AE401 Propulsion Systems – Engine

Integration and Maintenance

Version 1.0
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Björn Kniesner

Just for teaching purpose, reproduction prohibited

 Overview

6. Engine Integration and Maintenance

6.1 Operating behavior of a jet engine
6.2 Engine installation
6.3 Engine start
6.4 Engine noise
6.5 Engine maintenance

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 Operating behavior

• "Operating behavior" refers to the behavior of an engine when the engine parameters
deviate from the design point ( off-design), e.g., caused by:

• A change in the flight Mach number at constant power (𝑛, 𝑇𝑡4 )

• A change in thrust due to a change in 𝑛 and/or 𝑇𝑡4

• A change in ambient conditions (𝑝∞ , 𝑇∞ )

• Knowledge of these stationary operating points that deviate from the design point,
i.e., the overall operating behavior, is very important for the overall design of the
engine in the development phase in order to identify potential operating problems at
an early stage.

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 Operating behavior  Operating points

Typically, several important stationary operating points (operation points – OP or

thrust ratings) are defined. The design point can also be one of these operating points
or a combination of them:

• Max. Takeoff (MTO): max. thrust for 5 minutes on the ground

• Max. Continuous (MCT): max. continuous thrust  important for engine failure
and ETOPS

• Max. Climb (MCL): max. thrust during climb phase, often corresponds to MCT

• Max. Cruise (MCR): not often used, as thrust is used in cruise flight to control
speed and altitude

• Part Power (PP): specific partial load point

• Idle (ID): a distinction is made here between approach idle, flight idle, and
ground idle
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 Operating behavior  Component characteristic maps

• However, in order to perform an accurate operating behavior calculation, it is

necessary to know the characteristic maps of each engine component.

• If the loss coefficients of the respective components can be simplified and

assumed to be constant, it is possible to specify analytical characteristic maps.
This is usually the case for:

• Inlet

• Combustion chamber

• Nozzle

• For compressors and turbines, however, experimental characteristic maps

must be determined for an accurate calculation. This is achieved with the help of
component tests in so-called "rigs." Numerical calculation methods (e.g., CFD) can
also be used to support this process.

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 Operating behavior  Component characteristic curves

Example of a compressor rig for obtaining characteristic curves

Bellmout inlet

Compressor Conical throttle

Source: Bräunling, Figure 10-36

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 Operating behavior  Compressor map

• In order to reduce the number of influencing parameters when displaying the

maps and to generalize the map, similarity theory, or more precisely Mach
similarity, is used.

• This results in the following (dimensionless) similarity indices, often referred to as

reduced variables:

𝑚ሶ 1 𝑅𝑇𝑡1
• Reduced mass flow: 𝑚ሶ 𝑟𝑒𝑑 =
𝐴1 𝑝𝑡1

𝑝𝑡2
• Total pressure ratio: 𝜋𝑡 =
𝑝𝑡1

𝑢 𝑛𝑟
• Reduced speed: 𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑑 = ~
𝑅𝑇𝑡1 𝑅𝑇𝑡1

𝑅𝑇𝑡1 𝐴1 𝑝𝑡1 𝑝𝑡1 𝐴1

• Reynolds number: Re = =
𝜂𝑅𝑇𝑡1 𝜂 𝑅𝑇𝑡1

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 Operating behavior  Compressor map

Source: Mattingly

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 Operating behavior  Thrust variation

Significant reduction in thrust (to approx.

𝑇∞ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
40%) at 𝑇∞ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡:

 Speed still at 80%

 at 70%

 Mass flow at 60%

Source: Wörrlein

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 Operating behavior  Variation in ambient temperature

Increase in ambient temperature by 30°

at 𝑇𝑡4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑇𝑡4 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.

 rotational speed almost constant

 thrust at 85%

 SFN at 97%

 SFC at 88% (lower!)

Source: Wörrlein

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 Overview

6. Engine Integration and Maintenance

6.1 Operating behavior of a jet engine
6.2 Engine installation
6.3 Engine start
6.4 Engine noise
6.5 Engine maintenance

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 Engine installation  Arrangement

When installing the engine, various arrangements with different advantages and
disadvantages are possible:

• on the fuselage (business jets, three-engine aircraft, etc.)

• in the fuselage (military  long inlet duct, lower drag, concealed)

• in the wing (rare, B2, etc.)

• above the wing (rare, ATTAS, unpaved runway)

• under the wing

• in front of the wing edge (commercial aircraft, little inlet disturbance)

• behind the wing edge (supersonic aircraft)

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 Engine installation  Arrangement

ATTAS (VFW614) MD11 MD80

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

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 Engine installation  Arrangement

B2

De Havilland DH 106 Comet

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

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 Engine installation  Arrangement

Eurofighter

Source: Wikipedia

SR71

Source: Wikipedia

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 Engine installation  Arrangement

The following aspects should be taken into account when selecting the arrangement:

• Inlet disturbance  Keep to a minimum

• Suction of foreign objects  keep to a minimum

• Additional resistance  keep as low as possible

• Accessibility for maintenance  as good as possible

• Aircraft center of gravity  depending on desired flight physics

• Point of attack for thrust  close to the center of gravity

• Position of exhaust jet  not too close to cell parts

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 Engine installation  Installed and Uninstalled thrust

Uninstalled thrust  pure measured engine thrust (engine data sheet)

• On the test stand
• Without interaction with nacelle, wing, fuselage or ground
• Under optimum inflow conditions (bellmout inlet, no AoA)

Installed thrust  really achievable thrust when engine is mounted (aircraft dependent)
• Inlet loss
• Interaction loss
• Ground effect
• Flight conditions

 Typically 5-10% less than uninstalled thrust

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 Engine installation  Mounting

High-speed flight Slow flight

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 Engine installation  Foreign object damage

• The ingestion of foreign objects (sand, dust, stones, hail, ice, salt, birds, etc.) is
extremely dangerous for an engine (erosion, corrosion, breakage, pumping).

• The reliability of an engine despite the ingestion of foreign objects (FOD) must be
proven in precisely specified tests (hail, bird strike, etc.).

• For engines that are highly vulnerable to FOD due to their range of use, such as
helicopters (hovering close to the ground) and military transport aircraft
(takeoff/landing on unpaved runways), special separators are integrated into the
inlet.

• These usually work by deflecting the intake jet and exploiting the inertia of the
foreign objects.

• Sometimes a type of protective grille is even attached in front of the inlet

(helicopters), but this is associated with a noticeable additional pressure loss.

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 Overview

6. Engine Integration and Maintenance

6.1 Operating behavior of a jet engine
6.2 Engine installation
6.3 Engine start
6.4 Engine noise
6.5 Engine maintenance

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 Engine start  General

• As with piston engines, gas turbines must be started with external assistance
(starter) (spreading of isobars cannot be utilized without a pressure difference  no
excess power for increasing speed).

• There are essentially two methods used for starting:

1. Electric starter (up to approx. 5 MW compressor power  𝑃𝐶 = 𝑚ሶ ∆ℎ𝑡,𝐶 )

2. Pneumatic (compressed air) starter

• There are several possible sources of compressed air for compressed air starting:

• APU (auxiliary power unit)  utility gas turbine, usually installed in the rear

• Other running engine  Right-side engine is usually started first, also important
for restarting in flight

• External compressed air connection  Danger for ground personnel!!!

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 Engine start  General

• The starter must drive the shaft until the self-sustaining speed (approx. 10% of the
maximum speed) is reached.

• The fuel is then injected and the shaft is accelerated to idle speed.

• Due to the strong non-linearity of the thrust-speed characteristic curve, the idle
speed at which hardly any thrust is generated
is generated, is approx. 50%, and the rated speed is
is approx. 90% of the maximum speed.

• Due to the transient (time-dependent)

processes during start-up, the permissible
maximum values (e.g., Tt4) may be exceeded
for a short time, but this is often tolerated due
to the short duration.

Source: Bräunling, Figure 10-41

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 Engine start  Control

• To ensure that the engine starts reliably, a sophisticated automatic control system
must be implemented due to the high degree of non-linearity of the control and
regulating variables.

• Nowadays, in principle, only digital control units (DECUs) are used instead of
mechanically coupled ones, and these are subject to high requirements:

• Fast and reliable starting

• Fast ramp-up

• Minimal consumption

• Low idle thrust

• Low service life consumption (Tt4,max, nmax )

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 Engine start  Monitoring

• The engine control system also includes the engine monitoring unit (EMU), which
enables early detection of engine damage and deterioration.

• To this end, measured values (temperature, pressure, speed, etc.) are constantly
compared with the design values known from the cycle calculation.

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 Overview

6. Engine Integration and Maintenance

6.1 Operating behavior of a jet engine
6.2 Engine installation
6.3 Engine start
6.4 Engine noise
6.5 Engine maintenance

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 Engine noise  General

• Sound waves are pressure fluctuations that propagate through a medium

(atmosphere) and are caused by transient effects.

• Alongside the tail units (and extended landing gear), the engine is the main source of
noise generated by aircraft and has an impact on:

• Nuisance to the population and passengers

• Aircraft certification

• The level of fees (economic efficiency)

• Fatigue of the engine structure

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 Engine noise  Noise reduction

• The following methods are used to reduce noise:

1. Modification of the noise source

2. Noise attenuation (active, passive)

3. Influencing the frequency spectrum

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 Engine noise  Noise sources

• The main sources of noise in an engine are:

• Rotating parts  Turbomachinery (compressor, turbine)

• Exhaust jet

• Airflow itself (possibly also with compression shocks)

Source: Rolls-Royce, The Jet Engine, Fig. 19-4

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 Engine noise  Jet noise

• Jet noise is generated by unsteady effects in the shear layer between the engine jet
and the environment.

• The main factor determining its intensity is the relative velocity between the jet and
the ambient air, i.e., not the exit velocity 𝑐𝑒 in the aircraft-fixed system, but 𝑣𝑒 = 𝑐𝑒 −
𝑣∞ in the earth-fixed system.

• Furthermore, the relationship is highly nonlinear: Sound pressure ~𝒗𝟑𝒆 ÷ 𝒗𝟖𝒆

• Reduction through:

• Turbofan engine  Reduction in jet speed

• Lobed mixer  Reduction in jet speed

 Modification of the shear layer

• Chevrons, "hush kits"  Modification of the shear layer

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 Engine noise  Jet noise

Chevron Lobed mixer

Source: Wikipedia Source: Wikipedia

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 Engine noise  Jet noise

"Hush kits"  Retrofitting

Source: Wikipedia

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 Engine noise  Turbomachinery noise

• Turbomachinery noise is caused by unsteady effects in the blade flow.

• Its intensity is determined by the circumferential velocity (~𝑢6 ), the density, and the
blade geometry.

• Reduction through:

• Large distance between stators and rotors  decay of wake flows

• Single-stage fan

• No guide vane

• „Uneven" ratio between the number of guide and impeller blades and possibly
also between the stages (often prime numbers)

• Sound-absorbing lining in the housing (Helmholtz resonator, λ/4 resonator)

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 Engine noise  Sound insulation (absorber)

Sound energy  kinetic energy  dissipation into heat

Helmholtz resonator λ/4 resonator

𝑅 𝐿
𝐿 = 𝜆/4
𝑉

𝑎 𝜋𝑅2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑠 = =
2𝜋 𝑉(𝐿 + 𝜋 𝑅) 𝜆 4𝐿
2

 Also used for vibration damping in combustion chambers

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 Engine noise  Noise quantification

• The perception of noise is highly subjective, which makes global quantification

difficult.

• Objective noise parameters are initially values related to pressure fluctuations:

sound pressure, sound intensity, sound pressure level, sound power

• Sound pressure can be regarded as the deviation of the pressure fluctuation

from the time average:
𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝 𝑡 − 𝑝ҧ

• For further processing, the mean sound pressure in the form of the standard
deviation of the pressure signal is more commonly used:
𝑝෤𝑠 = 𝑝 𝑡 − 𝑝ҧ 2

• The interesting range lies between the threshold of audibility (𝑝෤𝑠,𝑙 ≈ 2 ∙ 10−5 𝑃𝑎)
and the pain threshold (𝑝෤𝑠,𝑢 ≈ 2 ∙ 102 𝑃𝑎), i.e., a span of 7 decades.

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 Engine noise  Noise quantification

• In order to cover this wide range with tangible values, the sound pressure level
(SPL) was introduced with the unit decibel (dB):

𝑝෤𝑠 2 𝑝෤𝑠
𝐿𝑝 = 10 log = 20 log
𝑝෤𝑠,𝑙 2 𝑝෤𝑠,𝑙

• This results in values from 0 to 140 (20*7) dB for the range from the audibility
threshold to the pain threshold (120-140dB):

Sound source Sound pressure [Pa] Sound pressure level [dB]

Audibility threshold 2 ∙ 10−5 0
Conversation/chat 2 ∙ 10−3 40
Passing car 0,2 80
TL engine during takeoff 20 120
Gunshot (1 m distance) 200 140

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 Engine noise  Noise quantification

• However, the relationship between the objective sound pressure level and the
perceived, subjective loudness is highly frequency-dependent.

• The following variables have therefore been introduced to quantify the perceived,
subjective loudness: loudness, rated sound pressure level, volume level
• The loudness level [phon] uses a pure sine tone at 1000 Hz to establish a
comparative value for the sound pressure level. This means that at 1000 Hz,
phon and dB are the same, but at other frequencies there are significant
differences.

• In contrast, loudness [sone] directly indicates a person's subjective perception

of loudness.

• The rated sound pressure level evaluates the frequency-dependent

perception based on the sound pressure level using a specific frequency filter
(type A, B, C, or D). To distinguish between them, the value is then given in
db(filter type), usually db(A).

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 Engine noise  Noise quantification
pain threshold
Souund pressure level

frequency Source: Bräunling, Figure 15-2

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 Engine noise  Noise quantification

• According to Fletcher and Munson (1933) and ISO226 (2003 & 2014), a difference of
10 phon is perceived as a doubling of loudness.

• At 1000Hz, this corresponds to exactly 10db, i.e., an increase in sound power by a

factor of 10 and an increase in sound pressure by a factor of 10 ≈ 3.16.

• Conversely, a tenfold increase in sound pressure corresponds to a fourfold

increase in loudness.

• The following assignment applies:

phon 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
sone 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024

• For 1000 Hz, this corresponds approximately to:

db 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

Pa 2e-3 6e-3 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.63 2 6.32 20 63.2 200

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 Engine noise  Noise reduction

• Engine noise (jet noise) has been significantly reduced through the introduction and
further development of turbofan engines (lower exit velocity).

• The next slide shows how the noise level could be reduced with an increasing
bypass ratio.

• However, the reduction in jet noise means that turbomachinery noise becomes
more prominent  Remedy:

• single-stage fan

• sound insulation

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 Engine noise  Noise reduction

Noise reference

Swith to
single stage Turbomachinery without
relative noise level

fan additional sound insulation

Turbomachinery with
additional sound insulation

Exhaust jet

Bypass ratio
Source: Bräunling, Figure 15-12

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 Engine noise  Example: jet noise

Sound pressure level at the outlet of a purely convergent nozzle (simulation

data, air, standard pressure, variable total temperature, distance 4 m)

120 1.0
0.9
0.8
[dB]

115
level[db]

0.7
110
pressure (SPL)

105
Schalldruckpegel

0.6
100

95
Ma=0.5
Sound

90

85
~ve3
80
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Austrittsgeschwindigkeit
exhaust velocity ve [m/s]va [m/s]

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 Engine noise  Noise nuisance

• If you want to establish certain regulations, noise limits, etc. for aircraft and engine
noise, it is important to consider other characteristics of the noise in addition to
the pure sound pressure level-based values, e.g.:

• Sound spectrum (peaks, individual noises)

• Duration of exposure

• To this end, the sound pressure level ( ) is converted in three steps using a
precisely defined procedure (ICAO, Annex 16):

1. LPN : perceived noise level [PNdB]

2. LTPN : tone-corrected perceived sound pressure level [TPNdB]  additional

consideration of sound peaks

3. LEPN : effective perceived noise level [EPNdB]  additional consideration of

duration of exposure

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 Engine noise  Noise limits (ICAO)

Engines
Engines
Engines
Effective perceived noise level

Take-off

All types
Approach

Max. take-off mass

in tons

Source: Bräunling, 15-9

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 Overview

6. Engine Integration and Maintenance

6.1 Operating behavior of a jet engine
6.2 Engine installation
6.3 Engine start
6.4 Engine noise
6.5 Engine maintenance

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 Engine maintenance

As soon as a new engine is put into service, its performance (thrust, fuel
consumption) deteriorates progressively due to:

• Corrosion/oxidation

• Deposits:
(particles, combustion residues)

• Abrasion:
(sand, ice, FOD, DOD/OOD)

Engine maintenance
(approx. 40% of total aircraft maintenance costs)

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 Engine maintenance  Areas of responsibility

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 Engine maintenance

Main reasons for use in maintenance:

1. Exhaust Gas Temperature Margin (EGTM) [K] becomes too small

Thrust Flat-rated thrust

EGT

Max. allowed EGT

Operation not permitted
EGTM
"aged" engine (20-40K)

Thrust reduction required

EGTM becomes
smaller
(more fuel must be
injected to achieve ISA+15K Outside
the same thrust) Air Temp.

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 Engine maintenance

Main reasons for use in maintenance:

2. Life Limited Parts (LLP):

 approx. 15,000-30,000 cycles

Source: S. Ackert, Aircraft Monitor

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 Engine maintenance

Main reasons for use in maintenance:

3. Hardware – defect:

• Broken/damaged blades

• Burnt-out combustion chamber

• Burst discs

• Bearing damage

• ...

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 Overview

6. Engine Integration and Maintenance

6.1 Operating behavior of a jet engine
6.2 Engine installation
6.3 Engine start
6.4 Engine noise
6.5 Engine maintenance

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 Overview

5. Component Performance
5.1 Compressor and Turbine
• Euler‘s equation, Velocity triangles
• Efficiencies, losses
• Cooling, compressor map
5.2 Inlet and Nozzle
• Subsonic, Supersonic (different compression)
• Normal, oblique shocks
5.3 Combustion Chamber
• Mass fractions, Heating value
• Global chemical reaction, Stoichiometry, AFR, equivalence ratio
• Combustor types

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 Overview

4. Cycle Analysis
4.1 Ideal Brayton Cycle
4.2 Real Brayton Cycle
4.3 Turbojet
• Performance values, efficiencies
4.4 Turbojet with Afterburner
4.5 Ramjet
4.6 Turboshaft
• Power share, optimum core velocity, propeller
4.7 Turbofan
• Bypass
• Separated/mixed nozzle

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 Overview

3. Space Propulsion Systems

3.1 Propulsion Requirements
• Delta-v, Ziolkowsky rocket equation
3.2 Gas Propulsion
3.3 Chemical Propulsion
• Types, Propellants
3.4 Electric Propulsion Systems
• Types
3.5 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion
• Types
3.6 Fuel-free Propulsion
3.7 Attitude Control

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 Overview

2. Compressible Flow and Ideal Rocket Performance

2.1 Compressible Flow and Gasdynamics
2.2 Nozzle Flow
• Laval nozzle (operating modes)
• Losses, cf, 𝜀
2.3 Ideal Rocket Performance
• Isp, ceff, cf, c*, efficiencies
• Propellant influence, O/F

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 General  Best practice and tips

For the solution of computational problems in general the following

proceeding is recommended:

1. Read the problem text carefully and mark/note important

aspects!

2. Create a sketch of the situation!

3. Always have an expectation on the result and check its

plausibility!

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