Theme 1: Mussolini’s Italy, 1919–41.

Why did Mussolini gain power in 1922?.

Problems Facing Italy after the First World War

Introduction & Motivation

The aftermath of the First World War brought significant turmoil and
dissatisfaction across Europe, and Italy was no exception. This lesson explores the
myriad problems Italy faced in the post-war period, including dissatisfaction with
the peace settlements, economic and social challenges, the fragility of its
democratic government, the appeal of Fascism, and the reasons behind Mussolini's
rise to power. Understanding these factors is crucial to grasping the complex
dynamics that shaped modern Italy.

Dissatisfaction with the Peace Settlement

The Treaty of Versailles and subsequent peace agreements left many Italians
feeling cheated and dissatisfied.

Territorial Losses
The treaties did not grant Italy the territorial gains it had hoped for, particularly
concerning lands promised during the 1915 Treaty of London. Many Italians felt
that the sacrifices made during the war were not adequately rewarded, leading to a
sense of national humiliation.

Economic Discontent
In addition to territorial issues, the economy struggled under the weight of war
debt. Many veterans returned to a country with a stagnant economy, high inflation,
and a lack of job opportunities, worsening public morale and increasing social
unrest.

Social and Economic Problems

Post-war Italy faced enormous social and economic challenges that exacerbated
feelings of discontent.
Economic Hardships
The transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy was rocky. Inflation soared,
unemployment rose, and workers faced tough living conditions. Strikes and labor
unrest became commonplace as workers demanded better wages and working
conditions, further destabilizing the already fragile situation.

Social Unrest
In addition to economic hardships, the social fabric of Italy was under strain. The
disparity between social classes intensified, particularly between the wealthy elite
and the impoverished working class. Various political movements, leading to
clashes and violence, fanned this social divide.

Problems of the Democratic Government.

Political System of Italy, 1919–22:
The King served as the head of the government.
 He had the power to issue royal decrees, which are laws and orders that are directly
passed by the monarch.
 Additionally, he had to sign and could veto parliamentary bills.
 He was also heavily involved in foreign affairs.

The King was responsible for appointing the Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers.
 They were responsible for appointing Prefects who controlled provinces and worked
with the elected councils.

The King also appointed the Senate (members were appointed for life)

The role of the Italian People was to elect councils (initially, only 2% of the population was
able to vote, although this was gradually extended) and elect deputies.
 Although the King appointed the Prime Minister, the deputies had to have confidence
in the Prime Minister.
 The deputies became part of the Chamber of Deputies. They were the legislative
body, responsible for making laws.

The Chamber of Deputies was a part of Parliament.

 The role of Parliament was to impose taxes, enforce conscription and pass some
reforms.

Meanwhile, the Church had a very powerful influence in Italy.

The structure of the Italian Parliament in 1913, 1919 and 1921 respectively:

Political Parties of Italy in 1922:

Because of the implementation of Proportional Representation, many different parties with
differing views were in Government.
Problems of the Democratic Government in Italy from 1919 to 1922:

Frequent Change of Prime Ministers

One of the main problems of the democratic government of Italy from 1919 to 1922 was the
unstable leadership. In the four-year period of 1919-1922, there were five prime ministers.
These Prime ministers (Orlando, Nitti, Giolitti, Bonomi and Facta) came from various political
parties and failed to sustain their rule by maintaining control over the government. Thereby,
the frequent change of prime ministers resulted in a weak and inept rule. Each Prime Minister
failed to unite the elected political parties, which was the only way that Italy would be able to
effectively solve the post-war problems. Because of this, the government was discredited and
faced increasing resentment from the Italian people.

Threat of Communism
Another problem of Italy's Democratic Government was the fear of communism. After the
First World War, the Italian economy took a downturn, and certain groups of people, such as
the bourgeoisie, upper class and businessmen began to fear the rise of communism as the
working class began looking for solutions to their problems, seeing Communism as a
promising option. Meanwhile, the Italian People's Party, which was based on Roman
Catholicism, feared the ban of religion due to the communist ideology. Furthermore, the
Democratic Liberal Party supported the National Fascist Party who promised to protect
business owners and enterprises from communism. Therefore, the fear of communism caused
instability within the government. Meanwhile, the population of Italy itself was divided in
half. As the North was industrialized and connected to other countries by land and rail links,
it was more developed as a result, with the South remaining mainly agricultural.

Divergent beliefs and aims of political parties

A third problem of the democratic government of Italy from 1919 to 1922 was the divergent
beliefs and aims of the political parties in government. During the period of 1919-1922, there
were five main political parties in Parliament, including the Italian Social Democratic Party,
the People’s Party, the National Fascist Party, the Democratic Liberal Party and the Socialist
Party– all holding contrasting beliefs. However, Transformation meant that they had to form
a coalition government. As all of these political parties held such divergent ideologies and
represented different classes of Italian people, it was impossible for them to decide on
policies and how to solve the post-war problems. Therefore, the government failed to unify
and solve Italy’s post-war problems and the Italian democratic government, which was in
place from 1919-1922, was discredited and resented by Italians.

Failure to compromise to deal with the post-war problem

The problem of democratic government in Italy from 1919–22 is the failure to compromise to
deal with the post-war problems. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was seen as a blunder, and
their victory in World War One a "mutilated victory". Prime Minister Orlando was unable to
obtain the territories that Italy wanted following the First World War. Furthermore, he was
refused some of the territories promised under the Treaty of London (1915). As they were
unable to bargain for a better settlement, his government was seen as weak and in-able. He
was also seen as a failure as his incapacity to speak English weakened the talks. As a result,
the popularity of extremist and fascist parties increased, as they were perceived as more
powerful.
The Biennio Rosso
The Biennio Rosso were two chaotic years, marked by revolutions and uprisings, which were
sparked by the government’s failures to solve problems (importantly the economic crisis and
high unemployment rate), following the First World War. The protests took place across the
country, led by various political parties from all areas of the political spectrum.

However, by 1921, the movement had declined significantly because of an industrial crisis
that had caused massive layoffs and wage cuts. Despite this, the Biennio Rosso, as a
revolutionary period, was instrumental to the political development of Italy from 1919 to 22.

It sparked a wave of protests, which continued into the Fascist March on Rome, which
eventually resulted in Mussolini's leadership.

Appeal of fascism in Italy.

What were the key features of Fascist ideology?

Expansionism (their power is inevitable) / Darwinism (survival of the fittest): the

Fascists preached the importance of Italy's power, believing it was key to their
success.

Imperialism: the Fascists believed that to show true power and have influence, Italy
would need to have control over a large amount of land. As a result, Italy decided to
invade Abyssinia / Ethiopia in 1935.

Militarism (using force to solve problems): they believe that war shows strength and
courage.

Collectivism (people must work together to fulfil the needs of the state)

Totalitarianism: the Fascists believed that a strong, stable country was only possible
with absolute rule. They wanted a strong dictator in place as the ruler.

Nationalism: the Fascists believed in Nationalism, and wanted a large empire and
military for national pride.

Heroism: Fascism does not believe in actions influenced by an economic motive.

Anti-communist: the Fascists do not believe that solving class struggles can contribute
to a better society.
What made Fascism appealing in 1919–22?
One of the factors, which made Fascism more appealing, was the Fascist Party's evolving
policies.

Some important examples include:

In June 1919, the Fascists supported a republic with universal male and female
suffrage, but in November 1921, they committed their political structure ideology to
ensure Italy’s historic destiny. This is because following the Biennio Rosso (a period
of political instability), their main focus was to form a strong and stable government.

Secondly, in June 1919, they proposed the confiscation of religious properties, but by
November 1921, they were no longer focusing on this element. This is due to the fact
that by November 1921, they had realized that religion was a large factor in Italian
Politics, and wished to garner the support of the Church and Catholics.

Thirdly, in June 1919, they had a ‘peaceful’ foreign policy, but in November 1921,
their focus was complete Italian unification with a major role in the Mediterranean.
This is because Italy was enraged by their treatment at the Paris Peace Conference,
and businesses were seeking to expand.

Fourthly, in June 1919, their Programme included heavy and progressive taxes on
capital, the confiscation of unproductive income, and the nationalization of all arms
and munitions factories and the confiscation of 85% of profits from wars. By
November 1921, they had changed to proportional taxes, privatizing firms and
encouraging national wealth with individuals in mind. This is because they wanted

Over time, the Fascists changed their policies in order to garner more support.

Because of their change of policies, they were able to attain a wider support group from the
Italian population.

Was the Fascist Party the ideal party for the people of Italy?
On the one hand, the policies outlined by the fascist party are in favour of certain groups.

The policies of the Fascists would allow businesses to recover from the First World War with
the introduction of an eight-hour day with exceptions for agricultural or industrial
requirements, the privatization of firms and proportional taxes, thus favoring
businessmen. Businessmen would support privatization, as it would allow them to invest and
amass more wealth. They would also support complete unification for Italy and increasing
production, as it would increase their wealth and the country's income. In 1919, Capitalists
and Businessmen would support the confiscation of all property belonging to religious
organizations, as it would mean they could purchase more properties.
The 1919 Policy of Universal Suffrage would be popular among women, but there are no
favouring policies in their November 1921 Programme.

In 1919, the workers would be attracted to the eight-hour working day and guaranteed
minimum wage policy and the proposal of workers’ participation in the management of
industry through the National Councils of Labour. Comparatively, by 1921, there was less for
them to be excited about, but taxes being proportional to income could be seen as a benefit.
By 1921, the Church would approve of the Fascist Party as it agreed not to interfere with
Church property.

As of 1919, the Bourgeoisie would be interested in the abolition of obligatory military

service, as they would not want to experience the horrors of WW1 (family deaths). This is
linked to a foreign policy of peaceful competition among civilized nations. By 1921, the
Bourgeoisie would prefer proportional taxation rather than the 1919 policy of progressive
taxation.

Finally, all would appreciate freedom of opinion and conscience.

On the other hand, the fascist party are unreliable. The is evident from the change in their
policies from 1919 to 1921 which show that they have inconsistent policies. Their policies
are changed according to the political climate of that time, so it is irresponsible to believe that
the policies that are attracting support will still be in place in the next few years.

Reasons for Mussolini’s appointment as prime minister

Mussolini's career before his appointment as Prime Minister
SOCIALISM

In 1909, Mussolini moved to Austria-Hungary where he became the editor of a socialist

newspaper. However, he was deported back to Italy for violating laws that restricted press
freedom.

In 1910, Mussolini became the editor of another socialist newspaper but was jailed for six
months for inciting violence. While he was imprisoned, he began writing his autobiography.

He became the editor of another newspaper, Avanti! In 1912.

In 1914, Mussolini became the leader of the City Council of Milan.

ESTABLISHMENT OF FASCISM

Mussolini began l Popolo d'Italia on 15 November 1914. It was a pro-war newspaper during
World War I that became the foundation for the Fascist movement until it ceased publication
on 24 July 1943.

On 11 December 1914, Mussolini formed the Fasces of Revolutionary Action after being
expelled by the PSI.

On 23 March 1919, he renamed it to form the Italian Fasces of Combat. Their support
increased, sparked by resentment of the Treaty of St. Germain. Their policies were especially
attractive to War Veterans.

By the end of 1919, Mussolini entered the general election as the Fascist candidate but lost
following a Socialist landslide victory.
RISE TO POLITICAL POWER

By 1921, he was elected into Italian parliament as one of the 35 Fascists, but briefly resigned
as Fascist leader and was forced to end the pacification act with the Socialists.

In November 1921, he transformed the Fascists into the Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF
(National Fascist Party) and was able to hold more control with an extremist right-wing
party. They also dropped anti-clericalism, thus increasing the support of the church and
Catholics.
The March on Rome
On 16th October 1922, the Fascist leaders began to plan a revolt.

At the Fascist Congress in Naples on the 24th of October, Mussolini brazenly declared that
the Fascists would either be appointed or seize power themselves. All the while, the
authorities took no notice.

The takeover began on October 27. Overnight, the fascists seized control of key buildings
around Italy, such as telephone exchanges, police stations, government offices, etc. While
they were mostly successful, in some places, they were temporarily successful and in others
they failed.

In an attempt to halt the further crisis, Mussolini was offered a ministerial post. However,
other Fascists persuaded him to reject the offer and wait as the Government had taken limited
action against them so far. They believed that they could achieve a more satisfactory
outcome.

While Fascists gathered in three main areas around Rome, the Blackshirts (a volunteer-based
paramilitary of the Fascist party) were under strict orders not to clash with the army.

With no end in sight, Prime Minister Luigi Facta asked King Emmanuel III to agree to
military action against the Fascists.

On October 28th, after a long period of reflection, the King agreed to impose martial law and
order the arrest of Mussolini. However, he quickly reconsidered and reversed his decision.

Former Prime Minister Antonio Salandra attempted to form a new Government including
Mussolini; however, he refused to participate in Salandra's government.
On the 29th, Salandra advised the King to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister, and the King
agreed. He sent a telegram to Mussolini inviting him to Rome, and he leaves by train to
Rome (he did not participate in the march on Rome.)

Officially, Facta resigned on the 31st of October, with Mussolini officially appointed as
Prime Minister by the King on that day.
Quite ironically, Mussolini did not participate in the March on Rome. However, he took
photographs with those who did, as if he was actually a participant! (see right)
Reasons for Mussolini’s Appointment as Prime Minister

Weakness of the Liberal Government

Post-war Italian governments were unstable, with frequent changes in leadership. Prime Ministers like
Giolitti, Facta, and Bonomi failed to maintain control or address economic and social unrest. The
liberal politicians appeared indecisive and unable to deal with growing fascist violence or socialist
threats.

2. Fear of Communism
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) frightened many Italians, especially the middle and upper
classes. Strikes, factory occupations, and land seizures in Italy (1919–1920) made people fear a
communist takeover. Mussolini and the Fascists promised to stop socialism and restore order, gaining
support from industrialists, landowners, and the Church.

3. Support from the Army, Police, and King

Many in the military and police sympathized with the Fascists for their strong nationalist stance. King
Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a decree declaring martial law against the Fascists in October
1922. Instead, he invited Mussolini to form a government, partly because he feared civil war and
believed Mussolini could restore stability.

4. The March on Rome (October 1922)

Although largely a show of force, it demonstrated Fascist determination and organization. The event
convinced many that the Fascists were the only group capable of imposing order. The King’s decision
not to suppress the March paved the way for Mussolini’s rise.

5. Mussolini’s Political Skill

Mussolini presented himself as a moderate statesman rather than a revolutionary. He promised
cooperation with the monarchy, the Church, and the army. His ability to appeal to both conservatives
and nationalists made him an acceptable choice to many elites.

6. Failure of Opposition
Socialist and liberal parties were divided and failed to unite against Fascism. Trade unions and left-
wing groups were weakened after years of strikes and government suppression. This disunity made it
easier for Mussolini to take power without strong resistance.

In summary, Mussolini became Prime Minister in 1922 due to the weakness of liberal governments,
fear of socialism, support from key institutions (army and king), the dramatic March on Rome, and his
political opportunism.

“The appeal of fascism was the main reason for Mussolini becoming Prime
Minister in 1922.”
How far do you agree?
How was Italy governed under Mussolini?.
Mussolini’s aims in government and his leadership
Essay plan for 'Mussolini's Rise to Power'

Here, we will examine the important factors which contributed to Mussolini's Rise to Power.
For 'rise to power' questions, you should consider the perspectives of personal, party,
government and country/society in order to gain the highest marks. In the conclusion, you
should also argue which factors are the most/least important and why.

Personal
Mussolini was popular prior to being appointed Prime Minister. He had gradually gained
popularity as the editor of three socialist newspapers, including Avanti! Which had a
circulation of 100,000, and his founding of Il Popolo d’Italia. These positions allowed him to
develop a base of supporters as he used these popular public platforms to promote and
express his political beliefs and ideology.

Mussolini's political experience allowed him to be seen as a strong candidate for Prime
Minister, leading to his appointment. Mussolini had led the Fascist Party since December
1914. In 1914, Mussolini was elected to the City Council of Milan and in 1921; he was
elected to the Italian parliament as one of the 35 Fascists. This demonstrated that Mussolini's
political career was consistently improving, and he had experience as a party leader. As he
had led the Fascist Party for eight years, prior to his appointment as Prime Minister, it was
clear that he had the support required to help the country recover from the War.

Mussolini’s personal abilities made Mussolini appear as a strong candidate for leadership. He
was a charismatic speaker, appeared powerful with his strong frame and baldhead, and had a
background in the military. Mussolini's charisma meant he was able to easily convince people
to support him and his military background and sense of strength meant he had the support of
those in the military and those who desperately wanted strong leadership.

Party

Mussolini's rise to power was strongly assisted by the Fascist Party's demonstration of their
power through the March on Rome. At the Fascist Congress in Naples on the 24th of
October1921, Mussolini openly declared that the Fascists would either be appointed or seize
power. The Fascists travelled to Rome and began to occupy public buildings. The Fascists
had been able to demonstrate their power to a large extent, and the King feared that he could
be overthrown if he did not support the Fascists. He also believed that if he ordered the
military to fight the Fascists, they would disobey, in favour of Mussolini. Hence, the King
decided to support Mussolini and appoint him as Prime Minister.

The strong and widespread appeal of Fascism allowed Mussolini to be appointed and a
Fascist government to be established. The Fascist party was flexible and adapted its policies
to the needs and desires of the Italian populace in order to garner more support. The policies
of the Fascists would allow businesses to recover from the First World War, and offered an
improvement to the quality of life. The appeal of the Fascists is demonstrated by the fact that
they had 500,000 party members, whilst votes for them had increased drastically from 4,800
in 1919 to 125,000 in 1921. The Fascists were popular among most, if not all social groups,
as it was an unprecedented revolutionary political ideology that did not cause the
Communist-like chaos to improve the unforeseeably challenging situation after the First
World War. Its emphasis on totalitarianism and the sustainability of the Italian people’s
livelihoods through corporatism provided the most fashionable but practical direction for
Italy to solve the severe suffering caused by the war and the profound intolerance of the
discredited Liberal Government.

Government

The unstable political system of the Liberal Government of Italy made the Italian populace
look to a more radical solution in Mussolini. After the First World War, prior to Mussolini’s
rise to power, Italy had five Prime Ministers in six years; Orlando, Nitti, Giolitti, Bonomi and
Facta. Due to proportional representation, the Government was a coalition made up of many
political parties with divergent aims. This meant it was very difficult for the government to
compromise and makes decisions. It had become clear that a democratic government had
failed. Mussolini had become the last option for Italy as Italians began to believe that a
totalitarian government was necessary for Italy to recover and prosper.

Mussolini's appointment as Prime Minister was brought on by the weakness, selfishness and
indecisiveness of King Victor Emmanuel III. His mother and cousin had both sympathized
with the Fascists, whilst the King himself feared communism as it would mean the abolition
of the monarchy. He also feared that the Fascists, with the help of the military, could force
him to step down in favour of his cousin if he did not support their Government. Hence, in
order to ensure the continuance of his rule and the rule of the monarchy, King Victor
Emmanuel III decided to ignore the advice of Prime Minister Facta to put down the March on
Rome.

Country
The Italian Government had been discredited and the Liberal Government had lost favour
with the Italian people following the Paris Peace Conference. In the 1915 Treaty of London,
Italy was promised South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Dalmatia and the possibility of colonies in
return for joining the war on the side of the Allies (Britain and France). However, in the
Treaty of Versailles, partly due to poor communication and Prime Minister Orlando's lack of
bargaining power, Italy was not given Dalmatia or any Colonies and failed to obtain Fiume,
which they claimed. The Italian people were angered and saw the Liberal Government as a
failure as they did not receive the land they were promised and believed they
deserved. Therefore, the Italian Liberal government was discredited and Prime Minister
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando resigned.

Mussolini's rise to power was assisted by increasing fear of Communism within Italy. The
Industrial Crisis during the Biennio Rosso of 1919-20 led to a fear of communism. Whilst
support for the Communist Party had increased following the First World War, the election
results of the Fascist Party drastically increased after Bienno Rosso, with the party garnering
great support from the businessmen, rich industrialists and the bourgeoisie.

Post-war problems caused a rise in the popularity of extremist parties, such as the Communist
Party and the Fascist Party, as people looked for radical solutions. The War had cost Italy 148
billion lire and 600,000 deaths. This was difficult to recover from as industry slowed after the
end of the First World War. Their national debt, which was 16bn in 1914, had increased to
85bn in 1918, as they had to maintain their military and the costs of War. Meanwhile, Italy
was hit by severe inflation, with the price index indicating an increase of almost six fold.
Italians found that the value of their savings had been severely hit by inflation. More and
more Italians began to look to radical parties for solutions. The Italian people were no longer
concerned with democracy and focused on strengthening Italy and improving the quality of
life. Hence, they began to support the idea of a totalitarian government that would impose
strict laws, reducing party politics and class struggles.

Essay plan for 'Mussolini Successfully Maintaining Power'

(how Mussolini maintained power)
Here, we will examine the important factors that allowed Mussolini to maintain power. For
this type of question, you should consider the perspectives of social, economic, political and
foreign policy in order to gain the highest marks. In the conclusion, you should also argue
which factors are the most/least important and why.

Social

A) church

Mussolini’s relationship with and policies toward the Church successfully allowed Mussolini
to increase his support and expand his influence. When Mussolini was elected to Parliament
in 1921, he made a speech embracing the idea of a Christian nation. Pope Pius XI began to
think that Mussolini might be the person sent by God to end the separation of church and
state, which had been so since the Italian Unification in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, and
restore the Church's power. In 1929, Mussolini and the Pope signed the Lateran Pacts. This
improved the relationship with the Church and included a clause where the state was allowed
to veto major Church appointments.

Forming an agreement with the church was important, as 98% of the Italian population was
Catholic. By signing the Lateran Treaty in 1929, Mussolini confirmed that it was acceptable
to be Fascist and Catholic. Thus, Mussolini was able to gain further support from Catholics,
while he was also able to hold influence on church affairs. Mussolini was also able to end the
Church-State conflict, which had existed for over fifty years, and was something that his
predecessors had been unable to achieve. This demonstrated that Mussolini was the
appropriate candidate for leading the country, and allowed him to maintain his rule
successfully.

However, these agreements with the Church did not make an overall contribution to the
creation of a totalitarian state in Italy. Importantly, when the Archbishop of Milan openly
praised Fascism, 300 of his Priests circulated open letters of protest saying that good
Catholics do not accept Fascism. This showed that not all members and ranks of the Church
were supportive of Fascism. Additionally, the Pope published an encyclical, ‘Non Abbiamo
Bisogno’ in 1931, criticising the Fascist Party and accusing Mussolini of committing heresy.
In 1938, he criticized the Anti-Semitic policies, which were taken from Nazi Germany. When
the Pope spoke out against Fascist policies, he was seen to be right and Mussolini wrong as
the Pope was seen as infallible on matters relating to religion or morality. Furthermore, the
existence of the King and Pope as figureheads in Italy meant that Italians had others to
worship, rather than looking up to and respecting Mussolini. Therefore, the extent of
Mussolini’s control over religion was significantly limited.

b) Media

Mussolini's clever use of propaganda allowed him to maintain power from 1922 to 1943. In
July 1925, new laws were introduced controlling the press, and in December 1925, a new law
meant that all Journalists had to be registered with the Fascist Party. This ensured that the
media was loyal to Mussolini and promoted the Fascist party as it meant that newspapers
were unable to speak out against Fascist policies. During his rule, Mussolini used mass
media; newspapers, posters, the cinema, the radio, literature, philosophy, Italian culture and
music to promote nationalism and the Fascist party. This was instrumental in creating a cult
of personality around him. He also used events including rallies, sports and art & culture &
sculpture exhibitions. These were effective in creating an image of a strong and powerful
Italy under the Fascist rule.

c) Education

Mussolini’s Fascist regime was able to control life in Italy by changing the education system
in order to ensure total discipline and brainwashing & indoctrinate the Italian youth, allowing
them to successfully maintain the rule of the Fascist party, with Mussolini as the leader of
Italy. Mussolini banned 101 out of 317 historical texts, the Fascists introduced official,
mandatory course plans into the education system to indoctrinate the youth, and in 1928 a
single textbook covering all subjects, for the government created each year of elementary
school. This made sure that the Italian youth population were educated on the good aspects
and policies of Fascism, allowing the Fascist Party to moderate and monitor what was being
taught in schools, strengthening their influence and rule. In 1935, military education was
introduced to enhance national pride. The subject taught about the good elements of Italian
History, weapons and tactics. The Fascists also organized The Opera Nazionale Balilla
(ONB) for boys and girls, ranging from the ages of 6 to 18. The Fascist party from 1926 until
1929, then the education ministry ran it, until 1937. The ONB covered a range of activities
from sports and military drills to propaganda lectures. These collective policies increased the
support for and trust in Fascism, as 20 years of Italians were educated under Fascism, from
1922 to 1943. They reduced opposition towards Fascist policies as the education system
removed their doubts through indoctrination.

Mussolini took steps to control educators, ensuring that students were being effectively
indoctrinated and taught the assigned, Pro-Fascist content. In 1925, they made it so public
employees with anti-Fascist views could be dismissed. In 1929, after the Concordat was
signed, teachers were required to take an oath of loyalty to Mussolini. As a result, in order to
keep their jobs, they were forced to teach content that they did not necessarily agree with.
From 1931, professors were instructed to take the oath of loyalty, with only 11 out of more
than 1,250 refusing, and others crossing their fingers. In 1931, teachers associations were
combined to form a Fascist Association. This was to ensure obedience among teachers, whilst
it organized indoctrination courses that teachers had to take in order to achieve any
promotions. This allowed Mussolini to build a cult of personality around himself. He was
also able to reduce opposition as the Fascists were able to brainwash the youth much more
effectively. Moreover, Mussolini’s Fascist party was able to gain control and influence over
the education system, and influence the mindset of the future Italian workers.
Economic
Mussolini was able to maintain his power as he fulfilled his promise of solving Post-War
economic problems. In 1922, Mussolini appointed an Economics professor, Alberto de
Stefani, as his Minister for Finance, improving Italy’s economy. He reduced government
intervention in the economy and reduced taxes for the wealthy. This gained the Fascist
government support from the upper class, whilst also stimulating investment in businesses
and the economy. De Stefani also reduced public spending. This was effective in balancing
the budget and reducing inflation, which had reduced the value of the savings of the
bourgeoisie during the War. Furthermore, Stefani implemented a policy, which reduced or
abolished taxes on war profits. This was appealing to industrialists, furthering the support for
Mussolini among the wealthy. Hence, Mussolini was able to achieve success with the
economy in the early years.

Mussolini aimed at using what were known as ‘battles’ to set targets for different areas of the
economy and the wider nation, with the aim of achieving autarky. Mussolini aimed to use the
Battle of Grain to make Italy self-sufficient in grain and reduce the trade deficit caused by
imports. As a result, the production of cereal grain increased and wheat imports fell by 75%
from 1925 to 1935. This effectively reduced Italian reliance on the imports of grain and
benefitted Italian producers of grain. The Battle of the Marshes also provided success for
Mussolini as the Pontine Marshes near Rome were drained and two new towns – Latina and
Saadian – were created. This successfully displayed the strength of Fascist Italy, whilst it also
improved the quality of life as more employment opportunities became available, and there
was an improvement in public health. Furthermore, Mussolini aimed to use the Battle for the
Lira to fix the lira at 90 to the £. This successfully portrayed Italy as a mighty power as the
lira returned to the Gold Standard in 1927 and the exchange rate was fixed.

However, Italy was not self-sufficient in fertilizers to grow their crops and there was an
increase in meat and egg imports. In the Battle for Births, the aim was to increase the
population from 40 million in 1927 to 60 million by 1950, but Italy’s population only reached
47.5 million by 1950. In the Battle for the Marshes / Land, only 80,000 hectares of land were
reclaimed between 1928 and 1938, equivalent to just 1/20 of propaganda claims.

Mussolini was able to maintain power through the establishment of a corporate state. By
1934, twenty-two corporate states had been established, each being in charge of different
industries. This meant that each state was responsible for specific categoria, managing labour
contracts and promoting production, assisting Italy in achieving autarky. The Chamber of
Fasces and Corporations replaced parliament, with members being selected from the various
corporations of Italy. The councilors of the chamber did not represent geographic
constituencies, but the different trades and industries of Italy, as the corporate state focused
on the needs of the economy, industry and achieving autarky. The corporate state involved
Mussolini's idea of a third way where the best elements of socialism and nationalism were
implemented together. This meant that the worker and business owners were equally
represented, and the labour courts could fairly decide on any issues that arose.

Political
Mussolini established a totalitarian state through the use of legislature and terror. On 23
March 1923, Mussolini created the Fascist Grand Council and a new militia called Milizia
Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale (MVSN). The Fascist Grand Council was the primary
decision-making body of the Fascist party, and later replaced Parliament, whilst the MVSN,
who were also known as the Blackshirts or squadristi, provoked fear among the Italian people
and political opposition to the Fascists, effectively reducing opposition to their rule. In
November 1923, the Acerbo Law is passed, allowing the Fascists to receive 2⁄3 of the seats in
Parliament in the 1924 elections as they received atleast 25% of votes. This allowed
Mussolini to gain control of Italy at a national level, as the Fascist party was the dominating
political party, meaning their policies could be passed easily. In August 1925, elected mayors
and councils of towns & cities were replaced by Podesta (Fascist officials) and in January
1927, Mussolini decreed that all Italians had to be loyal to prefects, who appointed the
Podesta. This meant that Mussolini had successfully established control over Italy at a local
level, meaning that Fascist party controlled all areas of life within Italy.
Mussolini successfully established himself as a dictator. On the 31st of January 1926,
Mussolini assumed the power to rule by decree. This meant he could issue new policies and
law without requiring approval from Parliament; meaning was now only responsible to the
King. On 6 November 1926, following an assassination attempt on Mussolini in October, all
other parties were banned. This meant that there was completely no remaining opposition to
the Fascists within Parliament. The Public Security Law introduced control over the state and
aims to reduce political opposition. By 1929, Mussolini held eight ministerial positions. This
ensures that Mussolini retains control and can consistently apply laws, even in events of
opposition.

Foreign Policy
Mussolini's foreign policy allowed him to maintain power as he promotes and increases
Italian National Pride, and in turn, support for the Fascist government and his leadership. In
August 1923, during the Corfu Crisis, Italy forced Greece to apologize and pay
compensation. This supported Mussolini's national policy of Italy becoming a dominating
global power, allowing him to maintain power. Because of the Fiume Incident, which took
place from September 1923 to January 1924, on the 27th January 1924, the Treaty of Rome
concluded that Fiume would be annexed to become an Italian Province. This represented
Mussolini's promises and strength as he achieved what the liberal government had failed to
do in Versailles. Furthermore, Mussolini established a protectorate over Albania with the
November 1927 Tiranë Pact that provided Italian economic aid, the 1927 military alliance
and finally July 1928 convention which declared Albania a virtual protectorate of
Italy. Mussolini's foreign policy during the 1920s represented and aligned with his aims of
restoring the glory of the Roman Empire to modern-day Italy, as they had successfully shown
off their strengths to the Greeks, expanded to Fiume and gained overseas influence in the
Italian protectorate of Albania.

Mussolini's foreign policy involved building a positive relationship with Europe and
constructing a good image of Fascist Italy for the Europeans as it would mean good grounds
for trade and alliances to strengthen Italy. On 1 December 1925, the Locarno Treaties were
signed in order to create greater stability in Europe. On 27 August 1928, Mussolini signed the
Kellogg-Briand Pact, outlawing war and prohibiting the use of weapons and arms.
Establishment of a dictatorship, repression of
opposition
How were Jews repressed in Fascist Italy?
He implemented laws relating to immigration, employment, personal lives and education.
Essentially, he systematically imposed anti-Semitic laws of varying degrees that oppressed
the Italian-Jewish population, restricting their rights to employment, property and education.

 All Jews who had arrived in Italy after 1919 were given six months to leave. This
meant that Jews who had fled from the Nazi-German regime had to relocate again.

 Jewish property was confiscated and Jews were not allowed to be managers of
businesses that employed in excess of one hundred workers.

 Marriages between Jews and Italians were forbidden.

 State employment was denied to Jews, so many people were dismissed, such as
Jewish teachers.

 A Charter of Race was issued in 1938 to give a scientific explanation of the Fascist
racial doctrine.

 Foreign Jews were banned from Italian schools.

How did Mussolini repress political opposition?

Law for Defense of the State 1926

 Military officers set up a Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State. They were in
charge of putting Fascist political opponents on trial. Following their trial, those
convicted would be imprisoned on remote islands. They, including the leader of the
Communist Party, Antonio Gramsci and Liberals Piero Gobetti & Giovanni
Amendola, issued 31 Death penalties. This paved the way for the establishment of
OVRA in 1927.

Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism (OVRA) 1927

 This organization was a secret police force of the Kingdom of Italy. Their job was
to stop any anti-fascist activity and eliminate anti-fascist sentiment. They were
responsible for investigations and ensuring the safety of the Duce from those who
wanted to kill him. They were known to persecute a number of groups, including the
Jews, gypsies and homosexuals. With their operations, they arrested around 4,000
people and 10 were executed. They used terror to scare the Italian population into
obeying and stopping them from speaking out against the Fascist party
Censorship in Italy
Censorship and propaganda were heavily practiced in Fascist Italy.

 The policies targeted the public (to ensure full cooperation), journalists & editors (to
ensure a good image of Fascist Italy was consistently portrayed) and anti-Fascists &
government officials (to ensure there was no opposition to the Fascist Government or
Mussolini's leadership).

 In regards to the media, in July 1925, new laws were introduced controlling the press.
Anti-Fascist newspapers were closed down. Legally, now any articles have to be
approved by the Government before being published. In December 1925, it was
required that all journalists be registered with the Fascist party. With this, hostile
journalists and editors were replaced or arrested whilst those approved by the
Fascists remained.
 The ‘Ministry of Popular Culture’ had competence over the contents in newspapers,
radio, art, etc. Most foreign papers were banned. State-controlled what the media
published and portrayed. With this, the reporting of crime, disasters and disorders
were forbidden

 As a result of censorship, there was also a loss of privacy. Private calls and letters
were intercepted and monitored.

 Censorship was to be carried out by Prefects, but in the case of the media, the editors
(which were approved by the Fascists) usually performed this task successfully,
without the involvement of Prefects.

Public Security Law 1926

 The Security Law put in practice strict control over the state, aiming to reduce
political opposition. Italian associations, bodies and institutes (and by extension the
completely Italian population) were required to provide their details when requested
by public security authorities. The public security law allowed investigations into
threats to public security. Those found to be "enemies of the State" were to be
sentenced to harsh imprisonment and faced the re-introduced death penalty. Italians,
especially those who feared communism, would support this law.

Pact of the Vidoni Palace 1925

 The Vidoni Palace Pact was signed in October 1925 between The General
Confederation of Italian Industry, called Confindustria, which is the Italian employers'
federation and national chamber of commerce and jointly with Rossini’s Fascist trade
unions. It limited the organizations representing workers to the official Fascist ones
by abolishing the Catholic, Socialist and independent unions. Workers were instructed
not to challenge the authority of their employers and managers. This matched with the
Fascist ideology of anti-individualism and resulted in a loss of freedom and rights.
Law on Corporations 1926
 Alfredo Rocco's Law on Corporations came into effect in October 1926. Trade
unions were banned and a new law court was set up to deal with political offences.
The law also made all strikes illegal. With this, The National Council of
Corporations was initially established by royal decree on 2 July 1926. This aligned
with the Fascist ideology of anti-individualism and resulted in a loss of freedom and
rights.
How effective was Mussolini's repression?

 Many political opponents fled Italy, including Francesco Nitti who was Prime
Minister from 1919 to 1920 and Sturzo, who founded The Italian People's Party.

 Cases about political opponents reached about an average of 2,000 a year and there
were in total 9 execution until 1940.

 In total, 5,000 out of 28,000 opponents were imprisoned or banished.

 In 1926, 21,000 people were put on trial. From 1927 to 1937, 3,596 sentences were
passed, totaling 15,300 years. Thus, the average sentence was approximately five
years.

 Over the duration of his rule, it is estimated that Mussolini had around 2,000 political
opponents killed.

 7,000 Italian Jews were murdered.

 Many opponents fled into exile. Fascist agents killed those who did not (and some
who tried to).

 An important figure was Carlo Roselli. He was one of the founders of ‘Justice and
Liberty’– a group that aimed to unite all political opponents of the Fascists (excluding
communists). The members publicly dropped anti-Fascist pamphlets from aeroplanes,
and the leaders were arrested as a result. Roselli was fortunate enough to escape and
edited the anti-fascist journal from Paris. However, Mussolini’s agents eventually
assassinated him.

Overall, Mussolini’s actions resulted in huge success. He was able to intimidate the
population in order to gain their support. Around 2,000 people were killed by the state for
political reasons. Although this is a small number in comparison to the Italian population and
those killed by Hitler’s Gestapo, this shows that Mussolini was effective in establishing
control. There were no mass killings and the number of people killed was relatively low. This
demonstrates that he had control over the country, and therefore, he had no need to kill large
numbers of people.

Use of propaganda
During the rule of the Fascists, Mussolini used propaganda to brainwash Italian citizens to
ensure support and increase his popularity.
He used various types of propaganda to achieve this. Examples include...

Newspapers
Mussolini had already banned all Anti-Fascist newspapers (including foreign newspapers) in
July 1925 and required that all journalists should be approved by and registered with the
Fascist party from December 1925. Therefore, when reading Italian newspapers, everyone
would be influenced by propaganda as the news constantly promoted Fascism and portrayed
Mussolini’s government in a very positive light.

Newspapers were used to promote the Fascist ideology, such as militarism, nationalism and
extremism. For example, when Italy joined World War Two on the side of Germany, in an
article titled “People of Italy Run to Arms”, they stated that it was “Italy’s destiny to join the
War”. As an ally of Nazi Germany, they also used their newspaper to spread Hitler’s news
and Nazi German propaganda, such as anti-Semitism.

Posters
Fascist Italy used posters to show Mussolini’s brilliance, the power of Fascism, the threat of
communism and a number of other messages.

On the right is a poster with a large face of Mussolini above smoking factories, the caption
being “Greetings to the Duce, the founder of the empire”. Clearly, this had the purpose of
celebrating the Italian leader, showing how he has established power and authority over the
national image, by leading the country through greater development and expansion, and the
power over the nation as a whole. The factories in the foreground and background indicate
the industrial advances that Mussolini advocates and has brought for Fascist ideology and
Italy as a whole. His large face evokes a sense of national pride as the stoic facial expression
and the shadows drawn present him as a powerful Italian patriot who has seen war.

We found another poster of a young child (representing Italy), captioned ‘Papa Save Me’
with a red flag and symbol of communism in the background. This would appeal to the upper
class, businessmen and bourgeoisie due to their fear of communism. In short, it tells Italians
that they should be afraid of communism. The child fits the technique of pathos as it targets
the audience emotions, telling them that they should save the child, and thus, Italy– from
communism.

Cinema
Mussolini changed the film industry and used the cinema to fit the interests of the state.

In 1934, a censorship government body was founded, with the power to read and change
movie scripts; they awarded prizes to pro-Fascist movies and censored many foreign films.
They provided full funding to movie scripts that had pro-Fascist messages in their original
versions, whilst any approved movie scripts could also receive up to 60% of their funding
from the state. With this, there was also a Directorate-General for Cinema who was
responsible for monitoring it for anti-Fascist messages and for approving content.

In 1937, Benito Mussolini and his son Vittorio founded Cinecitta movie studios with Luigi
Freddie, Directorate-General for Cinema, in order to help filmmakers make films with pro-
Fascist messages. The same year, an Italian movie, titled “Scipio Africanus: The Defeat of
Hannibal” was released, promoting Italy’s Africa expansionist policy.

.
Radio
In 1924, Mussolini began to see the potential of the radio in dispensing propaganda. The
Radio began to broadcast several state programmes. Although it mainly consisted of music,
there were at least 2 hours of official broadcast each day, and this increased in the 1930s.

Additionally, Mussolini made speeches that were broadcast to crowds of people in Piazzas
through loudspeakers. This is because, at the time, only 40,000 people owned a radio,
although, by 1938, this had increased to 1 million and by 1939, 1 in 44 households owned a
radio.

This large increase was likely due to the new rural radio agency that supplied schools with
radios. There was also a Fascist leisure and recreational organization for adults called The
National Afterwork Club (Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro, or OND for short). It ran community
listening meetings that assisted in the spread of Fascist ideology, to people in rural areas and
those who could not read.
Rallies and Sports
Italy was quite heavily invested in the sport of football, with Mussolini being an avid fan. In
regards to sport, they had quite a few aims. The Fascist regime used football to improve the
health and strength of Italian men, possibly, as they wanted to be able to recruit a strong army
in the event of War.

In 1934, Italy hosted the FIFA World Cup, using the opportunity to show off and sell Italian
products. Rallies were also held, showing the might of the Italian Nation. Italy even won the
World Cup that year, and it showed the strength of Italian men.

Many rallies were held over the years, aiming at impressing the audience, promoting
discipline and encouraging national and collective identity. Examples of these rallies include
the mass rally that was held in celebration of the seventh anniversary of the Fascist March on
Rome. Again, in 1936, they organized a mass military parade in which medals were
presented to war widows.

1934 FIFA World Cup Final: Italy vs Czechoslovakia

Art
In terms of art, Mussolini banned degenerate art in an attempt to control the public and only
allowed abstract art. As already discussed, posters were created as Fascist propaganda.
Mussolini was also featured in art where he was depicted as a strong savior and hero of Italy.
See again on the right... Mussolini's large face evokes a sense of national pride while the stoic
facial expression and the shadows drawn present him as a powerful Italian patriot who has
seen war.

Sculptures
With regards to sculptures, a huge sports complex, called Foro Italico, was created in Italy,
with the primary aim of Italy hosting the Olympics in 1940. Known originally as Foro
Mussolini (meaning Mussolini’s Forum), statues of Italian athletes were built to advertise the
success and strength of Italy— and it still exists today as a significant example of Fascist
architecture.

(Above) Foro Italico

Exhibitions
Furthermore, the Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution was held in Rome from 1923 to 1934
and featured art and sculptures.

It was opened by Mussolini on 28 October 1932 and had 4 million visitors.

The show told the story of the evolution of Italian history from 1914 until the March on
Rome. It served as a work of Fascist propaganda that aimed at influencing and emotionally
involving the audience, whilst it also compared Mussolini to the Roman Emperor Caesar,
signifying that Mussolini would bring Italy back to its former glory.

Literature and Philosophy

In 1928, Mussolini also published his autobiography, recounting his youth, his time as a
journalist, his experiences in World War I, the formation of the Fascist Party, the March on
Rome, and his early years in power.

From 1929 and 1936, Encyclopedia Italia was published, also known as Treccani (after its
developer Giovanni Treccani). It was aimed at rivalling Britain’s Britannica Encyclopedia,
although it had a strong focus on Italy’s role in world development as it aimed at displaying
Italian pride.

The philosophy of fascism was conveyed through the Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals. In
this, over 200 intellectuals, led by the philosopher Gentile, produced this book on the
philosophy of Fascism, similar to how Mein Kampf showed the philosophy of Nazism and the
writings of Marx and Lenin the philosophy of communism. This aimed to show that without
Fascism, there would be no true culture, and to prove that fascism was the one true ideology.

Culture and Music

The National Fascist Cultural Institute was established to spread Fascist culture to the masses,
and by 1941, had over 200,000, mostly middle-class members.

Musicians were forced to join the Fascist Union of Musicians and were forced to reject
foreign influences in order to develop “Cultural Authority”. Despite this, there was still some
musical diversity in Italy.

Aims and impact of foreign policy

What were the aims of Mussolini's foreign policy?
1. Obtain the lands promised in the 1915 Treaty of
London.
2. Expand Italian influence into the Adriatic Sea
and the Mediterranean Sea.
3. Spread Fascist ideology
4. Revive the glory of the Roman Empire to
demonstrate the national unity and strength of
Italy.
5. Achieve a superior leading position in European
politics where Italy was seen as an equal to Britain
and France.
6. Increase and maintain his popularity in order to
sustain his rule
Corfu Crisis of 1923
Following the First World War, Italy had been not given as much land as it was supposed to
be given by the Allies. This caused social outrage which the Liberal Government was unable
to solve, and Mussolini came to power, vowing to solve them.

August 1923: Italian investigators were sent by the League of Nations to investigate a border
dispute between Greece and Albania.

August 27, 1923: Enrico Tellini, an Italian general and his team consisting of Major Luigi
Corti, Lieutenant Mario Bonacini, Albanian interpreter Thanas Gezira and the chauffeur
Remigio Farnetti, were killed by unknown assailants on Greek territory.
August 29, 1923: Italy sent an ultimatum to Greece, with the main demands being an
apology, 50 million lire and an investigation assisted by Ambassadors of the Italian Military.

August 30, 1923: The ultimatum was rejected by Greece.

August 31, 1923: The Italian leader, Benito Mussolini sent between 5,000 and 10,000 troops
to invade and occupy Corfu.

Although the League condemned Italy as the aggressor, Mussolini refused to listen.

He asked the Conference of Ambassadors to resolve the Corfu Crisis and Britain and France
gave into his demand to resolve the issue outside of the League.

Ultimately, the Greeks were forced to give in, and they apologized to Italy and paid direct
compensation to them.

Fiume Incident of 1923–24

In April 1915, the Treaty of London was signed on the condition that Italy would receive
territory. Fiume was not included, but Italy was confident that they would receive it due to
the high proportion of Italians living there.

12 September, 1919: Poet Gabriele D’Annunzio gathered a group of 2,000 Nationalist men
and forced the withdrawal of allied forces. They occupied Fiume and D’Annunzio
proclaimed himself the “commandant” of the “Reggenza Italiana del Carnaro” [Italian
Regency of Carnaro], in (what he proclaimed to be) the Independent State of Fiume.

Italy believed that Fiume should belong to them, claiming that the better part of the
population was Italian.

12 November, 1920: The Italian government concluded the Treaty of Rapallo with
Yugoslavia and decided to remove D’Annunzio from the established ‘Free State of Fiume’.

The Free State of Fiume survived only one de facto year before a Fascist movement forced
the President, Zanella, to resign.

17 September 1923: Italian general, Giardino, was sent by Italian Prime Minister Benito
Mussolini to restore public order. Meanwhile, negotiations started between Italy and the
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to dissolve the Free State of Fiume.

27 January, 1924: The Treaty of Rome concluded that Fiume would be annexed to become an
Italian Province.

Locarno Treaties (1925): Italy participated in these agreements, which sought to

maintain European stability. Mussolini’s involvement was an attempt to gain
legitimacy and recognition as a major European power.
 Albanian Influence (1926): Mussolini extended Italy’s influence in Albania,
making it a virtual protectorate.

Aggressive Expansionism (1935–1939)

This period marked the height of Mussolini’s imperialist ambitions, leading to

significant military actions and increasing tensions with Western powers.

Invasion of Ethiopia (1935–1936): Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia (Abyssinia) was one

of Mussolini’s most ambitious projects. Despite winning the war, Italy faced
international condemnation, economic sanctions from the League of Nations, and
growing isolation.

Intervention in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939): Mussolini supported

Francisco Franco’s forces, providing military aid to the Spanish Nationalists. While
this strengthened ties with Germany, it drained Italian resources and manpower.

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936): Mussolini aligned Italy with Nazi Germany, moving
away from previous diplomatic ties with Britain and France. This alliance was a
turning point that tied Italy’s fate to Germany’s aggressive expansionism.

Invasion of Albania (1939): Italy occupied Albania, further asserting its dominance
in the Balkans. However, this move was largely symbolic and did not significantly
enhance Italy’s power.

World War II and the Decline of Mussolini (1939–1943)

Mussolini’s decision to join World War II on the side of Germany was disastrous. His
overconfidence and miscalculations led to severe military failures.

1. Non-Belligerency to War (1939–1940): Initially, Mussolini remained neutral, but

he declared war on Britain and France in 1940, hoping for easy territorial gains.
However, Italy’s military was unprepared for prolonged conflict.

2. Failed Campaigns in Greece and North Africa: Mussolini’s invasion of Greece in

1940 resulted in humiliation, requiring German intervention. Similarly, Italian forces
struggled in North Africa, leading to major defeats at the hands of British and Allied
 forces.

3. Alliance with Nazi Germany: Mussolini’s dependence on Hitler meant that Italy
had little autonomy in strategic decisions. This led to Italy’s eventual downfall as it
became a weak link in the Axis powers.

4. Collapse of Mussolini’s Regime (1943): Following Allied landings in Sicily and

growing domestic discontent, Mussolini was deposed in July 1943. The Italian
government surrendered to the Allies, and Mussolini was later executed in 1945.

Successes and Failures

While Mussolini’s foreign policy had moments of success, it was largely characterized
by miscalculations and strategic blunders.

Successes:

1. Short-Term Territorial Gains: Mussolini’s campaigns in Ethiopia and Albania

expanded Italy’s empire, albeit briefly.

2. Prestige and Influence: For a time, Mussolini successfully positioned Italy as a key
European power, gaining the admiration of authoritarian leaders.

3. Early Diplomatic Strength: His participation in European diplomacy in the 1920s,

including the Locarno Treaties, enhanced Italy’s influence.

Failures:

1. Economic Strain: Italy’s military adventures drained its economy, leading to

financial instability and reliance on Germany.

2. Diplomatic Isolation: Aggressive policies alienated Britain and France, leading to

international sanctions and diplomatic isolation.

3. Military Weakness: Italy’s military was ill-equipped for large-scale wars, leading to
humiliating defeats in Greece, North Africa, and later Italy itself.
4. Over-Reliance on Germany: Mussolini’s dependence on Hitler forced Italy into
disastrous conflicts, culminating in occupation and division.

5. Final Collapse: His failure to balance ambition with practical strategy led to his
downfall and Italy’s devastation in World War II.

Conclusion

Mussolini’s foreign policy was marked by grand ambitions but poor execution. While
he sought to restore Italy’s greatness through expansionism and military power, his
miscalculations and reckless decisions led to economic decline, military defeats, and
ultimately, the collapse of his regime. His over-reliance on Nazi Germany and failure
to build sustainable alliances proved fatal. In retrospect, Mussolini’s foreign policy
exemplifies how aggressive nationalism and militarism, when detached from strategic
planning and economic stability, can lead to disastrous consequences.

How far were Mussolini’s economic policies a

success?
Economic aims.

Mussolini used what are known as ‘battles’ to set targets for different areas of
the economy and the wider nation, all the while encouraging corporate states to
reach the various targets.
Table of Contents:
The Battle for Grain
The Battle for Births
The Battle of the Marshes / The Battle for Land
The Battle for the Lira
The Battle for Grain
Aim:
 Mussolini aimed to make Italy self-sufficient
and balance the trade deficit.

Actions:
 In 1925, he put high tariffs on imported grain
and provided grants to farmers that would
enable them to purchase the necessary machinery
and fertilizers to achieve the targets set.

Outcome:
 As a result, the production of Cereal grain
increased and wheat imports fell by 75% from
1925 to 1935, making Italy more self-sufficient in
wheat. However, they were not self-sufficient in
fertilizers, and their focus on wheat was at the cost
of other forms of agriculture, so there was an
increase in meat and egg imports.
 Meanwhile, cereal production decreased during
the war due to the restriction of imported
fertilizers, which Italy still relied on.
 Furthermore, higher import tariffs meant that
there was a decline in the variety and nutritional
value of Italian diets.

Overall, this battle can be seen as a moderate success, as he largely succeeded in terms of
wheat.
The Battle for Births
Aim:
 To increase the population from 40 million in
1927 to 60 million by 1950

Actions:
 He gave loans to married couples and reduced or
cancelled these for each child born.
 Men with six children or more were exempt
from taxes, whilst taxes were increased for
unmarried young people and he made it more
difficult for them to find employment.

Outcome:
  He failed to increase the population significantly
as Italy’s population only reached 47.5 million by
1950
 Fertility only increased from 3.2 to 3.7 from
1920 to 1925, and then decreased even further to
2.6 in the mid-1940s.
The Battle of the Marshes / The Battle for Land
Aim:
 To improve health (diseases came from swamps
and marshes)
 To increase the number of jobs
 To make more land for farming
 To serve as propaganda and show off to
foreigners

Actions:
 laws were passed on land reclamation
 private landowners were encouraged to
contribute in a drainage scheme
 The Pontine Marshes near Rome were drained
 A few cities were created for show in Italy

Outcome:
 ¾ of the reclaimed land was in the North
 Between 1928 and 1938, only 80,000 hectares of
land was reclaimed
 Equivalent to just one-twentieth of
Fascist propaganda claims
The Battle for the Lira
Aim:
 To fix the lira at 90 lire to the pound
 Reduce inflation Show off the mighty power of
Italy and the Italian economy

Actions:
 Banks put tight controls on the money supply
 The government imposed wage cuts of around
20%
 The government devalued areas of the economy
to support the strength of the currency

Outcome:
 Technically, the Battle for the Lira was achieved
in 1927 when it was returned to the gold standard.
However, in 1936, the government was forced to
devalue the lira, so this battle can be seen as a
failure.
The Corporate State
Main Aims
 To strengthen the political system
 To make Italy self-sufficient and to achieve
autarky
 To fund Italy’s military and expansionist aims
Early Success
In 1922, Mussolini appointed an Economics professor, Alberto de Stefani, as his Minister for
Finance, adopting liberal policies of reducing the government’s economic intervention,
stimulating investment, reducing taxes on war profits, reducing public spending and taking
steps to balance the budget.

In the early years of the Fascist government, the Italian economy was improving.

In 1925, de Stefani was dismissed.

An industrialist filled his position and the Fascist Economic Structure was began to develop.

How did Mussolini build a Corporate State?

Alfredo Rocco's Law on Corporations
 Came into effect in October 1926.
 Trade unions were banned and a new law court
was set up to deal with political offences
 Strikes were deemed illegal.
 The National Council of Corporations was
initially established by royal decree on 2 July 1926,
and inaugurated in 1930.

 One of the main aims was managing
business operations in foreign countries.
 It consisted of 823 members, 66 of
whom represented the Fascist Party, with the
rest being representatives of the employer
and workers confederations.

General Confederation of Labour (CGL) and Catholic Confederation of Labour (CIL)

decided to dissolve themselves in 1927
 This was as a result of the Fascist crackdown on
workers unions.

Charter of Labour, 1927

 He recognized private enterprises as the most
efficient, gaining him support from rich
industrialists.
 The charter also stated that the state could take
control of, manage or encourage enterprises that
were considered inefficient.

The National Confederation of Fascist Syndicates

  In November 1928, the National Confederation
of Fascist Syndicates, led largely by Edmundo
Rossoni, was disbanded.
 Under his leadership, membership rose from
250,000 in 1920 to 1.8 million by 1924, surpassing
every other labor organization. It even had more
members than the National Fascist Party, which,
comparatively, had just 650,000 members.

 This was a cause for alarm among
Fascist leaders, and they especially resented
Rossoni’s autonomous role in controlling the
Fascist syndicates.
 The General Confederation of Industry decided
to dismantle the National Confederation of Fascist
Syndicates in November 1928, claiming that his
syndicates had failed to achieve the original goal of
“educating the masses.” They also disagreed with
him as his fascist syndicate wanted to involve
workers in the organization of factories, introduce
minimum salaries, working hours and terms for
employment, which were unfavorable for
employers and industrialists. As a result, his
confederation was broken up and re-organized into
six smaller syndicates that were arranged by
economic sectors.

The 22 Corporate States

 By 1935, twenty-two corporate states had been
established, with each being responsible for
specific categoria, managing labour contracts and
promoting production.
 Each of these corporations was controlled by
councils where employers and employees were
represented equally.
 These councils coordinated with a committee
that mirrored the Ministry of Corporations, and
decisions had to be approved and issued by
Mussolini.

Parliament was replaced by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations

 In March 1939, Parliament was replaced by the
Chamber of Fasces and Corporations, with
members being selected from the various
corporations of Italy.

The Third Way

 The Fascists wanted a society where the
employers and workers worked together in the
national interest. Mussolini claimed that his
 Corporate State was founded on the strengths of
capitalism and socialism. He called this the “third
way”.
Responses to the Great Depression
The 1929 Wall Street Crash triggered an economic crisis across Western Europe, affecting industry,
agriculture, and financial stability.
• Italy, despite Mussolini's push for autarky, remained reliant on international loans, particularly from
the U.S.
• The withdrawal of loans and constricted export markets led to rising unemployment, reduced
industrial output, and falling agricultural prices in Italy.
• Mussolini's response involved increased state intervention, managing industries and banks through
government agencies, and partially implementing the Corporative State.
• Italy's recession was relatively mild in GDP decline compared to other nations.
• Mussolini's policies partially insulated the economy but resulted in heavy public debt, wage cuts,
and declining living standards.
The Depression exposed significant problems in Italy's economy.
• Unemployment rose dramatically from under 500,000 in 1928 to two million by 1933.
• Causes included global demand collapse and structural weaknesses in Italy's economy.
• In agriculture, falling grain prices undermined the successes of the "Battle for Grain."
• Industrial production contracted as reduced foreign markets led to layoffs and decreased purchasing
power.
• Mussolini responded with increased state involvement in the economy.
• This approach was practical and aligned with fascist ideology, presenting the regime as a source of
stability during economic turmoil.
Large-Scale Public Works
• Mussolini implemented expansive public works projects to create jobs and modernize infrastructure.
• Projects included motorway construction, hydroelectric power development, land reclamation, and
electrification.
• These initiatives were costly but provided tangible employment opportunities for many Italians.
• The programs temporarily boosted public confidence in Mussolini's regime.
• While offering short-term relief and an appearance of progress, they failed to address underlying
structural economic issues.
The Institute For Industrial Reconstruction
• The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) was established in 1935 as a lasting form of state
intervention.
• The IRI rescued struggling businesses by taking over shares previously held by banks.
• This intervention prevented widespread industrial collapse and stabilized key economic sectors.
• By 1939, the IRI controlled 20% of Italian industry, making the state a major stakeholder.
• The IMI was also created to support banks and prevent financial failures.
• These measures demonstrated Mussolini's commitment to averting economic catastrophe.
• However, they came at the cost of increased state control and a failure to address inefficiencies.
Social Welfare Measures
• Mussolini's regime introduced modest social policies to address the human cost of the Depression.
• Family allowances were expanded to provide financial support.
• Working hours were reduced to distribute limited employment among more workers.
• These measures offered partial relief but did not eliminate widespread hardship.
• The policies helped maintain public order and supported the fascist narrative of a paternalistic state.
• Despite these efforts, genuine economic security remained out of reach.
Shortcomings of the responses
Rising Public Debt.
• Mussolini's economic strategy had significant drawbacks despite its initiatives.
• Public debt rose sharply from 100 billion to 150 billion lira between 1929 and 1938.
• The Corporative State, promoted as a harmonious system, failed to provide real benefits.
• Real wages declined in the mid-1930s due to lira revaluation and compulsory wage cuts.
• Workers' purchasing power and living standards were significantly eroded.
• Economic stability was achieved through state intervention and cost-cutting rather than genuine
growth or widespread prosperity.
Comparative Resilience And Underlying Weaknesses.
• Italy weathered the Great Depression more gently than many Western European nations, with GDP
declining by 5.4% compared to an average of 7.1%.
• This relative resilience resulted from damage limitation, high public spending, and selective bailouts
rather than transformative policies.
• Mussolini's strategy reinforced existing structures but failed to address underlying inefficiencies.
• Italy avoided the worst economic impacts but emerged burdened with significant public debt.
• Consumer demand remained suppressed, and the corporatist framework proved ineffective and
hollow.

Effectiveness of economic policies (industrial and

agricultural, the Battle for Grain)
How far did society change because of Mussolini’s regime?
Dealings with the Church.
Church-State Disagreements
Until 1870, the Pope held control over the Papal States, which were the regional territories
outside of city walls. However, during the Franco-Prussian War, the French Army which was
stationed in Rome to protect the churches was sent to Prussia to protect France. As a result,
King Victor Emmanuel II was able to take control of Rome, unifying Italy.

Angered by their loss of power, there was negative sentiment between the Church and the
state for the next sixty years.

Why would Pope Pius XI support Mussolini's Fascist Government?

When Mussolini was elected to Parliament in 1921, he made a speech embracing the idea of a
Christian nation. Pius XI began to think that Mussolini might be the person sent by God to
end the separation of church and state and restore the Church's power.
The Popes disliked parliamentary democracy as it meant it was difficult for the church to
make a lasting agreement with the government, they were opposed to freedom of speech,
freedom of association, freedom of conscience and freedom of religion as it impacted their
power. These all aligned with Fascist ideology.
How did Mussolini improve the Church-State
Relationship?
Early Years (1923)
Mussolini began to improve the relationship between the Church and the state that had been
sour since the Franco-Prussian War.
 Clerical salaries were increased.
 Religion was reinstated into primary school
education.
 The crucifix was restored in school classrooms
and courtrooms.

Lateran Pacts (1929)

Upon negotiating the Lateran Pacts, he took even bigger steps to build a good relationship
with the Church.

The Lateran Treaty

 recognized the Vatican City as a sovereign state
 Pope Pius XI recognized Rome as the Capital of
the Kingdom of Italy

Financial Conventions
 The Church was given 750 million lire as
compensation for the lands lost during the Italian
unification.
 The Church was also given 100 million lire in
bonds, making the church the largest holder in state
bonds.

The Concordat
 Recognized Catholicism as the sole religion of
the state
 Church marriages were recognized by the state
 The Church had control over divorces
 The state was allowed to veto major Church
appointments
 Religious Education was now also implemented
into Secondary Schools.
 The state accepted the existence
of Catholic Action, which was an international
body that the Church had set up in 1863 in order to
defend itself.
However, these agreements were not popular among all Fascists, and especially not
among all of the Priests.
 Radical fascists considered the concordat a
betrayal of the aims of Fascism due to the
large influence and power of the Church.
 Not all members and ranks of the Church were
supportive of Fascism. When the Archbishop of
Milan openly praised Fascism, 300 of his Priests
circulated open letters of protest saying that good
Catholics do not accept Fascism.

Conflicts in the 1930s

 There was a lot of conflict between the Fascist
state and the Church in the 1930s.
 Mussolini’s actions were labelled as “heretical”
by the Church.
 They disliked that Mussolini insisted on
and made it law that he is referred to as
‘DUCE’, as he was treated like a God.
 It seemed that Fascist religion was
literally Mussolini.
 In 1931, Mussolini and the Pope
disagreed over Catholic Action
 Fascists believed it held too much
influence, so they closed some branches.
 As a result, the Pope published a critical
encyclical called “Non Abbiamo
Bisogno”, meaning “We have no need”.
 Mussolini disliked the political
involvement of the Church, and the Pope
decided to reach a compromise with the
State— Catholic Action would run strictly
religious, educational and recreational
activities and it became decentralized.
 In 1938, the Pope criticized the anti-Semitic
policies implemented by Mussolini which were
inspired by Nazi-Germany.
Key social policies including education
During their time in power, the Fascists revamped the education system. It became racist,
biased and served as propaganda teaching children to have national pride and to be
submissive to Fascist control.

Fascist Education aimed at ensuring total discipline, brainwashing and indoctrinating the
youth by educating them on the good aspects and policies of Fascism in order to maintain the
support and control over the entire country. Education in Italy was solely pro-Fascism.

This meant that students grew up supporting Fascism and right-wing views, and they had a
strong sense of nationalism and loyalty to the Fascist state.
Religious Changes to the Education System
As a result of the Church signing various agreements with the Fascist government, there were
a few changes to school life.
 In 1923, Religious Education was made a
compulsory subject for Primary School students,
and this became the same for Secondary School
Students in 1929.
 Prayers were carried out two times during each
school day, as Christianity was established as the
national religion.
An Indoctrinating Curriculum
The government made other changes to the curriculum, largely with purposes of
indoctrinating the youth and ensuring their support.
 In 1926, 101 out of 317 historical texts were
banned.
 The Fascists introduced official, mandatory
course plans into the education system
 In 1928, a single textbook covering all subjects,
for each year of elementary school, was created by
the government.
 To solidify the national Italian identity, all
dialects were banned.
 In 1935, military education was introduced to
enhance national pride.
 The subject taught about the good elements of
Italian History, weapons and tactics.
 In 1936, lessons on Fascist culture were
introduced in elementary schools
 In 1938, anti-Semitic policies taken from Nazi
Germany were implemented into school
curriculums.
Controlling Educators
From 1925, the Fascists began to take a number of measures to control the teachers.
 In 1925, they made it so public employees with
anti-Fascist views could be dismissed.
 As a result, in order to keep their jobs,
they were forced to teach content that they
didn’t necessarily agree with.
 In 1929, after the Concordat was signed (which
introduced Religious Education into Secondary
Schools) teachers were required to take an oath of
loyalty to Mussolini.
 In 1931, teachers’ associations were combined
to form a Fascist Association. It organized
indoctrination courses that teachers had to take in
order to achieve any promotions.
 In 1931, professors began to receive instructions
to take the oath of loyalty, with only 11 out of more
than one thousand two hundred and fifty refusing,
 with many taking the oath with their fingers
crossed as they did not agree with the Fascist
party.
 After 1933, new educators were required to be
members of the Fascist Association
 In 1934, teachers were instructed to express
national pride by wearing Fascist uniforms on
official occasions.
 After 1937, all educators had to be members of
the Fascist Association. They were also encouraged
to become leaders on the Fascist Youth
Organisation, Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB).
 1938 Racial doctrines meant that Jewish
teachers were dismissed and Jewish students were
kicked out of their schools.

Aside from forcing professors to take oaths, they didn’t really enact any policies on
universities, as long as they did not express hostility towards the Fascist government.

Fascist Youth Organizations

• The Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB)

It consisted of subgroups for boys and girls, ranging from the ages of 6 to 18. It was run by
the party from 1926 until 1929, then the education ministry, until 1937 when it was replaced
by Gioventù Italiana del Littorio, GIL. Similar to Nazi Germany’s youth organizations, they
covered a range of activities from sports and military drills to propaganda lectures.

• Fascio Giovanile del Littorio

This was in place from 1930. It was for youths aged 18 to 21 who were not at university

• Gruppi Universitari Fascisti

This was in place from 1930. It was for youths aged 18 to 21 who were studying at
university.
How effective was Fascist Education?
 There are twenty years of students who would
have experienced Fascist indoctrination.
 Mussolini was also able to decrease the
percentage of the population that was illiterate
from 27% in 1921 to 17% in 1936.
 Meanwhile, he increased government
expenditure on education from 4% in 1922 to 8%
between 1926 and 1935.