MEMORY

Memory is the ability to take in information, store it, and recall it at a later time. In psychology,
memory is broken into three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Stages of memory: The three stages of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Problems can
occur at any stage of the process.
The Memory Process
1. Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing, and combining
information. Encoding allows information from the outside world to reach our senses in
the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage we must change the
information so that we may put the memory into the encoding process.
2. Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Storage is the
second memory stage or process in which we maintain information over periods of time.
3. Retrieval (or recall, or recognition): the calling back of stored information in response to
some cue for use in a process or activity. The third process is the retrieval of information
that we have stored. We must locate it and return it to our consciousness. Some retrieval
attempts may be effortless due to the type of information.
Problems can occur at any stage of the process, leading to anything from forgetfulness to
amnesia. Distraction can prevent us from encoding information initially; information might not
be stored properly, or might not move from short-term to long-term storage; and/or we might not
be able to retrieve the information once it’s stored.
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the
original stimulus has ceased. One of the most common examples of sensory memory is fast-
moving lights in darkness: if you’ve ever lit a sparkler on the Fourth of July or watched traffic

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rush by at night, the light appears to leave a trail. This is because of “iconic memory,” the visual
sensory store. Two other types of sensory memory have been extensively studied: echoic
memory (the auditory sensory store) and haptic memory (the tactile sensory store). Sensory
memory is not involved in higher cognitive functions like short- and long-term memory; it is not
consciously controlled. The role of sensory memory is to provide a detailed representation of our
entire sensory experience for which relevant pieces of information are extracted by short-term
memory and processed by working memory.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory is also known as working memory. It holds only a few items (research shows
a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20 seconds. However, items can be moved from
short-term memory to long-term memory via processes like rehearsal. An example of rehearsal
is when someone gives you a phone number verbally and you say it to yourself repeatedly until
you can write it down. If someone interrupts your rehearsal by asking a question, you can easily
forget the number, since it is only being held in your short-term memory.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for periods of time longer than a few seconds;
long-term memory encompasses everything from what we learned in first grade to our old
addresses to what we wore to work yesterday. Long-term memory has an incredibly vast storage
capacity, and some memories can last from the time they are created until we die.
There are many types of long-term memory. Explicit or declarative memory requires conscious
recall; it consists of information that is consciously stored or retrieved. Explicit memory can be
further subdivided into semantic memory (facts taken out of context, such as “Paris is the capital
of France”) and episodic memory (personal experiences, such as “When I was in Paris, I saw
the Mona Lisa“).
In contrast to explicit/declarative memory, there is also a system for procedural/implicit memory.
These memories are not based on consciously storing and retrieving information, but on implicit
learning. Often this type of memory is employed in learning new motor skills. An example of
implicit learning is learning to ride a bike: you do not need to consciously remember how to ride
a bike, you simply do. This is because of implicit memory.

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 Storage: Three Memory Stores
Memory Output

Attended & Long -Term

recognized Memory
Retrieval
Sensory material Short- A, A’, A’’, A”’, etc.
Term B, B’, B’’, B’’ etc.
Register Rehearsal
Memory C, C’, C’’, C”’ etc.
Sensory
Etc.
Input Etc.

An Information Processing Model of Memory

(Atkinson & Shifrrin, 1968)

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory allows an individual to remember an input in great detail but for only a few
milliseconds.
Sensory memory allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information for a brief time
after the original stimulus has ceased. It allows individuals to remember great sensory detail
about a complex stimulus immediately following its presentation. Sensory memory is an
automatic response considered to be outside of cognitive control. The information represented in
this type of memory is the “raw data” which provides a snapshot of a person’s overall sensory
experience. Information from sensory memory has the shortest retention time, ranging from mere

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milliseconds to five seconds. It is retained just long enough for it to be transferred to short-term
(working) memory.
In sensory memory, no manipulation of the incoming information occurs as it is transferred
quickly to working memory. The amount of information is greatly reduced during this transfer
because the capacity of working memory is not large enough to cope with all the input coming
from our sense organs.
Types of Sensory Memory
It is assumed that there is a subtype of sensory memory for each of the five major senses (touch,
taste, sight, hearing, and smell); however, only three of these types have been extensively
studied: echoic memory, iconic memory, and haptic memory.
Iconic Memory
Sensory input to the visual system goes into iconic memory, so named because the mental
representations of visual stimuli are referred to as icons. Iconic memory has a duration of about
100 ms. One of the times that iconic memory is noticeable is when we see “light trails.” This is
the phenomenon when bright lights move rapidly at night and you perceive them as forming a
trail; this is the image that is represented in iconic memory.
Echoic Memory
Echoic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the auditory system. Echoic memory is
capable of holding a large amount of auditory information, but only for 3–4 seconds. This echoic
sound is replayed in the mind for this brief amount of time immediately after the presentation of
the auditory stimulus.
Haptic Memory
Haptic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch. Sensory receptors
all over the body detect sensations like pressure, itching, and pain, which are briefly held in
haptic memory before vanishing or being transported to short-term memory. This type of
memory seems to be used when assessing the necessary forces for gripping and interacting with
familiar objects. Haptic memory seems to decay after about two seconds. Evidence of haptic
memory has only recently been identified and not as much is known about its characteristics
compared to iconic memory.
Short-Term and Working Memory
Short-term memory, which includes working memory, stores information for a brief period of
recall for things that happened recently.
Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active,
readily available state for a brief period of time. It is separate from our long-term memory, where
lots of information is stored for us to recall at a later time. Unlike sensory memory, it is capable
of temporary storage. How long this storage lasts depends on conscious effort from the

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individual; without rehearsal or active maintenance, the duration of short-term memory is
believed to be on the order of seconds.
Capacity of Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory acts as a scratchpad for temporary recall of information. For instance, in
order to understand this sentence you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as
you read the rest. Short-term memory decays rapidly and has a limited capacity.
The psychologist George Miller suggested that human short-term memory has a forward memory
span of approximately seven items plus or minus two. More recent research has shown that this
number is roughly accurate for college students recalling lists of digits, but memory span varies
widely with populations tested and with material used.
For example, the ability to recall words in order depends on a number of characteristics of these
words: fewer words can be recalled when the words have longer spoken duration (this is known
as the word-length effect) or when their speech sounds are similar to each other (this is called
the phonological similarity effect). More words can be recalled when the words are highly
familiar or occur frequently in the language. Chunking of information can also lead to an
increase in short-term memory capacity. For example, it is easier to remember a hyphenated
phone number than a single long number because it is broken into three chunks instead of
existing as ten digits.
Rehearsal is the process in which information is kept in short-term memory by mentally
repeating it. When the information is repeated each time, that information is re-entered into the
short-term memory, thus keeping that information for another 10 to 20 seconds, the average
storage time for short-term memory. Distractions from rehearsal often cause disturbances in
short-term memory retention. This accounts for the desire to complete a task held in short-term
memory as soon as possible.
Working Memory
Though the term “working memory” is often used synonymously with “short-term memory,”
working memory is related to but actually distinct from short-term memory. It holds temporary
data in the mind where it can be manipulated. Baddeley and Hitch’s 1974 model of working
memory is the most commonly accepted theory of working memory today. According to
Baddeley, working memory has a phonological loop to preserve verbal data, a visuospatial
scratchpad to control visual data, and a central executive to disperse attention between them.
Phonological Loop
The phonological loop is responsible for dealing with auditory and verbal information, such as
phone numbers, people’s names, or general understanding of what other people are talking about.
We could roughly say that it is a system specialized for language. It consists of two parts: a
short-term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are subject to rapid decay, and
an articulatory loop that can revive these memory traces. The phonological store can only store

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sounds for about two seconds without rehearsal, but the auditory loop can “replay them”
internally to keep them in working memory. The repetition of information deepens the memory.
Visuospatial Sketchpad
Visual and spatial information is handled in the visuospatial sketchpad. This means that
information about the position and properties of objects can be stored. The phonological loop
and visuospatial sketchpad are semi-independent systems; because of this, you can increase the
amount you can remember by engaging both systems at once. For instance, you might be better
able to remember an entire phone number if you visualize part of it (using the visuospatial
sketchpad) and then say the rest of it out loud (using the phonological loop).
Central Executive
The central executive connects the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad and
coordinates their activities. It also links the working memory to the long-term memory, controls
the storage of long-term memory, and manages memory retrieval from storage. The process of
storage is influenced by the duration in which information is held in working memory and the
amount that the information is manipulated. Information is stored for a longer time if it is
semantically interpreted and viewed with relation to other information already stored in long-
term memory.
Transport to Long-Term Memory
The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory involves encoding
and consolidation of information. This is a function of time; that is, the longer the memory stays
in the short-term memory the more likely it is to be placed in the long-term memory. In this
process, the meaningfulness or emotional content of an item may play a greater role in its
retention in the long-term memory.
This greater retention is owed to an enhanced synaptic response within the hippocampus, which
is essential for memory storage. The limbic system of the brain (including the hippocampus and
amygdala) is not necessarily directly involved in long-term memory, but it selects particular
information from short-term memory and consolidates these memories by playing them like a
continuous tape.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is used for the storage of information over long periods of time, ranging
from a few hours to a lifetime.
If we want to remember something tomorrow, we have to consolidate it into long-term memory
today. Long-term memory is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory. Unlike sensory and
short-term memory, long-term memory has a theoretically infinite capacity, and information can
remain there indefinitely. Long-term memory has also been called reference memory, because an
individual must refer to the information in long-term memory when performing almost any task.
Long-term memory can be broken down into two categories: explicit and implicit memory.

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Explicit Memory
Explicit memory, also known as conscious or declarative memory, involves memory of facts,
concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the information. In other words, the
individual must actively think about retrieving the information from memory. This type of
information is explicitly stored and retrieved—hence its name. Explicit memory can be further
subdivided into semantic memory, which concerns facts, and episodic memory, which concerns
primarily personal or autobiographical information.
Semantic Memory
Semantic memory involves abstract factual knowledge, such as “Albany is the capital of New
York.” It is for the type of information that we learn from books and school: faces, places, facts,
and concepts. You use semantic memory when you take a test. Another type of semantic
memory is called a script. Scripts are like blueprints of what tends to happen in certain situations.
For example, what usually happens if you visit a restaurant? You get the menu, you order your
meal, you eat it, and then you pay the bill. Through practice, you learn these scripts and encode
them into semantic memory.
Episodic Memory
Episodic memory is used for more contextualized memories. They are generally memories of
specific moments, or episodes, in one’s life. As such, they include sensations and emotions
associated with the event, in addition to the who, what, where, and when of what happened. An
example of an episodic memory would be recalling your family’s trip to the beach.
Autobiographical memory (memory for particular events in one’s own life) is generally viewed
as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. One specific type of autobiographical
memory is a flashbulb memory, which is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid “snapshot” of the
moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally
arousing) news was heard. For example, many people remember exactly where they were and
what they were doing when they heard of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. This is
because it is a flashbulb memory.
Semantic and episodic memory are closely related; memory for facts can be enhanced with
episodic memories associated with the fact, and vice versa. For example, the answer to the
factual question “Are all apples red?” might be recalled by remembering the time you saw
someone eating a green apple. Likewise, semantic memories about certain topics, such as
football, can contribute to more detailed episodic memories of a particular personal event, like
watching a football game. A person that barely knows the rules of football will remember the
various plays and outcomes of the game in much less detail than a football expert.
Implicit Memory
In contrast to explicit (conscious) memory, implicit (also called “unconscious” or “procedural”)
memory involves procedures for completing actions. These actions develop with practice over
time. Athletic skills are one example of implicit memory. You learn the fundamentals of a sport,
practice them over and over, and then they flow naturally during a game. Rehearsing for a dance

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or musical performance is another example of implicit memory. Everyday examples include
remembering how to tie your shoes, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. These memories are accessed
without conscious awareness—they are automatically translated into actions without us even
realizing it. As such, they can often be difficult to teach or explain to other people. Implicit
memories differ from the semantic scripts described above in that they are usually actions that
involve movement and motor coordination, whereas scripts tend to emphasize social norms or
behaviors.
Introduction to Memory Encoding
Memory encoding allows an item of interest to be converted into a construct that is stored in the
brain, which can later be recalled.
Memory encoding allows information to be converted into a construct that is stored in the brain
indefinitely. Once it is encoded, it can be recalled from either short- or long-term memory. At a
very basic level, memory encoding is like hitting “Save” on a computer file. Once a file is saved,
it can be retrieved as long as the hard drive is undamaged. “Recall” refers to retrieving
previously encoded information.
The process of encoding begins with perception, which is the identification, organization, and
interpretation of any sensory information in order to understand it within the context of a
particular environment. Stimuli are perceived by the senses, and related signals travel to the
thalamus of the human brain, where they are synthesized into one experience. The hippocampus
then analyzes this experience and decides if it is worth committing to long-term memory.
Encoding is achieved using chemicals and electric impulses within the brain. Neural pathways,
or connections between neurons (brain cells), are actually formed or strengthened through a
process called long-term potentiation, which alters the flow of information within the brain. In
other words, as a person experiences novel events or sensations, the brain “rewires” itself in
order to store those new experiences in memory.
Types of Encoding
The four primary types of encoding are visual, acoustic, elaborative, and semantic.
Visual
Visual encoding is the process of encoding images and visual sensory information. The creation
of mental pictures is one way people use visual encoding. This type of information is temporarily
stored in iconic memory, and then is moved to long-term memory for storage. The amygdala
plays a large role in the visual encoding of memories.
Acoustic
Acoustic encoding is the use of auditory stimuli or hearing to implant memories. This is aided by
what is known as the phonological loop. The phonological loop is a process by which sounds are
sub-vocally rehearsed (or “said in your mind over and over”) in order to be remembered.
Elaborative

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Elaborative encoding uses information that is already known and relates it to the new
information being experienced. The nature of a new memory becomes dependent as much on
previous information as it does on the new information. Studies have shown that the long-term
retention of information is greatly improved through the use of elaborative encoding.
Semantic
Semantic encoding involves the use of sensory input that has a specific meaning or can be
applied to a context. Chunking and mnemonics (discussed below) aid in semantic encoding;
sometimes, deep processing and optimal retrieval occurs. For example, you might remember a
particular phone number based on a person’s name or a particular food by its color.
Optimizing Encoding through Organization
Not all information is encoded equally well. Think again about hitting “Save” on a computer file.
Did you save it into the right folder? Was the file complete when you saved it? Will you be able
to find it later? At a basic level, the process of encoding faces similar challenges: if information
is improperly coded, recall will later be more challenging. The process of encoding memories in
the brain can be optimized in a variety of ways, including mnemonics, chunking, and state-
dependent learning.
Mnemonics
Mnemonic devices, sometimes simply called mnemonics, are one way to help encode simple
material into memory. A mnemonic is any organization technique that can be used to help
remember something. One example is a peg-word system, in which the person “pegs” or
associates the items to be remembered with other easy-to-remember items. An example of this is
“King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup,” a peg-word sentence for remembering the order of
taxonomic categories in biology that uses the same initial letters as the words to be
remembered: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. Another type of mnemonic
is an acronym, in which a person shortens a list of words to their initial letters to reduce their
memory load.
Chunking
Chunking is the process of organizing parts of objects into meaningful wholes. The whole is then
remembered as a unit instead of individual parts. Examples of chunking include remembering
phone numbers (a series of individual numbers separated by dashes) or words (a series of
individual letters).

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Introduction to Memory Storage
Memory storage allows us to hold onto information for a very long duration of time—even a
lifetime.
Parallel Distributed Processing Model
The parallel distributed processing (PDP) model is an example of a network model of memory,
and it is the prevailing connectionist approach today. PDP posits that memory is made up of
neural networks that interact to store information. It is more of a metaphor than an actual
biological theory, but it is very useful for understanding how neurons fire and wire with each
other.
Taking its metaphors from the field of computer science, this model stresses the parallel nature
of neural processing. “Parallel processing” is a computing term; unlike serial processing
(performing one operation at a time), parallel processing allows hundreds of operations to be
completed at once—in parallel. Under PDP, neural networks are thought to work in parallel to
change neural connections to store memories. This theory also states that memory is stored by
modifying the strength of connections between neural units. Neurons that fire together frequently
(which occurs when a particular behavior or mental process is engaged many times) have
stronger connections between them. If these neurons stop interacting, the memory’s strength
weakens. This model emphasizes learning and other cognitive phenomena in the creation and
storage of memory.
Memory Retrieval: Recognition and Recall
Memory retrieval, including recall and recognition, is the process of remembering information
stored in long-term memory.
Memory retrieval is the process of remembering information stored in long-term memory. Some
theorists suggests that there are three stores of memory: sensory memory, long-term memory
(LTM), and short-term memory (STM). Only data that is processed through STM and encoded
into LTM can later be retrieved. Overall, the mechanisms of memory are not completely
understood. However, there are many theories concerning memory retrieval.
There are two main types of memory retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall, the information
must be retrieved from memories. In recognition, the presentation of a familiar outside stimulus
provides a cue that the information has been seen before. A cue might be an object or a scene—
any stimulus that reminds a person of something related. Recall may be assisted when retrieval
cues are presented that enable the subject to quickly access the information in memory.
Interference with Memory Retrieval
Interference occurs in memory when there is an interaction between the new material being
learned and previously learned material. There are two main kinds of interference: proactive and
retroactive.
Proactive Interference
Proactive interference is the forgetting of information due to interference from previous

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knowledge in LTM. Past memories can inhibit the encoding of new memories. This is
particularly true if they are learned in similar contexts and the new information is similar to
previous information. This is what is happening when you have trouble remembering your new
phone number because your old one is stuck in your head.
Retroactive Interference
Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the encoding or
recall of previously learned information. If a participant was asked to recall a list of words, and
was then immediately presented with new information, it could interfere with remembering the
initial list. If you learn to use a new kind of computer and then later have to use the old model
again, you might find you have forgotten how to use it. This is due to retroactive interference.
Memory Distortions and Biases
Memories are not stored as exact replicas of reality; rather, they are modified and reconstructed
during recall.
Memory Errors
Memories are fallible. They are reconstructions of reality filtered through people’s minds, not
perfect snapshots of events. Because memories are reconstructed, they are susceptible to being
manipulated with false information. Memory errors occur when memories are recalled
incorrectly; a memory gap is the complete loss of a memory.
Schemas
In a 1932 study, Frederic Bartlett demonstrated how telling and retelling a story distorted
information recall. He told participants a complicated Native American story and had them repeat
it over a series of intervals. With each repetition, the stories were altered. Even when participants
recalled accurate information, they filled in gaps with false information. Bartlett attributed this
tendency to the use of schemas. A schema is a generalization formed in the mind based on
experience. People tend to place past events into existing representations of the world to make
memories more coherent. Instead of remembering precise details about commonplace
occurrences, people use schemas to create frameworks for typical experiences, which shape their
expectations and memories. The common use of schemas suggests that memories are not identical
reproductions of experience, but a combination of actual events and already-existing schemas.
Likewise, the brain has the tendency to fill in blanks and inconsistencies in a memory by making
use of the imagination and similarities with other memories.
Leading Questions
Much research has shown that the phrasing of questions can also alter memories. A leading
question is a question that suggests the answer or contains the information the examiner is
looking for. For instance, one study showed that simply changing one word in a question could
alter participants’ answers: After viewing video footage of a car accident, participants who were
asked how “slow” the car was going gave lower speed estimations than those who were asked
how “fast” it was going. Children are particularly suggestible to such leading questions.
Considerations for Eyewitness Testimony

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Increasing evidence shows that memories and individual perceptions are unreliable, biased, and
manipulable.
Eyewitness testimony has been considered a credible source in the past, but its reliability has
recently come into question. Research and evidence have shown that memories and individual
perceptions are unreliable, often biased, and can be manipulated.
Encoding Issues

Nobody plans to witness a crime; it is not a controlled situation. There are many types of biases
and attentional limitations that make it difficult to encode memories during a stressful event.
Time
When witnessing an incident, information about the event is entered into memory. However, the
accuracy of this initial information acquisition can be influenced by a number of factors. One
factor is the duration of the event being witnessed. In an experiment conducted by Clifford and
Richards (1977), participants were instructed to approach police officers and engage in
conversation for either 15 or 30 seconds. The experimenter then asked the police officer to recall
details of the person to whom they had been speaking (e.g., height, hair color, facial hair, etc.).
The results of the study showed that police had significantly more accurate recall of the 30-
second conversation group than they did of the 15-second group. This suggests that recall is
better for longer events.
Other-Race Effect
The other-race effect (a.k.a., the own-race bias, cross-race effect, other-ethnicity effect, same-
race advantage) is one factor thought to affect the accuracy of facial recognition. Studies
investigating this effect have shown that a person is better able to recognize faces that match
their own race but are less reliable at identifying other races, thus inhibiting encoding. Perception
may affect the immediate encoding of these unreliable notions due to prejudices, which can
influence the speed of processing and classification of racially ambiguous targets. The ambiguity
in eyewitness memory of facial recognition can be attributed to the divergent strategies that are
used when under the influence of racial bias.
Weapon-Focus Effect
The weapon-focus effect suggests that the presence of a weapon narrows a person’s attention,
thus affecting eyewitness memory. A person focuses on a central detail (e.g., a knife) and loses
focus on the peripheral details (e.g. the perpetrator’s characteristics). While the weapon is
remembered clearly, the memories of the other details of the scene suffer. This effect occurs
because remembering additional items would require visual attention, which is occupied by the
weapon. Therefore, these additional stimuli are frequently not processed.
Retrieval Issues
Trials may take many weeks and require an eyewitness to recall and describe an event many
times. These conditions are not ideal for perfect recall; memories can be affected by a number of
variables.

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Time
The accuracy of eyewitness memory degrades swiftly after initial encoding. The “forgetting
curve” of eyewitness memory shows that memory begins to drop off sharply within 20 minutes
following initial encoding, and begins to level off around the second day at a dramatically
reduced level of accuracy. Unsurprisingly, research has consistently found that the longer the gap
between witnessing and recalling the incident, the less accurately that memory will be recalled.

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There have been numerous experiments that support this claim. Malpass and Devine (1981)
compared the accuracy of witness identifications after 3 days (short retention period) and 5
months (long retention period). The study found no false identifications after the 3-day period,
but after 5 months, 35% of identifications were false.

The forgetting curve of memory: The red line shows that eyewitness memory declines rapidly
following initial encoding and flattens out after around 2 days at a dramatically reduced level of
accuracy.
Leading Questions
In a legal context, the retrieval of information is usually elicited through different types of
questioning. A great deal of research has investigated the impact of types of questioning on
eyewitness memory, and studies have consistently shown that even very subtle changes in the
wording of a question can have an influence. One classic study was conducted in 1974 by
Elizabeth Loftus, a notable researcher on the accuracy of memory. In this experiment,
participants watched a film of a car accident and were asked to estimate the speed the cars were
going when they “contacted” or “smashed” each other. Results showed that just changing this
one word influenced the speeds participants estimated: The group that was asked the speed when
the cars “contacted” each other gave an average estimate of 31.8 miles per hour, whereas the
average speed in the “smashed” condition was 40.8 miles per hour. Age has been shown to
impact the accuracy of memory as well. Younger witnesses, especially children, are more
susceptible to leading questions and misinformation.
Bias
There are also a number of biases that can alter the accuracy of memory. For instance, racial and
gender biases may play into what and how people remember. Likewise, factors that interfere
with a witness’s ability to get a clear view of the event—like time of day, weather, and poor
eyesight—can all lead to false recollections. Finally, the emotional tone of the event can have an
impact: for instance, if the event was traumatic, exciting, or just physiologically activating, it will
increase adrenaline and other neurochemicals that can damage the accuracy of memory recall.

Repressed Memories
Some research indicates that traumatic memories can be forgotten and later spontaneously
recovered.

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