Overview

➢ Introduction
In this lecture, we study the low-frequency behavior of single-stage CMOS
amplifiers. Analyzing both the large-signal and the small-signal characteristics
of each circuit, we develop intuitive techniques and models that prove useful
in understanding more complex systems. An important part of a designer’s job
is to use proper approximations so as to create a simple mental picture of a
complicated circuit. The intuition thus gained makes it possible to formulate
the behavior of most circuits by inspection rather than by lengthy calculations.
➢ Basic concepts

Generally, the characteristic of an amplifier is a nonlinear function,

y(t )  0 + 1x(t ) + 2 x2 (t ) + ... + n xn (t ) , where x(t) and y(t) may be current
or voltage. For a sufficiently narrow range of x, y(t )  0 + 1 x(t ) , where 0 can
considered the operating (bias) point and 1 the small signal gain.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 2

1
 Analog Design Octagon
What aspects to the performance of an
amplifier are important? In addition to gain
and speed, such parameters as power
dissipation, supply voltage, linearity, noise
or maximum voltage swings may be
important.
Furthermore, the input and output
impedances determine how the circuit
interacts with preceding and subsequent
stages. In practice, most of these
parameters trade with each other, making
the design a multi-dimensional
optimization problem.
Illustrated in the “analog design octagon”,
such trade-offs present many challenges
in the design of high-performance
amplifiers, requiring intuition and
experience to arrive at an acceptable
compromise.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 3

Common-Source (CS) Stage with Resistive Load

Input-output characteristics

I: Cut off
II: Sat. region
I
I II III
III: Triode region

Triode region Saturation region

If M1 turn on and Vout > Vin  M1 in sat. region (=0)

W W
Vout = VDD - nC ox R (V − VTH )2  Vin1 - VTH = VDD - nC ox R (V − VTH )2
2L D in 2L D in1
If Vin- VTH > Vin1- VTH > Vout  M1 in triode region
R 2 ( V − V ) V − V 2 
W
V =V - C
n ox
out DD
2L D in TH out out

Single-Stage Amplifiers 4

2
 CS Stage with Resistive Load

If Vin   M1 in deep triode region  Vout << 2(Vin- VTH)

0
R 2(V − V 
W
V =V -C )V − V2 Vout = WVDD = VDD Ron
out DD n ox
2L D in TH out out 1+  C R (V − V ) Ron + RD
n ox
L D in TH

Large-signal analysis:

The input-output characteristic slope as the small-signal gain

V =V - C W R (V −V )2 when V > V - V (=0)

out DD n ox D in TH out in TH
2L
Vout W
A = = − C R (V − V ) = −g R
v n ox D in TH m D
Vin L
W
V =V - C R (V − V )2 (1+ V ) when V > V - V (≠0)
out DD n ox D in TH out out in TH
2L
Vout W W
A = = − C R (V − V )(1+ V )−  C (V −V )2RD Vout
v n ox D in TH out n ox in TH
Vin L 2L Vin

Single-Stage Amplifiers 5

CS Stage with Resistive Load

W
I C (V −V )2
D n ox in TH
2L
ID = 1/r0
A = −g R − R A I  Av = − gmR D  A = −g m
rR
v m D D v D
1+ RDID  r +R

Small-signal analysis:

 Vout / Vin = -gm (r0 RD)

Small-signal model of CS stage

➢ CS is very high input impedance at low frequency

Single-Stage Amplifiers 6

3
 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load

➢ To fabricate resistors with tightly-controlled value (reasonable size) is difficult

➢ To replace resistor with MOS transistor

Small-signal analysis:

(a) Diode-connected NMOS and PMOS devices. (b) small-signal equivalent circuit.

To obtain device impedance: Ix = Vx/r0 + gmVx  Vx/Ix= (1/gm r0)  1/gm

Single-Stage Amplifiers 7

CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load

Small-signal analysis:

(a) The equivalent resistance of diode-connected MOS. (b) small-signal equivalent circuit.
I = V (g + g ) + Vx  Vx
=
1 1
x x m mb = r
r0 I g + g + r −1 g + g m mb

− gm1 g 1 where  = gmb2

Av = = − m1
gm2 + gmb2 gm2 1+ gm2

A = − 2μnC ox D1
ID1=ID2
1 1

ID2 1+  1+ 
v
2μnC ox L 2
2

CS stage with diode-connected load

Single-Stage Amplifiers 8

4
 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load
Large-signal analysis:

1 W
C (V − V )2 = 1  C  W  (V − V − V )2 for =0
n ox   in  
2 L TH1
2 n ox L DD out TH2
 1  2

 W  (V − V ) =  W  (V − V − V )
  in TH1   DD out TH2
 L 1  L 2

If the variation of VTH2 with Vout is small.

Vout VTH2  VTH2 VTH2 Vout Vout
W  W  − =− =
  =    −  which
 L 1  L 2  Vin Vin  Vin Vout Vin Vin

V
out
=−
Vin 1+ 
L

Single-Stage Amplifiers 9

CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load

I II III

Input-output characteristic of CS stage with diode-connected load.

I region: Vout = VDD – VTH2 if Vin < VTH1

=( − )− ( − )
II region: for Vin > VTH1 then Vout VDD VTH2 Vin VTH1
L 2

III region: as Vin > Vout + VTH1, M1 enters the triode region
and the characteristic becomes nonlinear.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 10

5
 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load

W
L1 1
Av = −
W 1+
L

CS stage with diode-connected pMOS device

W
 (V − V )2    W  (V − V )2
ID1 = ID2  n  GS1 TH1 p  GS2 TH2
L L
 1  2

W W   A  n  VGS2 − VTH2

  = 
 1  L 2
L p
v
VGS1 − VTH1

➢ The swing of CS stage with diode-connected load is constrained

by the overdrive voltage and threshold voltage.

For example, to achieve a gain of 10 with VGS1 - VTH1 = 200mV,

and  VTH2 = 0.7V, we have  VGS2 = 2.7V, severely limiting
the output swing.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 11

CS Stage with Current-Source and Triode Load

Vout Av = -gm1(r01 r02)

r01 r02

CS stage with current-source load and small-signal equivalent circuit.

➢ The gain increases with L because  (  1/L) depends more strongly

on L than gm does. As, note that gmr0 decreases as ID increases.

Ron2 =
V −V −

CS stage with triode load.

➢ The Ron2 of this circuit depends on pCox, VTHP, and Vb. Since pCox and
VTHP vary with process and temperature and generating a precise Vb value
requires additional complexity, this circuit is difficult to use.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 12

6
 CS Stage with Source Degeneration
ID I VGS
Define G m = = D
Vin VGS Vin
VGS
VGS = Vin − IDRS  = 1− R ID
S
Vin Vin
Gm = 1 − RS ID  ID  Gm = gm
V V 1+ g R
 in  GS m S
CS stage with source degeneration.
v m D
m S

Vin = V1 + IoutRS
IoutRS
I =g V +g V −
out m 1 mb bs
r0 I R
= gm (Vin −IoutRS )− gmb (IoutRS )− out S

r0
Small-signal equivalent circuit of a Iout gmr0
degenerated CS stage. = =
Vin R S + 1+ (gm + g mb)R S r0
m

Single-Stage Amplifiers 13

CS Stage with Source Degeneration

Drain current and transconductance of a CS device (a) without and (b) with source
degeneration.
CS stage
1 without
W
source 2degeneration W
I = C
 
(V −V ) g =C (V − V )
  in
ox in TH m n ox TH
D
2 n
L L
   
CS stage
1 with source
−
degeneration
I =  C  W (V I R − V )  V − V =
2
2ID +I R
ox   in D S TH in TH D S
D
2 n
L
 

Vin − VTH = 2I
D
+ IDRS  1 =  1  I 
nCox WL ( ) 
+ RS  D
V
  in
 
At low current levels, 1/gm >> RS and hence Gm  gm. As the overdrive and gm.
Increase, the effect of degeneration (1 + gmRS) becomes more significant.
For large values of Vin, ID is approximately linear and Gm  1/Rs.
Single-Stage Amplifiers 14

7
 CS Stage with Source Degeneration

➢ We disconnect the bottom terminal of RS from

ground and calculate the resistance seen looking
up, we obtain RS + 1/gm.

Resistance seen in the source path.

Example:

Assuming  =  = 0, calculate the small-signal gain.

D
v

gm1 gm2

Single-Stage Amplifiers 15

CS Stage with Source Degeneration

V1 = Vbs = −IXRS

VX = (IX − gm V1 − gmb Vbs )r0 + IXRS  VX = (1 + gmRS + gmbRS )IXr0 + IXRS

VX
R = = 1 + (g + g )R r + R
out m mb S 0 S
IX
= 1 + (gm + gmb )r0 RS + r0

Since typically (gm + gmb )r0  1

Rout  (gm + gmb )r0RS + r0

= 1 + (gm + gmb )RS r0

Single-Stage Amplifiers

8
 CS Stage with Source Degeneration

The current through RS must equal

that through RD.

Small-signal model of degeneration CS

stage with finite output resistance.
RS RS
V = V and hence V =V − V
bs out in 1 out
RD RD

 Vout  Vout
Vout = − − gm V1 − gmb Vbs r0 − RS
 RD  RD
 Vout  Vout  Vout  Vout
= − − gm  Vin + RS  − gmb RS r0 − RS
 RD  RD  RD  RD

Vout − gmr0RD
=
RD + RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0 Single-Stage Amplifiers

CS Stage with Source Degeneration

Define Gm = Iout/Vin,
Vout = -GmRoutVin
Modeling output port of an amplifier by a Norton equivalent.

➢ In a linear circuit, the voltage gain is equal to –GmRout, where Gm

denotes the transconductance of the circuit when the output is
shorted to ground and Rout represents the output resistance of the
circuit when the input voltage is set 0.

Vout − gmr0RD RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0

A = =
RD + RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0 RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0
v
Vin

− gmr0 RD RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0 

=
RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0 RD + RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0

= −GmRout RS + r0 + (gm + gmb )RSr0  RD

Single-Stage Amplifiers 17

9
 Source Follower (Common-Drain Stage)

Vin < VTH, M1 is off and Vout = 0.

As Vin exceeds VTH, M1 turns on
in saturation.

(a) Source follower, and (b) its input-output characteristic.

Large-signal analysis:
W
V =C (V −V −V )2 R
out n ox in TH out S
2L
Vout W  VTH Vout 
V = nCox L RS (Vin − VTH − Vout )1− V − V 
in  in in 
W
 C R (V − V − V )
Since VTH Vout Vout n
L S in oxTH out
=  = W
Vin Vin Vin 1+  C R (V − V − V )(1 +  )
n ox
L S in TH out

W
Noting that g =  C (V −V −V )  g R
1 + (g + g )R
m n ox in TH out
L

Single-Stage Amplifiers 18

Source Follower
Small-signal analysis:

Vin = V1 + Vout and Vbs = −Vout

Vout Vout
=g V −g V  =g (V −V )− g V
m 1 mb out m in out mb out
RS RS
Small-signal equivalent circuit of
out
source follower.
1 + (gm + gmb )RS
v
Vin

The voltage gain begins from 0 for Vin  VTH and

monotonically increases. As the drain current
and gm increases, Av  gm/(gm + gmb) = 1/(1+) if
RS = ∞ and  remains greater than roughly 0.2,
Voltage gain of source follower the voltage gain of a source follower is not
vs. input voltage. equal to one.

➢ The source follower stage is to drive a low-impedance load, then a buffer

must be placed after the amplifier so as to drive the load with negligible loss
of the signal level. Such a stage can operate as “voltage buffer”.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 19

10
 Source Follower

Small-signal equivalent circuit of source follower.

Noting that V = −V and I = −g V + g V  R VX 1 1 1

1 X X m 1 mb X out
= = =
IX gm + gmb gmb

Representation of intrinsic source follower by Thevenin equivalent.

1
gmb gm
A = = for RS = ∞
1 1 g +g
+

Single-Stage Amplifiers 20

Source Follower

1
r01 r02 RL
gmb1
Av = 1
1
r01 r02 RL +
gmb1 gm

(a) Source follower driving load resistance,

(b) small-signal equivalent circuit.

Example:
Calculate the voltage gain of this circuit.
The impedance of M2 is equal to
[1/(gm2 + gmb2)] r02.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 21

11
 Source Follower

Vout ( gmRS ) 1
Av = = 
Vin 1+ gm + gmb RS 1+

PMOS source follower with no body effect.

➢ The input-output characteristic displays some nonlinearity due to the

nonlinear dependence of VTH on the source potential. The nonlinearity due
to body effect can be eliminated if the bulk is tied to the source. This is
usually possible only for pMOSTs because all nMOSTs share the same
substrate. Figure shows a pMOST source follower employing two
separate n-wells so as to eliminate the body effect of M1.

Single-Stage Amplifiers

Source Follower

Cascade of source (a) source follower and (b) CS

follower and CS stage. stage driving a load resistance.

Vout
Vout
SF 
RL CS  −g R
m1 L
Vin R Vin

➢ Source followers shift the dc level of the signal by VGS, thereby

consuming voltage headroom and limiting the voltage swings.
Without the source follower, VX must be greater than VGS1 - VTH1 (for
M1 operate saturation). With the source follower, furthermore, VX
must be greater than VGS2 + VGS3 – VTH3 so that M3 is saturation. For
comparable overdrive voltages in M1 and M3, this means the
allowable swing at X is reduced by VGS2.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 22

12
 Common-Gate Stage

Vin  Vb - VTH, M1 is off and

Vout = VDD. As Vin decreases,
Vout > Vb - VTH, M1 turns into
saturation.

CG stage with capacitive CG stage input-output characteristic.

coupling at input.

Large-signal analysis:
W
V −V =V −V −V  V =V − C (V −V −V )2 R
out DD n ox b in TH D
out in b in TH
2L
Vout W  VTH 
V = −nCox L RD (Vb − Vin − VTH )− 1 − V 
in  in 

VTH Vout and g =  C W (V − V − V )

=
Since V Vin
m n ox
L b in TH
in

Vout
Av = = gmR D (1 +  )
Vin

Single-Stage Amplifiers 23

Common-Gate Stage

The current flowing through

RS is equal to - Vout/RD.

(a) CG stage with finite output resistance,

(b) small-signal equivalent circuit.

Small-signal analysis:
Vout
V− R + V = 0 and V = V
1 S in 1 bs
RD
 Vout  Vout
Vout = − − gm V1 − gmb Vbs r0 − RS + Vin
 RD  RD
 Vout  Vout  Vout
Vout = − − (gm + gmb ) RS − Vin r0 − RS + Vin
 RD  RD  RD

Av =
V 1+ (gm + gmb)r0 RD =
1+ (gm + gmb)r0 RD
Vin = r0 + (gm + gmb )r0RS + R S + R D r0 + 1+ (gm + gmb )r0 RS + RD
out

Single-Stage Amplifiers

13
 Common-Gate Stage
Example:
Calculate the voltage gain of this circuit if ≠0 and ≠0.

M1 operates as a source follower.

Vout

The equivalent Thevenin voltage is The equivalent Thevenin resistance is

1
r01 R =r 1 1
gmb1
Vin,eq = V in eq 01
gmb1 gm1
1 1
r01 +
gm1

1
r
V (g +g )r + 1R
V 1 1 1 1
r + 1 + (g + g )r r +R r +
g g

Single-Stage Amplifiers 24

Common-Gate Stage
Since V1 = Vbs = −VX

VX = IX − (gm + gmb )Vx r0 +IXRD

VX RD + r0
R in = =
IX 1 + (gm + gmb )r0
(a) Input resistance of CG stage, RD 1
 +
gm + gmb if (gm + gmb )r0  1
(b) small-signal equivalent circuit.
(gm + gmb )r0
➢ The input impedance of a CG stage is relatively low only if the
load impedance connected to the drain is small.

This circuit is similar to the output resistance of

degenerated CS stage.

Rout = 1 + (gm + gmb )r0 RS + r0  RD

Output resistances of a CG stage.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 25

14
 Cascode Stage
We call M1 the input device and M2 the cascode device.
For M1 to operate in saturation, Vx  Vin – VTH1. If M1 and
M2 are both in saturation, then Vx is determined
primarily by Vb: Vx = Vb - VGS2. Thus, Vb - VGS2  Vin – VTH1
and hence Vb > Vin + VGS2 - VTH1. For M2 to be saturated,
Vout  Vb – VTH2, that is, Vout  Vin - VTH1 + VGS2 – VTH2 if Vb
is chosen to place M1 at the edge of saturation.
This cascade of a CS stage and
a CG stage is called a cascode.

For VTH1  Vin, M1 and M2 are off, Vout = VDD, and Vx  Vb

- VTH2. As Vin exceeds VTH1, M1 begins to draw current,
and Vout drops. Since ID2 increases, VGS2 must increase
as well, causing Vx to fall. As Vin assumes sufficiently
large values, two effects occur: (1) Vx drops below Vin
by VTH1, forcing M1 into the triode region; (2) Vout drops
A cascode stage input-output below Vb by VTH2, driving M2 into the triode region.
characteristic.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 26

Cascode Stage

➢ The CS stage with a degeneration

resistor is equal to r01.

Rout = [1 + (gm2 + gmb2)r02]r01 + r02

Assuming gmr0.>> 1, we have Rout 

Calculation of output resistance (gm2+gmb2)r01r02. That is, M2 boots the
of cascode stage. output impedance M1 of by a factor
(gm2+gmb2)r02.

➢ Cascoding can be extended to three or

more stacked devices to achieve a higher
output impedance, but the required
additional voltage headroom makes such
configurations less attractive.

Triple cascode.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 27

15
 Cascode Stage

➢ The voltage gain can be written as GmRout. If both

M1 and M2 operate in saturation, then Gm  gm1 and
Rout  (gm2+gmb2)r01r02, yielding Av = gm1 (gm2+gmb2)r01r02.
Cascode stage with
current-source load.
Example:
Calculate the voltage gain of this circuit if ≠0 and ≠0.
r01
I =g V
m1 in
out
1
r01 + r
gm2 + gmb2 02
Iout gm1r01r02 (gm2 + gmb2 ) + 1
G = =
m
Vin r01r02 (gm2 + gmb2 ) + r01 + r02

1 Rout = r01r02 (gm2 + gmb2 ) + r01 + r02

R out2 = r02
gm2 + gmb2
Av = GmRout = gm1r01r02 (gm2 + gmb2 ) + 1

Single-Stage Amplifiers 28

Cascode Stage

Increasing output impedance by increasing

the device length or cascoding.
The length of the input transistor of a CS stage is quadrupled while the
width remains constant. The overdrive voltage is doubled, and transistor
consumes the same amount of voltage headroom as does a cascode
stage. That is, the circuits of figure (b) and (c) impose equal voltage swing
constraints. Note that the transconductance of M1 in figure (b) is half that
in figure (c), leading to high noise.
W gm
gm =  2 C I =
2

W 1 1 W 4
Av = gmr0 = 2 nC ox ID and    Av = 2nC ox I = 2gmr0
L I D L 4L D I D

while cascoding is A v = (g mr 0)
2

Single-Stage Amplifiers

16
 Cascode Stage

➢ If the gate bias voltage are chosen properly, the

maximum output swing is equal to. VDD – (VGS1–
VTH1) – (VGS2–VTH2) – |VGS3–VTH3| – |VGS4–VTH4|.

nMOST cascode amplifier

with pMOST cascode load.

Gm  gm1

Rout = 1 + (gm2 + gmb2 )r02 r01 + r02  1 + (gm3 + gmb3 )r03 r04 + r03 

A =G R
v m out
g
m1
(g r r
m2 01 02
(gm3 r03 r04 )

Single-Stage Amplifiers 29

Folded Cascode
Schematic

➢ The structures of (b) and (c) are called “folded cascode” stages
because the small-signal current is “folded” up [in (b)] or down [in (c)].
➢ Note that the total bias current in the folded cascode stage must be
higher than that in the cascode stage to achieve comparable performance.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 30

17
 Folded Cascode

For Vin > VDD - |VTH1|, M1 is off and M2 carriers all of I1.
Vout = VDD - I1RD. For Vin < VDD - |VTH1|, M1 turns on in
saturation,
1 W
I =I − C (V − V − V )2
  DD
D2 1 p ox in TH1
2 L
 1
Folded cascode with
proper biasing. As Vin drops, ID2 decreases further; falling to 0 if
ID1 = I1. For this to occur:
1 W
I = C (V − V − V )2
  DD
1 p ox in1 TH1
2 L
 1

Thus, Vin1 = VDD − − VTH1

If Vin falls below this level, ID1 tends to be greater

than I1 and M1 enters the triode region so as to
Large-signal characteristic allow ID1 = I1.
of folded cascode.

Single-Stage Amplifiers 31

18