + 1)2
 

(1)
x4 + 1 c d e
= ax + b + + +
x −x
3 x x−1 x+1

c d e ax4 + bx3 + (−a + c + d + e)x2 + (−b + d − e)x + −c

ax + b + + + =
x x−1 x+1 x(x − 1)(x + 1)

a = 1, b = 0, c = −1, d = e = 1
Z 4 Z  
x +1 1 1 1 1 x2 − 1
dx = x − + + dx = x2 + log + C( )
x −x
3 x x−1 x+1 2 x

(2)
1 a bx + c
= +
x3 + 1 x + 1 x2 − x + 1

a bx + c (a + b)x2 + (−a + b + c)x + (a + c)

+ 2 =
x+1 x −x+1 (x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)

a = 31 , b = − 13 , c = 23
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1 x−2
dx = dx − dx
3
x +1 3 x+1 3 x −x+1
2

Z Z !
x−2 (x − 12 ) − 32 1 3 2 (x − 21 )
dx = dx = log(x2 − x + 1) − √ tan−1 √ + C( )
x2 − x + 1 (x − 12 )2 + 43 2 2 3 3
2

Z  
1 1 1 1 2x − 1
3
dx = log |x + 1| − log(x2 − x + 1) − √ tan−1 √ + C( )
x +1 3 6 3 3

(3) 1/(x2 + 1) −2x/(x2 + 1)2

Z Z Z
1 1 −1 −2x 1 1 1 1
dx = dx = − − dx
(x2 + 1)2 2 x (x2 + 1)2 2x(x2 + 1) 2 x2 x2 + 1

Z Z  
1 1 1 1 1
dx = − 2 dx = − − tan−1 x + C( )
x2 x2 + 1 x2 x +1 x

Z
1 x 1
dx = + tan−1 x + C( ) 2
(x2 + 1)2 2(x2 + 1) 2

33
 

n n
n α1 , α2 , · · · , αn

f (z) = z n + a1 z n−1 + · · · + zn−1 z + an = (z − α1 )(z − α2 ) · · · (z − αn )

 

 

R(x, y) x y 2
Z r r
n ax + b n ax + b
(1) R(x, ) dx t=
cx + d cx + d
ad − bc ̸= 0 n ≥ 2

Z p p √
(2) R(x, ax2 + bx + c) dx t= ax2 + bx + c − ax

a > 0 b2 − 4ac < 0

 

R √
20(1) dx/ x2 + a 20(2) (3)

 

R(x, y) x y 2
Z
x
R(sin x, cos x) dx t = tan
2
 

 22 

(1) t = tan x2 sin x cos x tan x t

(2)
Z
1
dx
sin x
 

(1) t = tan x2 sin x = 2 sin x2 cos x2 = 2 tan x2 cos2 x

2 = 2 tan x2 /(1 + tan2 x2 ) cos x =
2 cos2 x2 − 1 = 2/(1 + tan2 x2 ) − 1

2t 1 − t2 2t
sin x = cos x = tan x =
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 − t2

(2)
dx dx   x  1
dt =

x = 1 + tan2 = (1 + t2 )dx
2 cos2 2
2 2 2

2
dx = dt
1 + t2

34
 Z
1 1 + t2 2 1 x
dx = 2
dt = dt = log |t| + C = log tan + C( )2
sin x 2t 1 + t t 2

 23 

In (n = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) In
Z π
2
Z π
2
In = sinn θdθ = cosn θdθ
0 0
 

Z Z
 π
π π
2 2
In = sin θdθ = − cos θ sinn−1 θ 02 +
n
(n − 1) cos2 θ sinn−2 θ dθ = (n − 1)(In−2 − In )
0 0

n−1
In = n In−2

 n−1 n−3 · · · 2 I (n )
n n−2 3 1
In =
 n−1 n−3 · · · 1 I (n )
n n−2 2 0

π
I0 = 2 I1 = 1

n(n − 2)(n − 4) · · · 1(n )
n!! =
n(n − 2)(n − 4) · · · 1(n )


 (n−1)!! (n )
n!!
In =
 (n−1)!! π (n )
n!! 2

0!! = (−1)!! = 1 2

3.3

Rb
f (x) [a, b) b ∞ limc→b a
f (x) dx
f (x) [a, b)
Z b Z c
lim f (x) dx = f (x) dx
c→b a a

(a, b] a −∞
(a, b) (a, c] [c, b)

35
 24 

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1
(1) √ dx (2) dx (3) √ dx
0 x 0 x 0 1 − x2
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
−x 1 1
(4) e dx (5) dx (6) dx
0 1 x 0 1 + x2
 

√
(1) x → +0 1/ x
Z Z
1
1 1
1  √ 1 √

√ dx = lim √ dx = lim 2 x a = lim 2 − 2 a = 2
0 x a→+0 a x a→+0 a→+0

(2) x → +0 1/x
Z 1 Z 1
1 1
dx = lim √ dx = lim [log x]1a = lim (− log a) = +∞
0 x a→+0 a x a→+0 a→+0

(3) x → 1
Z Z
1
1 a
1  a π
√ dx = lim √ dx = lim sin−1 x 0 = lim sin−1 a =
0 1 − x2 a→1 0 1−x 2 a→1 a→1 2
(4) Z Z
∞ a  a

−x
e dx = lim e−x dx = lim −e−x 0 = lim 1 − e−a = 1
0 a→∞ 0 a→∞ a→∞

(5) Z Z
∞ a
1 1 a
dx = lim dx = lim [log x]1 = lim log a = +∞
1 x a→∞ 1 x a→∞ a→∞

(6)
Z ∞ Z
1 a
1  a
π
dx = lim dx = lim tan−1 x 0 = lim tan−1 a = 2
0 1 + x2 a→∞ 0 1+x 2 a→∞ a→∞ 2

(2) (5)

 

(1) α<0
Z 1
xα dx
0

α > −1 α ≤ −1

(2) Z ∞
xα dx
1

α < −1 α ≥ −1
 

36
 

f (x) [a, b) b +∞

(1) g(x)
Z b
|f (x)| ≤ g(x) g(x) dx < +∞
a
Rb
g(x) a
f (x) dx

(2) g(x)
Z b
0 ≤ g(x) ≤ |f (x)| g(x) dx
a
Rb
g(x) a
f (x) dx

 

 25 

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Z 1 Z ∞
1
e−x dx
2
(1) sin dx (2)
0 x 0
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1
(3) √
3
dx (4) sin dx
0 x2 + 1 2
π
x
 

(1) | sin(1/x)| ≤ 1
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 1
sin dx ≤ sin dx ≤ dx = 1
0 x 0 x 0

e−x ≤ 1 1 ≤ x x ≤ x2 e−x < e−x

2 2
(2) 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
Z ∞ Z 1 Z ∞
e−x dx = e−x dx + e−x dx
2 2 2

0 0 1
R1
1 0
dx [0, 1]
2 Z Z
∞ ∞
−x2 1
e dx ≤ e−x dx = < +∞
1 1 e

37
 B
−2/3
(3) x ∈ [0, ∞) x→∞ ∼x

Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
1 1
(x + 1)− 3 dx = x− 3 dx
2 2
√
3
dx ≥ √
3
dx =
0 x2 +1 0
2
x + 2x + 1 0 1

(4) x ∈ [ π2 , ∞) x→∞ t = 1/x dt = −dx/x2

dx = −dt/t 2
Z ∞ Z π
1 2 sin t
sin dx = dt
2
π
x 0 t2
t→0 sin t ∼ t ∼ 1/t
t ∈ [0, π/2] sin t > t/2
Z ∞ Z π Z π
1 2 sin t 2 1
sin dx = dt ≥ dt
2
π
x 0 t2 0 2t

(a, b) x = c1 , c 2 · · · , c n
(a, c1 ), (c1 , c2 ), · · · , (cn , b)

 26 

Z 1 Z 1
1 1
(1) p dx (2) dx
−1 |x| −1 x
 

(1) x=0
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 1
1 1 1 1
p dx = p dx + p dx = 2 √ dx = 4
−1 |x| −1 |x| 0 |x| 0 x

(2) x=0
Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
1 1 1
dx = dx + dx
−1 x −1 x 0 x

Z a Z 1   
1 1 a 1
lim dx + dx = lim [log |x|]−1 − [log |x|]a = lim (0 − log a + log a − 0) = 0
a→0 −1 x a x a→0 a→0

38
 Z ∞
Γ(s) = e−x xs−1 dx
0

s>0 f (x) = e−x xs−1 x

s−1 x/2 s−1 x/2
x <e limx→∞ x /e =0
R∞
f (x) < e−x/2 f (x) dx x=0
−x s−1 s−1
c Rc
e x <x x>0 s>0 0
f (x) dx

 27 

(1)Γ(s + 1) = sΓ(s) (s > 0)

(2)Γ(n) = (n − 1)! (n = 1, 2, · · · )
 

(1)
Z ∞ Z ∞
 ∞
Γ(s + 1) = e−x xs dx = −e−x xs 0 + s e−x xs−1 dx = sΓ(s)
0 0

(2) (1) n≥1 Γ(n) = (n − 1)Γ(n − 1) = (n − 1)(n − 2)Γ(n − 2) =

R∞
· · · = (n − 1)! · Γ(1) Γ(1) = 0 ex dx = 1 Γ(n) = (n − 1)! 2

3.4

 

f (x) f ′ (x) C : y = f (x) (a ≤ x ≤ b)

Z b q
2
L(C) = 1 + {f ′ (x)} dx
a


x = x(t)
C:
y = y(t)

a≤t≤b
s 2  2
Z b
dx dy
L(C) = + dt
a dt dt

 
∆

39
 28 

a  x/a 
(1) y = e + e−x/a (−b ≤ x ≤ b ; a, b > 0)
2

x = a(t − sin t)
(2) C : (a > 0, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π)
y = a(1 − cos t)
 

(1) y = a cosh(x/a) y ′ = sinh(x/a)

Z b p Z b
b
L= 1 + y ′2 dx = cosh(x/a)dx = [a sinh(x/a)]−b = 2a sinh(b/a)
−b −b

(2) 11 dx/dt = a(1 − cos t) dy/dt = a sin t

Z p Z Z
2π 2π √ 2π
t
L(C) = (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 dt = a 2 − 2 cos t dt = 2a sin dt = 8a 2
0 0 0 2

3.5
John Napier
e = 2.718 · · ·
ix
e = cos x + i sin x

e = limn→∞ (1 + n1 )n

 29 

an = (1 + n1 )n n = 1, 2, 3 · · ·
 

X
n  n
1 1 n(n − 1) 1 n(n − 1) · · · 1 1
an = n Ck =1+n + + ··· +
n n 2! n2 n! nn
k=0
      
1 1 1 1 2 n−1
=1 + 1 + 1− + ··· + 1− 1− ··· 1 −
2! n n! n n n
      
1 1 1 1 2 n−1
=≤1+1+ 1− + ··· + 1− 1− ··· 1 −
2! n+1 n! n+1 n+1 n+1
    
1 1 2 n
+ 1− 1− ··· 1 − = an+1
(n + 1)! n+1 n+1 n+1

40
 an
     
1 1 1 1 2 n−1
an =2 + 1− + ··· + 1− 1− ··· 1 −
2! n n! n n n
1 1 1
≤ 2 + + + ··· +
2! 3! n!
1 1 1
≤ 2 + + 2 + · · · + n−1
2 2 2
1 − 1/2n
≤2+ ≤3
1 − 1/2

an ≥ a1 = 2 2 ≤ an ≤ 3 an 2

2 ≤ an ≤ 3

 30 

6 e
 

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 eθx 7
ex = 1 + x + + + + + + x (0 < θ < 1)
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
x=1 e
1 1 1 1 1
1+1+ + + + + = 2.7180555 · · ·
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
x=1

eθ 3
< = 0.0005952 · · ·
7! 5040

e ≈ 2.718 2

e
e

 31 

e
 
e e p, q > 0 e = q/p
e p+1 x=1

1 1 1 1 eθ
e=2+ + + ··· + + + (0 < θ < 1)
2! 3! p! (p + 1)! (p + 2)!

p!
 
p! p! p! p! 1 eθ
p! · e = p! · 2 + + + ··· + + + +
2! 3! (p − 1)! p! p + 1 (p + 1)(p + 2)

41
 p 1

1 eθ 1 3
0< + < + =1
p + 1 (p + 1)(p + 2) 2 2·3

2<e<3
e 2

π
1949 M.
Aigner and G. M. Ziegler, ”Proofs from the Book” 90

1500
(The book)

n
n+1

=4

d x
e dx e = ex e
dax /dt = ax a

t x(t) dx/dt x
a>0
dx
= ax
dt
t=0 x(0) = x0

 32 

x(t) ( )

dx
= ax
dt
x(0) = x0 a>0
 

dx
= adt
x
R R
dx
x = adt log |x| = at + C C x
at C
x = Ae A=e A A = x0

42
 x x(t) = x0 eat 2

(Verhulst) a
a a(b − x)

dx
= a(b − x)x
dt
b
b=1
x

 33 

x(t) ( )

dx
= ax(1 − x)
dt
x(0) = x0 a>0
 

Z Z
dx
= adt
x(1 − x)

log |x/(1 − x)| = at + C (C ) A = eC

x/(1 − x) = Ae at
x

Aeat 1
x(t) = =
1 + Aeat 1 + Ae−at
A A = x0 /(1 − x0 ) 2

t x→1

t → −∞ x→0
0 1 t=0 1/a

dx
= −ax log(bx)
dt
b=1

43
 34 

x(t) ( )

dx
= −ax log x
dt
x(0) = x0 a>0
 

Z Z
dx
=− adt
x log x
−at
log | log x| = −at + C e x = eAe A = eC
−at
A = log(x0 ) x = exp(log(x0 )e ) x0 < 1
x0 > 1 t→∞ x→1 2

, x→∞ x = 1−ϵ
, b=1 ax(1 − x) = a(1 − ϵ)ϵ
−ax log x = −(1 − ϵ) log(1 − ϵ) = a(1 − ϵ)(ϵ − ϵ2 /2 + · · · ) < ax(1 − x)

log x = log x0 e−at (dx/dt)/x = −ae−at

30 80
, Gompertz

, J. D. Murrey 2014
,
A. K. Laird, “Dynamics of tumor growth”, Br. J. Cancer, 18 (1964) 490-502.
J. Aroesty et al., “Tumor growth and chemothrapy: Mathematical methods, computer simulations,
and experimental foundation”, Math. Biosci., 17 (1973) 243-300.

44
 4

PN P∞
{an }∞
n=1 SN = n=1 an N →∞ an n=1 an

 35 

1 1 1
(1) 1 + + 2 + 3 + ···
2 2 2
1 1 1
(2) 1 + + + + · · ·
2 3 4
 

1−(1/2)n
(1) 1/2 n Sn = 1−(1/2)
limn→∞ Sn = 2
R∞
(2) S S >1+ 2
1
x dx =∞ 2

 
P∞ P∞ P∞ P∞
n=1 an n=1 bn n=1 (an ± bn ) n=1 can c

∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(an ± bn ) = an ± bn can = c an
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
 

Pn Pn
k=1 ak = An k=1 bk = Bn limn→∞ An limn→∞ Bn
2

4.1

P∞
n=1 an an an ≥ 0

 
Pn
(1) n An = k=1 ak
(2)
 

45
 (1) an ≥ 0 An An

P P
(2) an bn n An
Bn bi = ak(i) k(1), k(2) · · · k(n) m

Bn = b1 + b2 + · · · + bn ≤ a1 + a2 + · · · + am = Am ≤ A
P P
Bn B B≤A an bn
A≤B A=B
2

(2)

P∞ P∞
an n=1 an n=1 |an |

an = −( 12 )n
 

(1)
(2)
 

P
(1) an
 
a (an ≥ 0) 0 (an ≥ 0)
n
a+
n = , a− =
0 (an < 0)
n
|a | (a < 0)
n n
P P P + P P − P
a+
n a−
n an < |an | < ∞ an < |an | < ∞
P P − P P + −
P + P −
a+
n an an = (an − an ) = an − an

(2) 2

 36 

1 1 1
1− + − + · · · = log 2
2 3 4
 

R
log(1 + x) = dx/(1 + x) u ̸= −1

X
n
1 (−u)n+1
(−u)k = −
1+u 1+u
k=0

0 x( 0 ≤ x ≤ 1)
Z x Z xX
n Z x
du k (−u)n+1
log(1 + x) = = (−u) du + du
0 1+u 0 k=0 0 1+u

46
 2 Rn 1
X
n
(−x)k+1
log(1 + x) = − + Rn
k+1
k=0

Rn 1≤u+1
Z x Z x
(−u)n+1 xn+2
|Rn | ≤ du ≤ un+1 du = → 0 (n → ∞)
0 1+u 0 n+2
P∞ (−x)n+1
0≤x≤1 −1 < x ≤ 1 log(1 + x) = − n=0 n+1 x=1

1 1 1 1 1 X (−1)k−1 2n
1 − + − ··· + − =
2 3 4 2n − 1 2n k
k=1

!
X
2n
(−1)k−1 X
2n
(−1)k−1 X
n
1 X
n
1
= +2 −2
k k 2k 2k
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
X
2n
1 X1 X 1
n n
= − =
k k n+k
k=1 k=1 k=1
Z 1
1X 1
n
1
= k
→ = log 2 (n → ∞)
n 1+ n 0 1+x
k=1

S = log 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S = 1− + − + − + − + − ···
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S 1 1 1 1 1
= − + − − ···
2 2 4 6 8 10

3 1 1 1 7 1 1
S=1 + − + + − + ···
2 3 2 5 1 4 9

3/2

 

∞ −∞

 

47
 
P P
an bn
P P
(1) n an ≤ bn bn an
P P
(2) limn→∞ an /bn = α(< ∞) bn an
 

P P P
(1) an bn n An Bn An ≤ B n ≤ bn < ∞ An

P
(2) an /bn M a n ≤ M bn M bn
P
an 2

 
P∞
n=1 rn |r| < 1
 

 
P
an
√ P
(1) n n an ≤ r r(< 1) an
√ P P
(2) limn→∞ n a
n =r r<1 an r<1 an
 

 
P
an
an+1 P
(1) n ≤r r(< 1) an
an
P P
(2) limn→∞ aan+1
n
=r r<1 an r<1 an
 

 37 

X  n n X an X nn−1
2

(1) , (2) , (3)

n+1 n! (n − 1)!
 

P √  n
an (1) n an = n
n+1 → 1/e(< 1) (n → ∞)

(2) an+1 /an = a/(n + 1) → 0(< 1) (n → ∞)

x
e sin x


n+1 n
(3) an+1 /an = n → e(> 1) (n → ∞)

48
4.2

∞
X
an xn = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · ·
n=0

 
P
an xn
X
r = sup{|u|| an un }

(0 ≤ r ≤ ∞)

|x| < r |x| > r

 

 
P
an xn r
√
(1) limn→∞ n an = α r = 1/α
(2) limn→∞ |an+1 /an | = α r = 1/α
 
(1) (2)

 38 

X X X
(1) nxn , (2) (1/2n )x2n , (3) (nn /n!)xn
 

(1) an+1 /an → 1(n → ∞) r=1

2
P
(2) x =y (1/2n )y n an+1 /an =
√
(1/2 n+1 n
)/(1/2 ) = 1/2 2 |x| < 2
√
2
(3) an+1 /an = (n + 1)n+1 /nn (n + 1) = (1 + 1/n)n → e 1/e 2

P P∞
a n xn |x| < r f (x) = n=0 an xn

 
P∞
f (x) = n=0 an xn (−r, r)
 

49
 
P∞
f (x) = n=0 an xn
Z x X∞
an n+1
f (t)dt = x (|x| < r)
0 n=0
n +1
 

Rx PN an n+1
0
f (t)dt− n=0 n+1 t
N →∞
Z x Z xX
N Z x X
N Z x ∞
X
an n+1
f (t)dt − t dt ≤ f (t) − an tn dt = an tn dt
0 0 n=0
n+1 0 n=0 0 n=N +1
Z x ∞
X ∞
X
≤ |an tn |dt = |x| |an xn |
0 n=N +1 n=N +1
P∞
n=1 |an x | n
N →∞ 2

 
P∞
f (x) = n=0 an xn

∞
X
f ′ (x) = nan xn−1 (|x| < r)
n=1
 

P∞
nan xn−1 0<u<r u |x| < x0 < r
P n=1
an xn0
nan xn−1 n x n−1
= → 0 (n → ∞)
an xn0 x0 x 0
P∞ P∞
n=1 nan xn−1 r g(x) = n=1 nan xn−1

Z x ∞
X
g(t)dt = an xn = f (x) − a0
0 n=1
′
f (x) = g(x) 2

f (x) |x − a| < r
∞
X
f (x) = an (x − a)n (|x − a| < r)
n=0

f (x) x=a x=a

a=0

k
∞
X
f (k) (x) = an n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 1)xn−k
n=k

50
 f (k) (0) = ak k! an = f (n) (0)/n!

 

x=0 (−∞, ∞)

X∞ X∞ X∞
xn (−1)n 2n+1 (−1)n 2n
ex = sin x = x cos x = x
n=0
n! n=0
(2n + 1)! n=0
(2n)!

x=0 (−1, 1)
∞
X ∞
X X∞
1 (−1)n+1 n
= xn (1 + x)α = α Cn x
n
log(1 + x) = x
1 − x n=0 n=0 n=1
n

α α Cn = α(α − 1) · · · (α − n + 1)/n!
 

 39 

1 1
(1)Tan−1 x , (2) , (3)
x2 + 2x − 3 (1 + x)2
 

(1) Tan−1 x dTan−1 x/dx = 1/(1 + x2 )

X∞
1
= 1 − x 2
+ x 4
− x6
+ · · · = (−1)n x2n
1 + x2 n=0

r=1 0 x(< 1)

X∞
x3 x5 x7 (−1)n x2n+1
Tan−1 x = x − + − + ··· =
3 5 7 n=0
2n + 1

(2)
   
1 1 1 1 1 −1 1
= − = − 3
x2 + 2x − 3 4 x−1 x+3 4 1−x 1+ x
3

|x| < 1/3

∞   n  ∞  
1 −1 X 1 −x 1X (−1)n
= x n
+ = − 1 + xn
x2 + 2x − 3 4 n=0 3 3 4 n=0 3n+1

(3) d/dx(−1/(1 + x)) = 1/(1 + x)2

∞
X
−1
= (−1)n−1 xn
1 + x n=0

1
X∞ X∞
1 n−1 n−1
= (−1) nx = (−1)n (n + 1)xn
(1 + x)2 n=1 n=0

51
 2

 40 

1 1 1 1 π
1− + − + − ··· =
3 5 7 9 4
 

Tan−1 x
X∞
x3 x5 x7 (−1)n x2n+1
Tan−1 x = x − + − + ··· =
3 5 7 n=0
2n + 1

x=1 Tan−1 1 = π/4

x=1
2

 
P P
an xn r x (|x| < r) f (x) = an xn
P n
x=r an x f (x) x=r
P
limx→r f (x) = f (r) = an rn
 
log(1 + x)
X∞
x2 x3 x4 (−1)n−1 xn
log(1 + x) = x − + − + ··· =
2 3 4 n=1
n

x=1

40 π

π π

π
√ ∞
1 2 2 X (4n)!(1103 + 26390n)
=
π 992 n=1 (4n 99n n!)4
2016 The man who know infinity

4.3
P∞ Pn
f (x) = n=0 an xn fn (x) = k=1 ak xk n→∞
fn (x) x

∞
d d X d
f (x) = an xn = lim fn (x)
dx dx n=0 dx n→∞

52
 X∞ X d X
n n
d n d k d
an x = lim ak x = lim ak xk = lim fn (x)
n=0
dx n→∞ dx n→∞ dx n→∞ dx
k=0 k=0

 

fn (x) x n→∞ f (x) fn (x) f (x)

lim sup |f (x) − fn (x)| = 0

n→∞

fn (x) f (x)
 
 41 

nx  x
n −nx
(1) (−∞ < x < ∞), (2) x e (0 < x < 1) , (3) log 1 + (0 < x < ∞)
1 + n2 x2 n
 

(1) x limn→∞ fn (x) = 0 fn (x) x = 1/n 1/2 sup |fn (x)| =

1/2 n→∞
(2) x limn→∞ fn (x) = 0 fn (x) x = 1 e−n
−n
limn→∞ sup |fn (x)| = limn→∞ e = 0
(3) x limn→∞ fn (x) = 0 fn (x) sup |fn (x)| = ∞

 

(1) I fn (x) f (x) fn (x) f (x)

(2) [a, b] fn (x) f (x)

Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim fn (x)dx
a n→∞ a

(3) [a, b] fn (x) fn′ (x)

d d d
f (x) = lim fn (x) = lim fn (x)
dx dx n→∞ n→∞ dx
 
Pn
fn (x) = k=1 ak (x)

53
 
Pn
(1) [a, b] fn (x) = k=1 an (x)
Z ∞
bX ∞ Z
X b
an (x)dx = an (x)dx
a n=0 n=0 a
Pn
(2) [a, b] fn (x) = k=1 an (x)
fn′ (x)
∞ ∞
d X X d
an (x) = an (x)
dx n=0 n=0
dx
 
f (x) fn (x) f (x)

54
 5

y = f (x)

2 2
1 2 3

2 z = f (x, y)
(x, y) z
3
2
c = f (x, y, z) 3 x, y, z
3 c = f (x, y, t) x, y
t

2
x, y n (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), · · · , (xn , yn )
y = ax + b
e a
b 2
X
n
2
e(a, b) = {yi − (axi + b)}
i=1

n y = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn
e a0 , a 1 , · · · , a n n+1
1
2 2 2

5.1
1

(x, y) (x, y, z) n x = (x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn )

Rn = {(x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn ) | x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ∈ R}

55
 2 x y d
v
u n
uX
d = |x − y| = t (xi − yi )2
k=1

n
R n n R2
R3 y = f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) Rn
A
f :A→R

1
Dϵ (p) = {x | |x − p| < ϵ} p
p ϵ 2 (3 )
Dϵ (p) ” ”
 

Rn D D p = (p1 , p2 , · · · , pn ) Dϵ (p) ⊂ D
ϵ
 

 

D D 2 D
n
R D
 
D D
D
D

(x, y) → (0.0) (x, y)

lim f (x, y) = c
(x,y)→(a,b)

 42 

x2 − y 2 2x3 − y 3 + x2 + y 2
(1) lim (2) lim
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y 2 (x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y 2
 

(1) y = 0 x x=0 y y=0

x2
lim = 1.
(x,y)→(0,0) x2

56
x=0
−y 2
lim = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0) y 2

(2) (1) y=0

2x3 + x2
lim =1
(x,y)→(0,0) x2

x=0
−y 3 + y 2
lim =1
(x,y)→(0,0) y2
1 1
1
2x3 − y 3 + x2 + y 2 2x3 − y 3
2 2
−1 =
x +y x2 + y 2
2x3 y3
≤ 2 2
+ 2
x +y x + y2

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ

2r3 cos3 θ r3 sin3 θ

= + ≤ 2r + r → 0 (r → 0).
r2 r2

1 2

lim f (x, y) = f (a, b)

(x,y)→(a,b)

 

f (x, y) g(x, y) (a, b) cf f ± g f g f /g g(a, b) ̸= 0 (a, b)

 
D f (x, y) D

 43 


 x − 3x y
 4 2 2
(x, y) ̸= (0, 0)
z = f (x, y) = 2x2 + y 2


0 (x, y) = (0, 0)
 

(x, y) ̸= (0, 0) (0, 0)

x = r cos θ y = r sin θ

x4 − 3x2 y 2 x4 − 3x2 y 2 x4 3x2 y 2

≤ ≤ +
2x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
= r2 | cos2 θ| + 3r2 | cos2 θ sin2 θ| ≤ 4r2 → 0 (r → 0)

57
 0 f (0, 0) = 0 (x, y) = (0, 0) 2

(partial derivative) z = f (x, y) y=b x=a f

f (x, b) − f (a, b)
lim
x→a x−a
(x, y) = (a.b) f z
∂f
(a, b) fx (a, b)
∂x
∂
y y=b xz
x (a, b)
∂f ∂z
(x, y) fx (x, y) zx (x, y)
∂x ∂x
y
 44 

(1) z = f (x, y) = x2 y 5 − 2x3 y 2 + y (2) w = f (x, y, z) = sin(x2 + xy + z)

 

(1) fx = 2xy 5 − 6x2 y fy = 5x2 y 4 − 4x3 y + 1

(2) fx = (2x + y) cos(x2 + xy + z) fy = x cos(x2 + xy + z) fz = cos(x2 + xy + z) 2

f (x, y) fx = 0 f y
fy = 0 f x

5.2
 

f (x, y) (a, b) (x, y) → (a, b)

p
f (x, y) − f (a, b) = m(x − a) + n(y − a) + o( (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 )

x=a+h y =b+k
p
f (x, y) − f (a, b) = mh + nk + o( h2 + k 2 )

m n

m = fx (a, b) n = fy (a, b)
 
2 1

58
 

f (x, y) (a, b) x, y fx fy (a, b)

f (x, y) (a, b) f (a, b) (a, b)
 

 

z = f (x, y) D x = x(t) y = y(t) t I

z = f (x(t)), y(t)) t

dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
 
t t x y z
x y

 45 

z = f (x(t), y(t)) dz/dt t

(1) z = xy 2 − x2 y , x = t2 , y = et (2) z = Tan−1 xy , x = et + e−t , y = e2t

 

(1)
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= + = (y 2 − 2xy)2t + (2xy − x2 )et = 2e2t (t2 + t) − et (t4 + 4t3 )
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

(2)
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy y x
= + = 2 2
(et − e−t ) + 2e2t
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt 1+x y 1 + x2 y 2
e3t − et + 2e3t + 2et 3e3t + et
= =
1 + e2t + 2e4t + e6t 1 + e2t + 2e4t + e6t
2

x y 2 (u, v) u v

 

z = f (x, y) D x = x(u, v) y = y(u, v)

z = f (x(u, v), y(u, v))

∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + = +
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
 

59
 46 

z = f (x(u, v), y(u, v)) ∂z/∂u ∂z/∂v (2) ∂z/∂r

∂z/∂θ (3) ∂z/∂x ∂z/∂y

(1) z = 2xy , x = u + v , y = u − v
(2) z = f (x, y) , x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
(3) z = f (r, θ) , x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
 

(1)
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + = 2y + 2x = 2u
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u

∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + = 2y − 2x = 2v
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
(2)
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= cos θ + sin θ , = (−r sin θ) + (r cos θ)
∂r ∂x ∂y ∂θ ∂x ∂y
(3)
∂z ∂z ∂r ∂z ∂θ
= +
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂θ ∂x
p
∂r/∂x r x, y r= x2 + y 2 ∂r/∂x =
p
x/ x2 + y 2 = x/r ∂θ/∂x ∂θ/∂x = 1/(∂x/∂θ)
p
1/(∂x/∂θ) = 1/ cos θ = x2 + y 2 /y θ
−1
θ = Tan (y/x) (x, y)


∂θ ∂Tan−1 y
x − xy2 −y
= =

y 2
=
∂x ∂x 1+ x2 + y 2
x

∂z ∂z x ∂z y
= p −
∂x ∂r x2 + y 2 ∂θ x2 + y 2

∂z ∂z ∂r ∂z ∂θ ∂z y ∂z x
= + = p +
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂θ ∂y ∂r x2 + y 2 ∂θ x2 + y 2

∂θ ∂Tan−1 y
x
1
x x
= =

y 2
=
∂y ∂y 1+ x2 + y 2
x
2

 
  ! ∂x ∂x
∂z ∂z  
∂z ∂z =  ∂u ∂v 
 ∂y ∂y 
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v

 
∂x ∂x
∂(x, y)  
= det  ∂u
 ∂y
∂v 
∂(u, v) ∂y 
∂u ∂v

60
 n f (x1 , x2 , · · · xn ) xi = xi (X1 , X2 , · · · Xm ) (i =
1, 2, · · · n)
∂f X ∂f ∂xi n
= (j = 1, 2, · · · m)
∂Xj i=1
∂xi ∂Xj
(i, j) ∂xi /∂Xj

46(3))

 
  ! ∂x ∂x ! !
∂z ∂z   ∂z ∂z cos θ −r sin θ
∂z ∂z =  ∂r ∂θ  =
 ∂y ∂y  sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂r ∂θ
!
1 r cos θ r sin θ
r − sin θ cos θ

!   !  
∂z ∂z 1 ∂z ∂z r cos θ r sin θ ∂z ∂z sin θ ∂z ∂z cos θ
= = cos θ − sin θ +
∂x ∂y r ∂r ∂θ − sin θ cos θ ∂r ∂θ r ∂r ∂θ r
46(3)

 

f (x, y) (a, b) z = f (x, y) (a, b, f (a, b)) S

∂f ∂f
z − f (a, b) = (a, b)(x − a) + (a, b)(y − b)
∂x ∂y
 

5.3

z = f (x, y) 2
(2 ) 4
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
2
, , ,
∂x ∂y∂x ∂x∂y ∂y 2
fxx fyx fyx fyy fyx x y
fxy fxy x

 47 

f (x, y) = x2 y 3 2
 

61
 fx = 2xy 3 fxx = 2y 3 fyx = 6xy 2 fy = 3x2 y 2 fxy = 6xy 2 fyy = 6x2 y 2

fxy fyx

 

fxy fyx fxy = fyx

 

2 fxyx =
∂ 3 f /∂x∂y∂x 1 Cn n

x y n Cn
C∞ C∞

∂5f ∂5f
=
∂x∂y∂y∂x∂y ∂x2 ∂y 3
n
∂nf
∂xk ∂y n−k

1
1

2 

f (x, y) D C n+1 (a, b)

Xn  j  n+1
1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
f (a + h, b + k) = h +k f (a, b) + h +k f (a + θh, b + θk)
j=0
j! ∂x ∂y (n + 1)! ∂x ∂y

0<θ<1
 

∂ ∂
(a, b) = (0, 0) o(hn , k n ) h ∂x + k ∂y

 
∂ ∂ ∂f ∂f
h +k f (x, y) = h (x, y) + k (x, y)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y

C n+1
 j X
j
∂ ∂ i j−i ∂f j
h +k f (x, y) = j Ci h k f (x, y)
∂x ∂y i=1
∂xi ∂y j−i

n=2
1 2

f (a+h, b+k) = f (a, b)+hfx (a, b)+kfy (a, b)+ h fxx (a, b) + 2hkfxy (a, b) + k 2 fyy (a, b) +o(h2 , k 2 )
2

62
 3
(a, b) (a, b) (a + h, b + k) D

f (x, y) = ex+2y n=1

1
eh+2k = 1 + h + 2k + (h2 + 4hk + 4k 2 )eθh+2θk
2

z = f (x, y) (a, b)

f (x, y) =f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)

1

+ fxx (a, b)(x − a)2 + 2kfxy (a, b)(x − a)(y − b) + k 2 fyy (a, b)(y − b)2
2
fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0

 

f (x, y) (a, b) fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0

 

! !
1  f (a, b) f (a, b)
xx xy x−a
f (x, y) − f (a, b) = x−a y−b
2 fyx (a, b) fyy (a, b) y−b

!
fxx (a, b) fxy (a, b)
H=
fyx (a, b) fyy (a, b)
X = (x − a, y − b)T
1 T
f (x, y) − f (a, b) = X HX
2
2 H

 2 

n H P H λi (i = 1, 2, · · · , n)
2

X T HX = λ1 x̃21 + λ2 x̃22 + · · · λn x̃2n

 

 

λ1 , λ 2 , · · · , λ n

 

63
 H λ det(λE − H) = 0 n=2
λ − Tr(H)λ + det(H) = 0
2
2 λ1 λ2 λ1 λ2 = det(H) = |H|
H
 

f (x, y) fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0 (a, b)

|H|

(i) |H| > 0 fxx > 0 (a, b) f (x, y)

(ii) |H| > 0 fxx < 0 (a, b) f (x, y)
(iii) |H| < 0 (a, b) f (x, y)
(iv) |H| = 0
 

 48 

(1) f (x, y) = x3 + y 3 − 3xy (2) f (x, y) = 2x3 + xy 2 + 5x2 + y 2

 

(1) fx = 3x2 − 3y = 0 fy = 3y 2 − 3x = 0 (0, 0) (1, 1) 2 fxx = 6x fxy =

fyx = −3 fyy = 6y |H| = 36xy − 9 (1, 1)
fxx > 0 -1
(2) fx = 6x2 + 10x + y 2 = 0 fy = 2(x + 1)y = 0 (0, 0), (−5/3, 0), (−1, 2) 3
fxx = 12x + 10 fxy = fyx = 2y fyy = 2(x + 1) (0, 0)
!
10 0
H=
0 2

|H| > 0 fxx > 0 (−5/3, 0)

!
−10 0
H=
0 −4/3

|H| > 0 fxx < 0 (−1, 2)

!
−2 4
H=
4 0

|H| < 0 f (x, y) (0, 0) 0 (−5/3, 0)

125/27 2

 49 

f (x, y) = x2 − 2xy + y 2 − x4 − y 4
 

64
 fx = 2x − 2y − 4x3 = 0 fy = −2x + 2y − 4y 3 = 0 (x, y)
x = −y (x, y) = (1, −1), (−1, 1), (0, 0) 3

 
fxx = 2−12x2 fxy = fyx = −2 fyy = 2−12y 2 |H| = 4 (1 − 6x2 )(1 − 6y 2 ) − 1
(x, y) = (1, −1), (−1, 1) |H| = 96 > 0 fxx = −10 < 0
f (1, −1) = f (−1, 1) = 2
(x, y) = (0, 0) |H| = 0 x=y
f = −2x < 0 4
x = −y f = 4x − 2x
2 4
x=y=0 f <0

2 (x, y) = (1, −1), (−1, 1) f (1, −1) = f (−1, 1) = 2

2

5.4
x, y y = φ(x) f (x, y) = 0
f (x, y) = 0
y = φ(x)
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0 1
√
y = ± 1− x2 y (±1, 0)
y = φ(x)

 

f (x, y) C1 f (a, b) = 0 fy (a, b) ̸= 0 (a, b)

(1) f (x, y) = 0 y = φ(x) φ(a) = b φ(x)

(2) y = φ(x)

dy fx (x, y)
=−
dx fy (x, y)
 
f (x, y) = x + y − 1 = 0
2 2
fy = 0 (±1, 0)
f Cr φ
r
C

f (x, y) = 0 z = f (x, y) y = φ(x)

f (x(t), y(t))
t
df ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + =0
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
fy ̸= 0
dy dy/dt fx
= =−
dx dx/dt fy

 50 

x3 + xy 2 − 2 = 0 y = φ(x) y′ y ′′ x y
 

65
fx = 3x2 + y 2 fy = 2xy fy ̸= 0 dy/dx = −fx /fy = −(3x2 + y 2 )/2xy
x3 + xy 2 − 2 = 0 x 3x2 + y 2 + 2xyy ′ = 0
′
y = −(3x + y )/2xy
2 2
x

−(2y + 2xy ′ )(3x2 + y 2 ) − (6x + 2yy ′ )(2xy) 3x4 + 2x2 y 2 − y 4

y ′′ = − 2
= −3 2
(2xy) 4x2 y 3

(1)

 

g(x, y) = 0 f (x, y) (a, b)

F (x, y, λ) = f (x, y) − λg(x, y)

gx = gy = 0

Fx (a, b, α) = Fy (a, b, α) = Fλ (a, b, λ) = 0

f (x, y) gx = gy = 0

Fx = Fy = Fλ = 0

 

gx (a, b) ̸= 0 gy (a, b) ̸= 0 gy (a, b) ̸= 0

(a, b) g(x, y) = 0 y = φ(x) f (x, φ(x)) x=a
 
d
0= f (x, φ(x))
dx x=a

d dφ
f (x, φ(x)) = fx (x, φ(x)) + fy (x, φ(x))
dx dx
gx (x, φ(x))
= fx (x, φ(x)) − fy (x, φ(x))
gy (x, φ(x))

fx (a, b)gy (a, b) − fy (a, b)gx (a, b) = 0

! !
fx (a, b) gx (a, b)
// · · · (∗)
fy (a, b) gy (a, b)
Fx = Fy = 0 Fλ = 0 g=0 2

66
 (∗) f g
g=0 x y f (x, y) 2 f g

 51 

(1) x2 + y 2 = 2 e−x−y (xy + 1) (2) x3 + y 3 − 3xy = 0 xy

 

(1) F = e−x−y (xy + 1) − λ(x2 + y 2 − 2)

−x−y
Fx = Fy = Fλ = 0 Fx = e (y−xy−1)−2λy = 0 Fy = (x−xy−1)e−x−y −2λx =
0 2 2λxye−x−y = y 2 − xy 2 − y = x2 − x2 y − x
(x − y) {xy + 1 − (x + y)} = 0 x = y (x, y) = (±1, ±1)
f (1, 1) = 2/e f (−1, −1) = 2e xy+−(x+y) = 1 x2 +y 2 = (x+y)2 −2xy = 2
(x, y) = (1, −1), (−1, 1) f (1, −1) = f (−1, 1) = 0
f (x, y) (1, 1), (−1, −1) 2/e, 2e (1, −1), (−1, 1)
0
(2) 48(1) gx = 3(x2 − y)
gy = 3(y − x) 2
(x, y) = (0, 0)
F = xy − λ(x + y − 3xy)
3 3
Fx = y − 3λ(x2 − y) = 0 Fy = x − 3λ(y 2 − x) = 0
Fλ = x3 + y 3 − 3xy = 0 3λ = y/(x2 − y) = x/(y 2 − x) y 3 − xy = x3 − xy x=y
Fλ = 0 (x, y) = (3/2, 3/2) f (3/2, 3/2) = 9/4 f (0, 0) = 0
xy 1 3 2 (x, y) = (3/2, 3/2)
9/4 2

 

n y = f (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 m(< n) gi (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) = 0 (i =

1, 2, · · · .m)

X
m
F (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ; , λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn ; ) = f (x) − λi gi (x)
i=1

 

67
 6

6.1
1 1

1 2 f (x, y)

D = {(a, y) ∈ R2 |a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d}

[a, b] n [c, d] m

∆ : a = x0 < x 1 < · · · < x n = b , c = y0 < y 1 < · · · < y m = d

|∆| 1 |∆| = max(|xi − xi−1 |, |yi − yi−1 |)

|∆| → 0

∆ij = {(x, y)|xi−1 ≤ x ≤ xi , yi−1 ≤ y ≤ yi , }

Mij = sup∆ij f (x, y) mij = inf ∆ij f (x, y)

X
n X
m
S(f, ∆) = Mij (xi − si−1 )(yj − yj−1 )
j=1 i=i
Xn X m
s(f, ∆) = mij (xi − sj−1 )(yi − yj−1 )
j=1 i=i

S s

S(f ) = inf S(f, ∆) , s(f ) = sup S(f, ∆)

∆ ∆

s(f ) ≤ S(f ) s(f ) = S(f ) f

ZZ
f (x, y)dxdy
D

D̃ D D̃ ⊂ D

f (x, y) (x, y) ∈ D
f˜(x, y) =
0 (s, y)) ̸∈ D

3 V 3 f (x, y, z)
ZZZ
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
V

68
 RR
f (x, y) = 1 D D
dxdy
D S(D) D
RRR
3 V v(V ) = V
dxdydz V
n(> 3) n

 

A f A
 

1
1

 

{(x, y) | a ≤ x ≤ b, φ1 (x) ≤ y ≤ φ2 (x)} x D

f (x, y)
ZZ Z b Z φ2 (x)
f (x, y)dxdy = dx f (x, y)dy
D a φ1 (x)
 
{(x, y) | c ≤ y ≤ d, ψ1 (y) ≤ x ≤ ψ2 (y) y x

 52 

ZZ
(1) (x2 + y 2 ) dydx , D = [0, 1] × [1, 2]
ZZ D

(2) xy dxdy , D = {(x, y) | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, y ≤ x2 }

ZZ D

(3) x2 y dxdy , D = {(x, y) | x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 , y ≥ 0}

Z ZD
x
(4) dxdy . D = {(a, y) | 0 ≤ x ≤ y 2 , 1 ≤ y ≤ 2}
y
Z ZD
Z
(5) z dxdydz , V = {(x, y, z) | 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ x + 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ x + y}
V
 

(1)
Z 1 Z 2 Z 1  2 Z 1  
2 2 1 7 8
dx (x + y )dy = 2
x y + y3 dx = 2
x + dx =
0 1 0 3 1 0 3 3
(2)
Z 1 Z x2 Z 1  x2 Z 1
1 2 1 5 1
dx xydy = xy dx = x dx =
0 0 0 2 0 0 2 12

69
 (3)
Z a Z √
a2 −x2 Z a  √a2 −x2 Z a
1 2 2 1 2 2 2 5
dx 2
x ydy = x y dx = x (a − x2 )dx = a
−a 0 −a 2 0 −a 2 15

(4) y x
Z 2 Z y2 Z 2  y2 Z 2
x x2 1 3 15
dy dx = dy = y dx =
1 0 y 1 2y 0 1 2 8

(5) 3
Z Z Z Z Z Z 1 Z 1
1 x+1 x+y
1 1
1
x+1 
3 x+1 1

dx dy zdz = dx 2
(x + y) dy = (x + y) 0 dx = (2x + 1)3 − x3 dx
0 0 0 0 0 2 0 6 0 6
 1
1 1 13
= (2x + 1)4 − x4 = 2
24 2 0 8

x y

 

(1) fxy fyx

(2) f (x, y) D = [a, b] × [c, d]

Z b Z d Z d Z b
dx f (x, y)dy = dy f (x, y)dx
a c c a

(3) f (x, y) fy (x, y) D = [a, b] × [c, d]

Z b Z b
d ∂
f (x, y)dx = f (x, y)dx
dy a a ∂y
 

6.2
1

Rb
1 a
f (x)dx x = x(t)
Z b Z tb
dx
f (x)dx = f (x(t)) dt
a ta dt

[a, b] x(ta ) = a x(tb ) = b ta tb

[ta , tb ] x dx t dt dx/dt

70
 

D xy 1 1 x = x(u, v) y = y(u, v) uv E

ZZ ZZ
∂(x, y)
f (x, y) dxdy = f (x(u, v), y(u, v)) dudv
D E ∂(u, v)

D E x = x(u, v) y = y(u, v) C1
∂(x, y)/∂(u, v) E E D 1 1

 

 53 

ZZ
(1) (x − y)ex+y dydx , D = {0 ≤ x + y ≤ 2, 0 ≤ x − y ≤ 2}
ZZ D
1
(2) p dxdy , D = {(x, y) | a2 ≤ x2 + y 2 ≤ b2 }
D x2 + y2
ZZ
(3) (x2 + y 2 ) dydx , D = {(x, y)| (x − a)2 + y 2 ≤ a2 }
D
 

(1) u = x + y v = x − y E = {0 ≤ u ≤ 2, 0 ≤ v ≤ 2}
x = (u + v)/2 y = (u − v)/2
! !
∂x ∂x 1 1
∂(x, y) ∂u ∂v 2 2
= =
∂(u, v) ∂y
∂u
∂y
∂v
1
2 − 12

−1/2
ZZ Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
u dudv v u
ve = du e dv = eu du = e2 − 1
E 2 0 0 2 0

(2) x = r cos θ y = r sin θ E = {a ≤ r ≤ b, 0 ≤

θ ≤ 2π}
! !
∂(x, y) ∂x
∂r
∂x
∂θ cos θ −r sin θ
= ∂y ∂y
=
∂(r, θ) ∂r ∂θ sin θ r cos θ

r dxdy = rdrdθ
ZZ Z b Z 2π
1
rdrdθ = dr dθ = 2π(b − a) 2
E r a 0

(3) r = 2a cos θ (−π/2 < θ < π/2)

Z
π/2 Z
2a cos θ Z π/2
3
2 dθ 3
r dr = 8a4
cos4 θ dθ = πa4 2
0 0 0 2

71
 

r = f (θ) (α ≤ θ ≤ β) θ=α θ=β D

Z β
1 2
S(D) = {f (θ)} dθ
2 α
 

Z Z β Z f (θ) Z β
1
r′ dr′ =
2
S(D) = dxdy = dθ {f (θ)} dθ
D α 0 2 α

2
 54 

Z ∞ √
−x2 π
I= e dx =
0 2
 

e−x −y 2
2
a D(a) = {0 ≤ x ≤
a , 0 ≤ y ≤ a} E(a) = {x + y ≤ a } D(a)
2 2 2

ZZ Z a Z a Z a 2
e−x −y 2
e−x dx e−y dy = e−x dx
2 2 2 2
dxdy =
D(a) 0 0 0

E(a)
ZZ Z Z  a
π/2 a
π 1 π 
e−r rdrdθ = re−r dr = − e−r 1 − e−a
2 2 2 2
dθ =
E(a) 0 0 2 2 0 4

a→∞ E(a) ⊂
√
D(a) ⊂ E( 2a)

π  Z a 2
π 
−a2 −x2
1 − e−2a
2
1−e ≤ e dx ≤
4 0 4
√
a→∞ π/4 I2 I= π/2 2

6.3
3
V ZZZ
dxdydz
V

S
ZZ
dxdy
S

V V = {(x, y, z)| x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ a} a

72
 55 

a
3 (x, y, z) r>0 2
θ (0 ≤ θ ≤ π) ϕ (0 ≤ ϕ < 2π)





x = r sin θ cos ϕ
y = r sin θ sin ϕ



z = r cos θ

θ ϕ

∂(x, y, z)
(1)
∂(r, θ, ϕ)

(2) ZZZ
dxdydz
V

V = {(x, y, z)| x2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ a}

 

(1)
 ∂x   
∂r
∂x
∂θ
∂x
∂ϕ sin θ cos ϕ r cos θ cos ϕ −r sin θ sin ϕ
∂(x, y, z)  ∂y ∂y ∂y   
=  ∂r ∂θ ∂ϕ 
=  sin θ sin ϕ r cos θ sin ϕ r sin θ cos ϕ 
∂(r, θ, ϕ) ∂z
∂r
∂z
∂θ
∂z
∂ϕ
cos θ −r sin θ 0

∂(x, y, z)
= r2 sin3 θ sin2 ϕ + r2 sin θ cos θ cos2 ϕ + r2 sin θ cos2 θ sin2 ϕ + r2 sin3 θ cos2 ϕ
∂(r, θ, ϕ)

= r2 sin3 θ(sin2 ϕ + cos2 ϕ) + r2 sin θ cos2 θ(sin2 ϕ + cos2 ϕ) = r2 sin θ 2

(2)
ZZZ Z a Z π Z 2π  a
π r3 4 3
dxdydz = r2 dr sin θdθ dϕ = 2π [− cos θ]0 = πa 2
V 0 0 0 3 0 3

 

x=a x=b a<b V (x, 0, 0) x

x S(x) V
Z b
S(x) dx
a

 
ZZ Z b Z Z b
dxdydz = dx dydz = S(z) dz
V a S a

73
 56 

55
 

√
z a2 − z 2 S(z) =
π(a2 − z 2 ) V
Z Z a  a
z2 4
V = S(z) dz = π(a2 − z 2 )dz = π a2 z − = πa3 2
−a 3 −a 3

 

f (x, y) C1 (x, y) ∈ D z = f (x, y)

s  2  2
ZZ
∂f ∂f
S= 1+ + dxdy
D ∂x ∂y
 
P(a, b, f (a, b))

z − f (a, b) = fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b)

P (fx (a, b), fy (a, b), −1 xy

xy θ
s  2  2
1 ∂f ∂f
dxdy = 1+ + dxdy
cos θ ∂x ∂y

 57 

a
 

p
z= a2 − x2 − y 2 D = {(x, y)|x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 }
p p
fx = −x/ a2 − x2 − y 2 fx = −y/ a2 − x2 − y 2
s  2  2
ZZ ZZ
∂f ∂f a
S=2 1+ + dxdy = p dxdy
D ∂x ∂y D a − x2 − y 2
2

Z a Z π h p ia
rdr
S = 2a √ dθ = 4πa − a2 − r2 = 4πa2 2
0 a2 − r2 0 0

 

C1 y = f (x) (a ≤ x ≤ b) x S
Z b p
S = 2π |f (x)| 1 + {f ′ (x)}2 dx
a
 

74
 58 

a
 

√ √
y= a 2 − x2 0 ≤ x ≤ a 2 y ′ = x/ a2 − x2
Z r Z
a p x2 a
S = 4π a2 − x2 1+ dx = 4πa dx = 4πa2 2
0 a − x2
2
0

6.4

D
{Dn }∞
n=1 ZZ
lim f (x, y)dxdy
n→∞ Dn

{Dn } {Dn }

( 1) D1 ⊂ D2 ⊂ D3 ⊂ · · · ⊂ D
∞
[
( 2) Dn = D
n=1

( 3) D Dn

f (x, y) ≥ 0 ((x, y) ∈ D)
RR
limn→∞ Dn f (x, y)dxdy

 59 
p
r = x2 + y 2 α
ZZ
(1) rα dxdy , D = {(x, y) | x2 + y 2 ≥ 1}
ZZ D

(2) rα dxdy , D = {(x, y) | x2 + y 2 ≤ 1}

D
 

(1) dxdy = rdrdθ

ZZ Z ∞
α
r dxdy = 2π rα+1 dr
D 1

1 α + 1 = −1
α < −2 n α < −n 2

75
 (2)
ZZ Z 1
rα dxdy = 2π rα+1 dr
D 0

α + 1 > −1 α > −2 n α > −n

2

 

D R2 f (x, y) D D g(x, y)
ZZ
(i) |f (x, y)| ≤ g(x, y) (ii) g(x, y)dxdy
D

f (x, y) |f (x, y)| f (x, y)

 

 60 

ZZ
xy
(1) dxdy , D = {(x, y) | x, y ≥ 1}
(x2 + y 2 )3
Z ZD
1
(2) √ dxdy , D = {(0, 0) (1, 0) (1, 1) }
x+y
Z ZD
(x2 − y 2 )e−(x
2
+y 2 )
(3) dxdy , D = {(x, y) | 0 ≤ y ≤ x}
D

(3) u = x + y x = xy
 

(1) y
ZZ Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞  ∞
xy y −1
dxdy = xdx dy = xdx
D (x2 + y 2 )3 1 1 (x2 + y 2 )3 1 4(x2 + y 2 )2 1
Z ∞  ∞
x −1 1
= dx = = 2
1 4(x2 + 1)2 8(x2 + 1) 1 16

(2) (0, 0) (1, 0) (1, 1)

ZZ Z Z Z √ Z
1 1 x
1 1  √ x 1 √ 4 √
√ dxdy = dx √ dy = 2 x + y 0 dx = 2( 2 − 1) x= ( 2 − 1)2
D x+y 0 0 x+y 0 0 3

(3) u = x + y x = xy H = {(u, v)| 0 ≤ v ≤ u2 /4}

∂(u,v)
∂(x,y) =x−y (x − y)dxdy = dudv
Z ∞ Z u2 /4 Z ∞ Z ∞  
−u2 −v
 −v u2 /4 1
u2
ue−u 1 − e−u
2 2
(ue )du (e )dv = ue −e 0
= /4
du = 2
0 0 0 0 10

76