Chapter 1: Introduction to Earth Science
Earth Science (SCIERTH)
Chapter 1: Introduction to Earth Science
Lesson 1: Science Earth-Science and Technology
Science is an orderly and reasoned ● Earth science relies heavily on
process for answering questions. A cutting-edge tech to study our
statement based on your experience is planet.
called an inference. A possible answer to a ● From satellites to underwater
scientific question, based on observations, sensors, these tools help scientists
is called a hypothesis. An experiment is collect and analyze massive
something you do to test a hypothesis. amounts of data about Earth's
systems.
Jacques Cousteau - He is a famous ● Remote sensing and GIS are
marine biologist, described a scientist as game-changers for mapping and
“a curious person who looks through a monitoring Earth's surface. They
keyhole.” enable researchers to track changes
in land use, natural hazards, and
Fields of Science - all scientists study climate indicators. Emerging tech
interesting events and objects. like AI and small satellites are
● Physics is the study of how and pushing the boundaries of what's
why things move. possible in Earth science research.
● Chemistry is the study of matter.
● Biology is the study of living things. Four Branches of Science
● Earth Science is the study of Astronomy
Earth’s processes. ● Astronomers are interested in outer
space and the physical bodies
Lesson 2: Technology beyond the Earth. They use
Earth Science covers the planet's telescopes to see things far beyond
physical characteristics and processes. what the human eye can see.
Astronomers help to design
Technology is the application of spacecraft that travel into space and
conceptual knowledge to achieve practical send back information about
goals, especially in a reproducible way. The faraway places or satellites
word technology can also mean the Meteorology
products resulting from such efforts, ● Meteorology includes the study of
including both tangible tools such as weather patterns, clouds,
utensils or machines, and intangible ones hurricanes, and tornadoes. Using
such as software. modern technology such as radars
and satellites, meteorologists are
getting more accurate at forecasting
the weather all the time.
Oceanography ● Seismometers, tilt-meters, and other
● The study of water and its geophysical instruments are used to
movements, distribution and quality monitor and study earthquakes,
is hydrology. Oceanography is more volcanic activity, and other
than just the hydrology of the geological processes
oceans. Oceanography is the study ● Weather radar, weather balloons,
of everything in the ocean and other meteorological
environment, which covers about instruments provide real-time data
70% of the Earth’s surface. Recent on atmospheric conditions,
technology has allowed people and precipitation, and severe weather
probes to venture to the deepest events (tornadoes, hurricanes)
parts of the ocean, but still much of ● Ocean buoys, underwater sensors,
the ocean remains unexplored. and autonomous underwater
Geology vehicles (AUVs) are used to study
● Geology is the study of the Earth’s ocean currents, temperature,
solid material and structures and the salinity, and marine ecosystems
processes that create them. Some (coral reefs, deep-sea habitats)
ideas geologists might consider ● Remote sensing involves the
include how rocks and landforms acquisition of data about Earth's
are created or the composition of surface and atmosphere from a
rocks, minerals, or various distance, typically using satellites,
landforms. Geologists consider how aircraft, or drones equipped with
natural processes create and various sensors.
destroy materials on Earth, and how
humans can use Earth materials as Lesson 3: Scientific Inquiry
resources, among other topics. Scientific Inquiry is the process scientists
use to study the world and find answers to
Advanced Tools and Methods for Data questions.
Collection and Analysis
● Earth science research and It involves steps known as the Scientific
monitoring rely heavily on advanced Method:
technological tools and methods to
1. Ask a Question – What do you
collect, analyze, and interpret data
want to know?
about Earth systems
2. Form a Hypothesis – Make an
● Satellite imagery, GPS, and remote
educated guess.
sensing techniques allow for
3. Experiment – Test your hypothesis.
large-scale observation and
4. Observe and Record – Gather
mapping of Earth's surface features,
data.
land use patterns, and
environmental changes over time.
5. Analyze – Interpret what the data
means.
6. Conclude – State whether your
hypothesis was right or wrong.
This process promotes critical thinking
and problem-solving.
Lesson 4: Branches of Science
Science has three major branches:
1. Physical Science – Study of
non-living things (Physics,
Chemistry).
2. Earth Science – Study of Earth and
its systems (Geology, Meteorology,
Astronomy).
3. Life Science (Biology) – Study of
living organisms.
Chapter 2: History of Astronomy and
Universe
Earth Science (SCIERTH)
Chapter 2: History of Astronomy and the Universe
Astronomy - It is the oldest branch of ● Tycho Brahe (late 1500s): Carefully
science — the study of stars, planets, and recorded the positions of planets
everything in space. Ancient astronomers and stars without a telescope.
used the stars to navigate and create ● Johannes Kepler (early 1600s):
calendars. Used Brahe’s data to discover that
planets move in elliptical orbits, not
In the Ancient Period, several milestones perfect circles — known as Kepler’s
happened. Laws of Planetary Motion.
● Early civilizations like the ● Galileo Galilei (1609): Improved the
Babylonians, Egyptians, Mayans, telescope and observed the moons
and Chinese observed stars and of Jupiter, phases of Venus, and
planets to make calendars and mountains on the Moon — proving
predict seasons. that not everything revolves around
● They noticed patterns in the sky — Earth.
called constellations — and used ● Isaac Newton (1687): Explained
them for navigation. why planets orbit the Sun using his
Law of Universal Gravitation.
The Greek Era
● Pythagoras (6th century BC): The Modern Era
Suggested that the Earth was ● Albert Einstein (1915): Developed
spherical, not flat. the Theory of General Relativity,
● Aristotle (384–322 BC): Provided explaining how gravity affects space
evidence for a round Earth based on and time.
the shadow during lunar eclipses. ● Edwin Hubble (1920s): Discovered
● Geocentric Model - It was that galaxies are moving away
postulated by Ptolemy (100-170 from each other, leading to the Big
AD) which said that Earth is the Bang Theory — the universe is
center of the universe and expanding.
everything orbits around it. This
model was believed for over 1,400 Space Age (1957–present):
years. ● 1957: Launch of Sputnik 1, the first
artificial satellite.
The Heliocentric Revolution ● 1969: Neil Armstrong becomes the
● Heliocentric Model - It was first human to walk on the Moon.
proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus ● 1990: Launch of the Hubble Space
stating that the Sun is at the center Telescope, providing deep images
and the planets orbit around it. of galaxies and stars.
● 2000s–Today: Discovery of
exoplanets (planets outside our
Solar System) and ongoing Mars ● The Steady State Universe Theory
exploration with rovers and - The universe had no beginning
satellites. and no end – it is constant and
unchanging overall.
The universe includes everything — stars, ○ According to Hoyle, Gold,
planets, galaxies, space, and even time. and Bondi (1948) the
● The BIg Bang Theory - It is stated universe is expanding, but
that the universe began from a tiny, new matter is continuously
hot, and extremely dense point created to fill the empty
called singularity that suddenly spaces as galaxies move
expanded about 13.8 billion years apart.
ago. ● Multiverse Theory - The universe is
❖ Cosmic Microwave just one of many universes that
Background (CMB) - It is exists together. It suggests that
the leftover radiation from there may be countless universes,
the early universe - each with different laws of physics,
discovered by Penzias and matter, and energy.
Wilson in 1065. ○ Parallel Universe - It is side
❖ Redshift of Galaxies - It by side but separate from
was discovered by Edwin ours
Hubble – galaxies are ○ Bubble Universe - Like
moving away from us, bubbles in foam – each
meaning the universe is bubble is a separate
expanding. universe.
❖ Abundance of Light
Elements - The universe
contains the right amounts of
hydrogen and helium,
matching what the Big Bang
predicts.
● The Oscillating Universe Theory -
The universe expands and
contracts repeatedly – like a cycle
or rhythm. The gravity might pull
everything back together in a Big
Crunch, where all matter collapses
into a single point, resulting for
another Big Bang starting a new
cycle of expansion.
Chapter 3: The Planet Earth
Earth Science (SCIERTH)
Chapter 3: The Planet Earth
The origin of the Earth formed about 4.5 Beginning of Life
billion years ago from clouds of gas and ● Life likely began in the oceans,
dust around the young Sun. where chemical reactions between
● Gravity pulled these particles simple compounds formed the first
together, causing them to collide, living organisms — tiny,
stick, and grow into larger bodies single-celled life forms (like
called planetesimals. bacteria).
● Over millions of years, these small ● These early organisms eventually
rocky bodies joined together to form produced oxygen through
a young Earth. photosynthesis, changing the
atmosphere and allowing more
The early Earth was extremely hot due to complex life to evolve.
frequent meteor impacts, radioactive
decay of elements, and gravitational Basic Principles of the Earth
compression from the planet’s growth. ● Earth is the third planet from the
● Because of this heat, Earth’s surface Sun, located in the habitable zone
was molten, and heavy materials — the right distance for liquid water
like iron and nickel sank to the to exist. It’s the only known planet
center, forming the core, while to support life due to:
lighter materials rose to form the ○ Presence of liquid water,
crust and mantle — this process is ○ A protective atmosphere,
called differentiation. and
○ A stable climate and
Formation of Crust, Oceans, and temperature range.
Atmosphere
● As the Earth slowly cooled, a thin Four Major Systems of the Earth
solid layer called the crust formed Earth functions as one large system made
on the surface. up of four interconnected subsystems,
● Volcanoes released gases like which work together to maintain balance.
carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vapor 1. Atmosphere (Air Layer) - The
(H₂O), nitrogen (N₂), and methane atmosphere is the layer of gases
(CH₄) — forming the early that surrounds Earth. It’s made
atmosphere. mostly of nitrogen (78%), oxygen
● Water vapor in the air condensed (21%), and small amounts of carbon
and fell as rain, creating oceans dioxide, water vapor, and other
and seas. gases.
● Troposphere – Closest to
Earth’s surface; where
weather happens.
● Stratosphere – Contains the
ozone layer that protects us
from UV rays.
● Mesosphere – Burns up
meteors.
● Thermosphere – Where
auroras occur.
● Exosphere – Outermost
layer, merging with outer
space.
2. Hydrosphere (Water Layer) - The
hydrosphere includes all water on
Earth — oceans, rivers, lakes,
groundwater, ice caps, and even
water vapor in the air. Covers about
71% of Earth’s surface, with
oceans making up most of it.
3. Lithosphere (Solid Layer) - The
lithosphere is the outer solid part of
Earth, including the crust and the
upper mantle. It contains
mountains, valleys, rocks, and soil
— the foundation for land life.
4. Biosphere (Lize Zone) - The
biosphere includes all living
organisms — plants, animals, and
humans — and the environments
where they live. It depends on the
other three systems:
● Needs air (atmosphere) for
respiration,
● Water (hydrosphere) for
survival,
● Land (lithosphere) for food
and shelter.
Chapter 4: Lithosphere
Earth Science (SCIERTH)
Chapter 4: Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid, and outermost ○ The movement of
layer of the Earth. It includes the crust and liquid metals in the
the uppermost part of the mantle beneath outer core creates
it. Earth’s magnetic field.
● Continental Lithosphere - is about ○ This magnetic field
150 km thick. protects the planet
● Oceanic Lithosphere - is about 50 - from harmful solar
100 km thick. radiation and cosmic
rays.
The lithosphere includes the crust and the ● Inner Core - It is the
upper mantle. innermost and hottest part of
A. Crust - The outermost and thinnest the Earth. Despite its
layer of the Earth. It is where we live extreme heat, it remains
and where all life exists. solid because of the
● Continental Crust - thicker enormous pressure from the
and older, mostly made of layers above it.
light colored rocks like ○ Helps maintain the
granite. magnetic field along
● Oceanic Crust - thinner and with the outer core.
denser, mostly made of ○ Its heat drives
dark-colored rocks like convection currents in
basalt. the mantle.
B. Mantle - The mantle is the thickest
layer of the Earth, found beneath the Rocks and Minerals - Minerals are
crust. It extends to a depth of about natural, solid substances with a specific
2,900 kilometers. It makes up about chemical formula (e.g., quartz, diamond).
84% of Earth’s total volume. Rocks are made up of one or more
● Upper Mantle - Includes the minerals.
solid part that combines with 1. Igneous – Formed from cooled lava
the crust to form the or magma. (Example: basalt,
lithosphere. granite)
● Lower Mantle - Hotter and 2. Sedimentary – Formed from
denser; solid materials move compressed layers of sediment.
slowly in convection currents (Example: limestone)
C. Core - .It is hot, dense innermost 3. Metamorphic – Formed when rocks
layer, consisting of a liquid outer change due to heat and pressure.
core and a solid inner core, both (Example: marble)
primarily made of iron and nickel.
● Outer Core - It lies beneath
the mantle and is made of
liquid metals, mainly iron
and nickel.