JINKA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENTS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Course Title: Sophomore English

Course Code: EnLa202

Credit Hours: 3

(For B.A. Degree Program)

Module Writer:

Mr. Meles Yohannes (MA in TEFL)

Editor:

Mr. Ashenafi Sahle (MA in TEFL)

Jinka University

December, 2024
How to Use the Module
We have divided this module into four units with an assumption of that breaking the material
down into units makes easy for you to read and understand it. Each unit is indicated by
numbers. We start each unit with a preview which shows the outline of the topics that will be
discussed or addressed in the unit.

Each unit of the module will have unit introduction, body (which will discuss the topic in
detail), unit summary and activity. The unit summaries provide you with the most noticeable
points. The activities are assumed to serve for you as self-check tools. Before you try to do
an activity, you should make sure that you are clear with the points or topics discussed in the
given unit. In addition, to answer the questions or to do the tasks you are needed to use both
your experience as a teacher (or a student) and what you have learned in the unit preceding
the activity you are supposed to do.

Do your best to understand the module. Getting more knowledge from the module requires
you to work hard. Cooperative work can also help you to learn more from the course.

ii
Introduction to the Module

Sophomore English focuses on improving students‟ writing skills which is very fundamental
for academic purpose. It provides students with the language skills, the vocabulary and the
grammar lessons for the development of written language. It also offers specific techniques to
correct different sentence errors and to add structure, coherence and clarity to students‟
exposition, narrative, descriptive and argumentative writing.

The course module includes four units. The first unit deals with Overview in Writing an
Effective Sentences. It discusses definition of definition and parts of a sentences, types of
Sentences and the major errors in sentence construction. The second unit is about paragraph
writing. Paragraph level writing: topic sentence and supporting details, structure, essentials of
a paragraph, characteristics of an effective paragraph, basic types of paragraphs (expository,
narrative, descriptive and argumentative). Besides, it emphasizes on various ways of
developing ideas in a paragraph, such as definitions, exemplification, classification, cause
and effect, as well as comparison and contrast methods. The third unit is about latter writing
and curriculum vitae (CV). It includes the types, the lay out and format of letters and
curriculum vitae. The last unit, unit four dwells on basics of report writing skills which
includes definition of report and types with its components.

Upon completing the course, students will be able to:

Course Objectives

By the end of the course the students should be able to:

 Construct meaningful sentences in English;

 Learn to compose a paragraph that has a clearly stated topic sentence and details;
 Use appropriate coordination and subordination skills to relate ideas;
 Identify and correct common sentence problems
 Write different letters for different purposes, CV/Resume and writing reports.

iii
 Table of contents
Contents Pages
How to Use the Module......................................................................................................................... ii

Introduction to the Module ................................................................................................................. iii

UNIT ONE ............................................................................................................................................. 1

1. WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES ..................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1

Unit Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Definition and parts of a sentence ........................................................................................... 3

1.2 Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences .................................................................................. 4

1.3 Types of Sentences Based on their structure........................................................................... 5

1.3.1 Simple sentence............................................................................................................... 6

1.3.2 Compound Sentence ....................................................................................................... 6

1.4.3 Complex Sentence........................................................................................................... 8

1.4.4 Compound Complex Sentence ........................................................................................ 9

1.5 Types of Sentences Based on their Function ........................................................................ 11

1.5.1 Declarative Sentence ..................................................................................................... 11

1.5.2 Interrogative Sentence................................................................................................... 11

1.5.3 Imperative Sentence ...................................................................................................... 11

1.5.4 Exclamatory Sentence ................................................................................................... 12

1.6 Sentence Combination .......................................................................................................... 13

1.6.1 Coordination ............................................................................................................................ 14

[Link] Coordinating Conjunctions ........................................................................................... 14

[Link] Correlative Conjunctions .............................................................................................. 17

[Link] Adverb Conjunctions .................................................................................................... 22

1.6.2 Subordination .................................................................................................................... 24

1.6.3 Subordinating Conjunctions .......................................................................................... 24

1.6.4 Relative Pronouns ......................................................................................................... 27

1.7 Major Errors in sentence construction .................................................................................. 29

iv
 1.7.1 Clarity ............................................................................................................................... 29

1.7.2 Economy ........................................................................................................................... 43

1.7.3 Emphasis ........................................................................................................................... 46

UNIT TWO .......................................................................................................................................... 50

2. PARAGRAPH WRITING ......................................................................................................... 50

2.1 Definition .............................................................................................................................. 50

2.2 Elements of a Paragraph ....................................................................................................... 51

2.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 52

2.2.2 Body .............................................................................................................................. 52

2.2.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 53

2.3 Types of paragraphs .............................................................................................................. 57

2.3.1 Descriptive paragraph ................................................................................................... 57

2.3.2 Narrative Paragraph ...................................................................................................... 58

2.3.3 Expository paragraph .................................................................................................... 59

2.3.4 Persuasive paragraph..................................................................................................... 59

2.4 Principles of Paragraph Construction ................................................................................... 60

2.4.1 Unity ............................................................................................................................. 60

2.4.2 Coherence ..................................................................................................................... 65

2.4.3 Variety........................................................................................................................... 78

2.5 Paragraph Development Methods ......................................................................................... 80

2.5.1 Definition ...................................................................................................................... 84

2.5.2 Exemplification ............................................................................................................. 85

2.5.3 Comparison and/or Contrast ......................................................................................... 87

2.5.4 Classification................................................................................................................. 97

2.5.5 Cause and Effect ......................................................................................................... 100

UINT THREE.................................................................................................................................... 107

3. LETTER AND CV WRITING .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

3.1 Letter Writing...................................................................................................................... 108

3.1.1 Formal Letter .............................................................................................................. 108

v
 3.1.2 Informal letters /Friendly letter ................................................................................... 111

3.2 Curriculum Vitae ................................................................................................................ 113

UNIT FOUR ...................................................................................................................................... 119

4. REPORT WRITING. ............................................................................................................... 119

4.1 Definition of Report ............................................................................................................ 119

4.2 Types of Reports ................................................................................................................. 120

4.2.1 Project Report ............................................................................................................. 120

4.2.2 Research Report .......................................................................................................... 120

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 124

vi
 UNIT ONE
1. WRITING EFFECTIVE SENTENCES
1.1 Introduction
Dear learners, in this unit, you will learn the definition of a sentence, parts of sentence, types of
sentences, combining sentences through (coordination and subordination), major sentence errors
(sentence fragments, run on sentences, dangling and misplaced modifiers, faulty parallelism) are dealt
with. Sentence agreement, emphasis within a sentence and wordy sentences are also treated. Many
writing exercises are given with every item raised in the unit. Therefore, you are expected to go
through the unit thoroughly and do the exercises either as a home take assignment or a classroom
activity.

Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;

 Define sentence;
 Identify sentence structure;
 Combine sentences through subordination and coordination;
 Identify sentence errors and write error free sentences;
 Demonstrate emphasis in your sentences;
 Improve (edit) wordy sentences;

Activity 1.1 Brain storming questions

1. How can you define the concept of sentence?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. What do you think about the elements of effective sentence?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

A word is a meaningful unit of language sounds. Or it is a meaningful sound or combination of

sounds that is a unit of language or its representation in a text. There are two types of words: function
words (grammatical words), and Content words.

1
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
A. Function Words are words such as the, and, but, in, to, because, while, ought, must, etc.
The main use of function words is to express relationships among other words. Compare the
following:
- I am lonely at dark. - The cook prepared a rich feast.
- I am lonely in the dark. - The cook prepared the rich a feast.
B. Content Words are words having meanings beyond grammar functions

II. Phrase is a group of related words that has no subject or predicate and is used as a single part of
speech.

Example
 I fell on the side walk. (It is a complete thought.)
 on the sidewalk (It is a phrase - not a complete thought)
Phrases are usually classified as prepositional, infinitive, participial, or gerund phrases.
Example
 He is a man of action. (Prepositional phrase)
 I wanted to buy the house. (Infinitive phrase)
 Covered with ice, the road was dangerous. (Participial phrase)
 Making a profit is their only purpose. (Gerund phrase)
III. A Clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. The relation of a clause to the
rest of a sentence is shown by the position of the clause or by a conjunction.

There are two kinds of clauses: (1) main, or independent, clauses and (2) subordinate, or dependent,
clauses.

1. A main clause has both subject and verb, but it is not introduced by a subordinating word.
A main clause makes an independent statement; it could stand alone.
Example: Eagles are beautiful.

You can see that this clause is equal to sentence.

Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction (as, since, because, etc)
or by a relative pronoun (who, which, that). Subordinate clauses function as adjectives, adverbs, or
nouns. They cannot stand alone but must be attached to a main clause. They express ideas that are

2
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
intended to be subordinate to or dependent on the idea expressed in the main clause. The exact
relationship between the two ideas is indicated by the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun
that joins the subordinate and the main clause.

Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.
Eagles are beautiful when they soar high above the cliffs.
Main clause Subordinate clauses

1.1 Definition and parts of a sentence

Sentence is a meaningful group of words with a period, exclamation point, or question mark at the
end. However, no definition of the sentence is likely to help you much in writing one. You learn
sentence structures by speaking, listening, reading and writing, more than by studying types of
sentences.

A sentence has two parts: subject and predicate.

A. The subject of a sentence is what you make a statement or ask a question about. This is usually a
noun, or a pronoun like she, he or who; but on occasion the subject can be something else that
substitutes for a noun, like a clause or a phrase. Even a verb can be a subject. In the following two
sentences, the subjects are marked in bold.

1. The woman in the blue house by the river wrote unusual sentences on the walls.
2. The weather condition of Adama town is very comfortable during summer.
B. The predicate is the verb with its modifiers and complements. The predicate is what the sentence
says about the subject, most often, it is the action that goes on in the sentence. In the following two
sentences the simple predicates are written in bold:

1. The frogman dived 2. The theory was valid

Activity 1.2: construct five sentences of your own and indicate the subjects and the predicates in
each.
1. __________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________

3
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 4. __________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
1.2 Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences
Activity 1.3: try to answer the following questions individually and then compare with your friends

1. What are clauses?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the types of clauses? Can you give examples for each?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

3. What roles do they play in writing effective sentences?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

In order to construct effective and grammatical sentences that give variety to your writing, you need
to know the necessary grammatical structure of sentences. To identify sentence types based on their
structure, it is also important to look at clauses because sentences can be classified based on the
number and kinds of clauses they contain. Hence, this section briefly discusses about clauses that
would help you in identifying the types of sentences based on their grammatical structure.

A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. By learning about clauses, you learn
how to write effective sentences that clearly show the relationship between your ideas.
For analysis, read the following short paragraph and answer the questions that follow.

(a)Because their literature and drama club proposed to raise money for the activities this semester,
the students planned to hold a talent show in the social science college. (b) All the students in the
club are naturally talented, but they don‟t have sufficient performing experiences and qualifications.
(c) Nevertheless, they thoroughly practiced for more than a month, and the show is certain to be
useful and entertaining.
1. What two ideas do sentence (a) present? Why did the students hold a talent show?
2. What two ideas does sentence (b) present? What problem does this sentence express?

4
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
3. What two ideas does sentence (c) present? How the students have solved their problem?

In the given paragraph, you can recognize that each sentence presents two ideas, and each idea is
presented in a different clause. This shows that it is essential to learn how clauses function and how
they can be utilized to make your writing clear.

Types of Clauses

Clauses are primarily of two types: main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate
clause (also called dependent clause). An independent clause has a subject and a predicate and can
stand by itself as a sentence.
Example:
Most of the guests left the party at nine, but we stayed to help clean up. („Most of the guests left
the party at nine.‟ and „We stayed to help clean up.‟ are both independent clauses and they can
stand as independent sentences)

A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand by itself as an independent
clause but has to depend on another clause for the full meaning of the sentence. Dependent clause
usually begins with subordinate conjunction or relative pronoun.

Example: Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 while he was growing some cultures of
common germs. („Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928‟ is an independent clause. „While
he was growing some cultures of common germs.‟ is dependent clause.)

1.3 Types of Sentences Based on their structure

In order to write effective and meaningful sentences, you have to know the required grammatical
structures of sentences. If you are familiar with the patterns of construction on which different types
of sentences are based, you can feel confident of expressing your ideas clearly to others.

You can also vary the sentence types that you use in your essays and reports to avoid monotonous
series of sentence structures. This means, if you consistently vary simple sentences with other, more
complicated sentence structures, you provide your readers with variety and maintain their interests.
This section makes you familiar with the four basic sentence types that may help you achieve this
quality in your writing.

5
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 1.3.1 Simple sentence
A sentence is “Simple” as long as it contains one independent clause remain simple.

For example, “Jote laughed” is a simple sentence. You can add modifiers like “Big Jote laughed
loudly,” or prepositional phrase, “Jote laughed at her”, and the sentence still remains simple. in
Simple sentence either the subject or the predicate can be compounded and the sentence remains
simple. Look the example below:

1. My brother reads magazines. (Simple sentence with a single subject)

2. Abebe and Gutema read fictions. (Simple sentence with compound subjects)
3. Dr. Kemal cleaned the patient‟s teeth and examined them. (Simple sentence with compound
predicate)
4. Almaz and her brother listened carefully but missed the announcement. (Simple sentence with
compound subjects and compound predicate)
5. My father, mother and sister came to the school play, applauded the performers and attended the
party afterward. (Simple sentence with three subjects and three predicates)

Activity 1.4: Construct at least five simple sentences about Jinka University

1. _____________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________

1.3.2 Compound Sentence

Compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses that are joined by
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, nor, or, for or yet. In other words, Compound sentences are
formed by linking simple sentences. When forming compound sentences, a comma is usually placed
before coordinating conjunction. The coordinate conjunctions are called (FANBOYS)

A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast
between two or more equally important pieces of information in your writing.

6
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 Examples
1. I looked for Merry and her sister at the bus station, but they arrived at the station before noon and
left on the bus.

2. Kansa rang the bell door several times, but no one answered.

3. She took dance classes, but she had no natural grace or sense of rhythm, so she eventually gave
up the idea of becoming a dancer.

4. The sun was setting over the mountains, and the shadows were growing long.
A compound sentence has also independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs such as therefore,
otherwise, nevertheless or semicolon.

Examples:

1. Nuclear accidents can happen; therefore, nuclear power plants should have strict safety control.
2. Always go to other peoples‟ funerals; otherwise, they won‟t go to yours.
3. Sustainable development would require industry to reduce pollution output and resource use; as a
result, technical innovation will be stimulated.

Activity 1.5: Read the following compound sentences and tell how they are different from simple
sentences.

1. All soil samples have been taken, and they have been dried in the lab to remove any remaining
water.
2. I live in small town but I can gate every social facility.
3. Tufa was supposed to collect the data and complete the report on Tuesday, but the data were
unavailable until Thursday.

Activity 1.6: Construct five similar sentences on your own and try to get feedback from your
friends.

1. ______________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________________

7
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
5. ______________________________________________________________________________

1.4.3 Complex Sentence

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. A
complex sentence often has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a
relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. Complex sentence provides further variety and allows
you to emphasize the relationship of ideas to others in the same sentence. Complex sentences make a
precise relationship among ideas.

Clauses introduced by such relative pronouns as that, which, or who (sometimes called relative clauses are
usually subordinate to a main clause; they depend on it and help to from the complex sentence.

Examples:

A. Because of the diversified climatic condition of the country, Ethiopia hosts many important
varieties of plants.

This sentence is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent clause and one
dependent clause. „Because of the diversified climatic condition of the country,‟ is dependent or
subordinate clause. „Ethiopia hosts many important varieties of plants.‟ Independent or main
clause

B. The story that was told us by a little boy and that seemed almost unbelievable turned out to be
true on enquiry.
This is a complex sentence which is constituted from one independent clause and two dependent
clauses.
The story turned out to be true‟ is independent or the main clause. „That was told us by a little boy‟
is dependent or subordinate. It is an adjective clause qualifying the noun „story‟ in the main clause.
„That seemed almost unbelievable’ is also dependent or subordinate. It is an adjective clause
qualifying the noun „story‟ in the main clause. It is coordinate to the subordinate clause „that was told
us by a little boy.

Activity 1.7: Read the following Sentences carefully and tell how they are different from simple or
compound sentences.

8
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
1. The construction industry is growing fast although there is shortage of construction materials.

2. I was playing chase when my friend arrived with his leg bleeding.

3. The walls which were plastered with dirt had an unpleasant smell.

Activity 1.8: Write complex sentences by completing following half sentence.

1. When I arrived at Jinka University for the first time, _________________________

2. Many freshman students study hard although________________________________
3. Before I came to Jinka University_________________________________________
4. __________________________________ as long as I study hard.
5. While I was reading in the library___________________________________________

Activity 1.9: Construct five similar sentences about what you saw or did since you arrived in Jinka
University

1. ______________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________________

1.4.4 Compound Complex Sentence

A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses. Look the example below:

A. An Ocean current contain a great deal of energy, and they will produce electricity once we
learn to harness them.

This is a compound complex sentence because it is constructed from two independent clauses and one
dependent clause.
An Ocean current contain a great deal of energy. (Independent clause)
They will produce electricity. (Independent or main clause)
Once we learn to harness them. (Dependent or subordinate clause)

9
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
B. Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, he chooses to use chopsticks in Chinese
restaurants; however, they aren't easy to use.
This is also a compound complex sentence because it is constructed from two independent clauses
and one dependent clause.

He chooses to use chopsticks in Chinese restaurants (Independent or main clause)

They aren't easy to use. (Independent or main clause) Even though my friend prefers to eat with a
fork (Dependent or subordinate clause)

Activity 1.10: Identify the main and the subordinate clauses in the following sentences and tell
whether they are compound complex or not.

1. The police strike lasted a week, but no robberies occurred in that time.

2. Stamp collecting is fascinating bobby that may also be profitable.

3. Doctors are studying the diet that aggravates cancer and they hope to discover some link between
diet and cancer.

4. We submitted our calculations, and we included several drawings even though both types of
information were not required.

5. Even though the data were unavailable until Thursday, Stan collated what he had, and he submitted
the report on Tuesday.

Activity 1.12: Construct compound-complex sentences by using the following sentence starters.

1. Dormitory life is good but ___________________because _____________________________

2. Jinka University which________________________________ will be a model comprehensive
university yet_____________________________
3. In order to be successful in university education, one ________________, but
___________________
4. I like reading my own books in the library; however, __________________
because_____________________________________________

Activity 1.11: Construct five compound complex sentences of your own as homework.

1. ______________________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________________

10
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
3. ______________________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________________________

1.5 Types of Sentences Based on their Function

In the preceding section you have seen how sentences are classified according to the number and
kinds of the clauses they contain. In addition to thinking about their clause structures, it is also very
useful to know the function sentences perform. Broadly speaking, it is possible to classify sentences
as fitting into one of the four categories: declarative, interrogative, imperatives and exclamation.

1.5.1 Declarative Sentence

A declarative sentence is used to make a statement. It always ends with a period. A declarative
sentence is a sentence that state information and facts.
Examples:
a. The lab samples will be ready on Wednesday.
b. The western style of education has gained popularity all over the world.
c. The calf and its mother lifted their heads and bellowed.

1.5.2 Interrogative Sentence

Interrogative sentences are the sentences that are used to ask questions. They are easy to
distinguish as they contain a question mark at the end.
Examples:
a. What is the primary purpose of a research?
b. When do you finish writing your assignment?
c. Are you happy?
d. Did she give you the message?

1.5.3 Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction, or
instruction. If the command or the request is mild, the sentence ends with period. If the command or
the request is strong the sentence ends with the exclamation mark. An imperative sentence issues

11
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
commands; they can express wishes or desires. These sentences can be even made up of a single
word. Stop! Get out!

Examples:
a. Stop right there!
b. Submit the revised specifications of your plan by Friday.
c. Please turn out the lights.

d. After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and fluffy.

Notice that imperative sentences begin with a verb. The subject „you‟ is implied. Notice too that
imperative sentences are used when describing steps in a set of instructions.
1.5.4 Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feeling. It often begins with the modifier „what
exclamatory sentences are used to express emotions or excitement. An exclamatory sentence always
ends with exclamation mark.
Examples:
a. It‟s a surprise!
b. I won!‟ or „how‟.
c. What a wonderful day!
d. How beautiful is it!
e. Here comes the parade!
Notice that scientific and technical writers should avoid this type of sentence for the most part
because it violates a preference for dispassionate logic.

Task 1
Label each of the following sentences as Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, or Exclamatory.
Put the correct punctuation mark at the end of each sentence.
1. Aren‟t you sorry that you didn‟t go for a field trip
2. What a miserable day for a recreation
3. Slowly and cautiously, the rabbit emerged from its hiding place
4. How happy you look

12
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
5. The Magna Charta was signed in 1215, and it is considered the most important document in the
history of England
6. Return all the books that you have borrowed from the library, please
Exercise

Read the following sentences and identify whether each of them is simple, compound, complex, or
compound-complex. Then write the answer on the space provided.
________1. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a nasty Sun burn.
_______2. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet.
________3. Those students who live in the area often find the local college boring, but students from
out of the area seem to like it.
________4. After a lengthy and noisy debate, they decided to take separate vacations
_____5. Ronaldiniho dribbled past two defenders and made a good shot, but the goalkeeper easily
saved.
_______6.A gentle man of wealth and position has been found guilty of theft
_________7.The life which seems so fair is like a bubble blown in the air.
________8.There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it bad
________9.Those who seek faultless friends remain friendless.
________10.Reading a novel after work is a pleasant way of spending leisure
_______ [Link] you really want me to help you wash your floors, please give me a week‟s notice for I
am busy this month.
________12. The people of Bahir Dar are throwing garbage anywhere in the city; consequently, the
air is polluted.
__________13. My brother who used to give me money whenever I want has been fired out of his
work, and I am in a financial problem now.
1.6 Sentence Combination
Activity 1.13: Discuss the following questions either in pairs or in small groups.
1. How do you combine sentences?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________

13
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 2. What do you need to combine sentences?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________
1.6.1 Coordination
1.6.2 Subordination
1.6.1 Coordination
Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by using coordinators. In
coordination, the status of the sentences is not reduced when they are combined. In other words, when
they are combined, they still remain independent clauses. The linking devices (coordinators) we use
in coordination are:
[Link] Coordinating Conjunctions
[Link] Correlative Conjunctions
[Link] Adverb Conjunctions
[Link] Coordinating Conjunctions

PATTERN DISCOVERY

Instructions: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts, then answer the questions below.

What patterns can you discover?

Don't do anything to the sentences, but do answer the questions below about these sentences.

 Harriet earned an A in the class, for she studied carefully.

 We went to the movies, and we ate popcorn.
 He did not study for the exam, nor did he pass.
 Collecting glass figurines is a delightful hobby, but it can be expensive.
 Fred wanted to go skiing, or he wanted to go snowboarding.
 He knew the cost, yet he did it anyway.
 He knew it would not cost him, so he did it.
1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the sentence?)
2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location differ from sentence to sentence?
3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from sentence to sentence? 14
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
A coordinating conjunction is a word that joins grammatically equivalent structures. You can join a
pair or series of nouns, verbs, or independent clauses. Each element of the pair or series must have the
same grammatical structure. This section will cover coordinating conjunctions that join independent
clauses. To indicate to the reader that two ideas are equally important, we use one of the coordinating
conjunctions to join two independent clauses. Seven common coordinating conjunctions and their
meanings are listed below. Each of the coordinating conjunctions has a different meaning, so the
student should make sure that he/she uses the appropriate one.

The most commonly used coordinating conjunctions which are used in writing are the following.

For - a more formal word for because, this shows a result- cause relationship between two
independent clauses. It shows logical consequence; it has the same meaning as because,
the reason why
And - shows equality between the two ideas. It shows addition; it has the same meaning as in
addition, along with
Nor - shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an addition of a negative point
( Note: you must reverse the normal subject- verb positions in the second clause when
using nor).
But - shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It has the same meaning as however,
except, on the other hand
Or - shows alternatives or choices
Yet - shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a stronger but)
So - shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same meaning as therefore, as a result. X
happened, so Y happened.
Note: When you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join complete sentences, use a comma
before the coordinators.
Example:
 Azeb studied hard, so she scored a good grade.
 You must be early, or you will miss the bus.
 The driver couldn‟t control the speed of the car, for he was totally drunk.

15
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
  The patient didn‟t his dinner, nor did he eat his lunch.
 Haile is running very fast; he seems to win the race.
 She studied hard, but she failed the examination.
 Yesterday, I saw movie, and I visited my friends.

Activity 1.14: Look at the following pairs of sentences and how they are coordinated.
1. a) The rich countries donate money every year. The poor countries continue in the same
condition.
b) The rich countries donate money every year, but the poor countries continue in the same
condition.
2. a) The Chinese worked hard. The Chinese dominated the world market.
b) The Chinese worked hard so they dominated the world market.
Activity 1.15: In the space provided, write an appropriate coordinating conjunction. Be sure to
punctuate properly.

Example: Employees should be pleasant to customers, so they should do whatever is needed to help.
1. Everyone wants a tax cut, __________ no one wants to give up any government services.
2. The runner admitted taking steroids, __________ he was forced to give up his medals.
3. You must read the paper every day, _______ you don‟t know what is going on in the world.
4. Members of the churches met for dinner, ________ they held an interfaith service.
5. Employers do not want the theft, ______do they want the expense and bad publicity of having
an employee arrested.
6. You should return the paper on time, __________ you will lose a letter grade for lateness.
Activity 1.16: Combine the following pairs of sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.

1A. The dog ate the food very fast

B. It was very hungry
________________________________________________________________________
2.A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian Idols.
B. The judges didn‟t allow him to pass to the next stage.
________________________________________________________________________
3.A. She didn‟t bring her exercise book.

16
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 B. She didn‟t bring her pen.
___________________________________________________________________
4.A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. He harvested a lot of crops.

________________________________________________________________________
[Link] Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words, phrases, and
sentences. The most common correlative pairs are:

Correlative conjunctions Meaning

Either……..or one of the two
Neither ……nor none of the two
Both………and Both
Whether…….or Dilemma
Not only…..but also Both

Look at the following examples on how c correlative conjunctions are used‟

Either/or
Either go to bed early this evening or stop complaining about being tired in class.

Both words make up the correlative conjunction. Alone EITHER is an indefinite pronoun and OR is a
coordinating conjunction.

Neither/nor

Neither the contestant nor his sponsor was willing to attend the lecture.

Both words make up the correlative conjunction. Alone NEITHER is an adjective and NOR is
a coordinating conjunction.

Not Only/but also

The newspaper reported that not only the hurricane but also the ensuing floods caused
millions of dollars worth of damage.

Whether/or

17
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 Does anyone know whether the president or the vice president was responsible for providing the
announcement to the press?

Remember that when either and neither are used without or and/or nor they act as adjectives or
pronouns.

Either movie seems to be a good choice. (adjective)

Either seems like a good choice to me. (pronoun)
Neither book was good. (adjective)
Neither was good. (pronoun)
What are correlative conjunctions?

In general, a conjunction is a word that is used to link, or put together, other words. Conjunctions can
link words, phrases, and clauses.

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that are used to link words together. The most important
thing to remember when using correlative conjunctions is that the words, phrases, or clauses that are
put together must be the same type. That means that nouns must be put together with other nouns,
verbs with other verbs, adjectives with other adjectives, and so on. This point will be more fully
explained following the list of frequently used correlative conjunctions.

The followings are again more examples of how correlative conjunctions are used. See how they are
used properly and how they are used improperly:

A. Properly
Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "both ... and." This correlative conjunction links
together two words of the same type. In this case, the types of words are the nouns, sister and
brother.

For dessert, you may have either cake or ice cream.

The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "either ... or." This conjunction also links two nouns,
cake and ice cream.

She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.

The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "neither ... nor." This conjunction links two nouns.

18
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
He did not know whether to exit the freeway at Orange Avenue or to exit the freeway at Cherry
Avenue.
The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "whether ... or." This conjunction links two phrases.
The ESL teachers are not only intelligent but also friendly.

The correlative conjunction in this sentence is "not only ... but also." This conjunction links two
phrases.

B. Improperly:

The student is not only friendly but also a baker.

This is not correct because friendly is an adjective and baker is a noun. A correlative conjunction
must link similar types of words.

The athlete did not know whether to run or walking in order to warm up.

This is not correct because, even though both are verbs, "to run" is the infinitive form and "walking"
is the present participle. A correlative conjunction must link similar types of words.

We will see more examples of such faulty sentences when we discuss about parallelism which is
one sub-quality of an effective sentence.

Short Summary of Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions consist of two parts, both of which must be included in the sentence. Some
common correlative conjunctions are both. . . and, either. . . or, neither. . . nor, not only. . . but, and
whether. . . or. Like coordinating conjunctions, these conjunctions may link words, phrases, or
clauses. The units being joined by a correlative conjunction must be parallel in grammatical structure
and importance.

Look again at the following examples before we move on to exercises.

I wondered whether to make the telephone call or to see her in person.

The registrar is either working at his desk or visiting the dean.
Not only my sisters but also my cousins are invited to the party.
Both my sisters and my cousins are invited to the party.
Neither my sisters nor my cousins are invited to the party.

19
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
Exercise 1.
Choose the correct correlative conjunction to complete the following blank spaces.
1. When they found the man who had been lost for four days, he was _____ tired ______ hungry
A. not only .... but also B. either ... or C. neither ... nor D. as ... as
2. He is neither my uncle ___ my cousin
A. and B. or C. but D. nor
3. Your wife isn't as pretty _____ my wife.
A. not B. as C. but only D. nor
4. The student didn't know _________ to enroll in a history class or an art class
A. as B. whether C. neither D. both
5. I have worked for _____ Long Beach City College and California State University, Long Beach.
A. either B. neither C. both D. not only
6. The computers in the MMC are ________ educational but also fun.
A. not only B. both C. as D. either
7. For lunch, you may have ___________ chicken or fish
A. both B. neither C. not only D. either
8. She didn't know ________ to have fish or chicken for lunch
A. both B. whether C. neither D. as
9. ________ Sam nor his brother can swim.
A. both B. not only C. neither D. either
10. ______ Maria and Hong can swim.
2.1 as B. neither C. either D. both
Exercise 2
Fill in the blanks in the following sentences by using the appropriate correlative conjunction.
1. ……… ….Roger………Carlos knows how to speak Russian.
2. …………my uncle………..my cousin live in San Diego.
3. You will………..have to take biology…………geology next semester.
4. I don't know………..I want to take biology…………geology.
5. Maybe I should take ………..biology…………geology.
6. I don't like science classes. I want to take………..biology………geology.
7. My sister is going to………..England…………Ireland this summer.

20
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 8. My brother cannot take a vacation. He is going to………..England……..Ireland.
9. My cousin would like to take a vacation as well. She cannot decide……….to go to Las Vegas
……..the Grand Canyon.
10. If she has enough time, she will go to……Las Vegas…..the Grand Canyon.
11. She will spend less money if she goes to the Grand Canyon. The Grand Canyon is
not………expensive……….Las Vegas.
12. This is the last question. You are now finished with............this quiz …..this lesson.
A BRIEF EXPLANATION OF CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses. There are three types of conjunctions:
coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating
conjunctions may join single words, or they may join groups of words, but they must always join
similar elements: e.g. subject + subject, verb phrase + verb phrase, sentence + sentence. When a
coordinating conjunction is used to join elements, the element becomes a compound element.
Correlative conjunctions also connect sentence elements of the same kind: however, unlike
coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. Subordinating
conjunctions, the largest class of conjunctions, connect subordinate clauses to a main clause. These
conjunctions are adverbs used as conjunctions.

Exercise 3

Combine the following pairs of sentences by using correlative conjunctions

[Link] go to Gondar, You can use a bus.

B. To go to Gondar, you can use a plane.
_________________________________________________________________________
2. A. Azeb is beautiful
B. She is honest.
_________________________________________________________________________
3. (I am in confusion)
A. I want to go to class.
B.I want to go to my appointment.
________________________________________________________________________‟

21
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 [Link] Adverb Conjunctions
Adverb Conjunction is an adverb used to relate and connect main clauses in a sentence. Common
conjunctive adverbs are:
also still consequently however indeed
hence then furthermore moreover likewise
thus instead nevertheless therefore otherwise

Example
- I ordered the concert tickets by mail; therefore, I didn‟t have to stand in line.
- Our muscles were tired and sore; nevertheless, we kept on jogging.

Conjunctive adverbs, unlike coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, are the only ones that can be
moved from the beginning of a clause to another position in the clause without changing the clause‟s
meaning. In other words, they occupy different positions within the main clause in which they stand.

Example
- The band struck up a familiar tune; indeed, they were playing our song.
- The band struck up a familiar tune; they were, indeed, playing our song.
Note:
Most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi colon and followed by a comma. There are some
exceptions, however. Adverb conjunctions like still and also are, for example, not preceded by a
semicolon.
Example
● Sorry I‟m late. My alarm didn‟t go off. Also, I had trouble starting the car.
● He has treated you badly: still, he is your brother.
Some other adverb conjunctions like otherwise and then are preceded by a semi colon but not
followed by a comma.
Example
● John must be sick; otherwise, he would be here.
● She made coffee; then she cooked breakfast.
To maintain the desired relationship between independent clauses, see the following chart to know the
meaning of coordinating and adverb conjunctions.

22
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
Meaning coordinating conjunction adverb conjunction
Addition ,and ; furthermore,
; moreover,
Contrast ,but ; however,
,yet ; nevertheless,
Alternative ,or ; instead,
,nor [negative] ; otherwise,
Result ,so ; therefore,
; consequently,
; thus,
Exercise 1
In the space provided, use the appropriate conjunctive adverbs. Be sure to punctuate it properly.
However therefore consequently especially in addition
1. Sunshine Construction Company is building a plant in Nazareth.________________.it is planning
to build another in Bahir Dar with in three years.
2. Most of our customers like our new products...................................Tana Wholesale Trade
Corporation has shown a great interest in three of our products.
3. A computer manufacturing plant is opening in Cairo......................... there will be one hundred new
jobs available in September.
4. Bahir Dar is growing fast …………………...Debremarkos is slowly growing town.
5. Everyone liked the hotel ……………………no one was able to pay the required price.
6. Ato Bekele must be in Addis Abeba on June13…………………he cannot attend
1. the monthly status meeting here on that day.
Exercise 2
Combine the following pairs of sentences by using the appropriate conjunctive adverb.
1.A. He won the lottery.
B. His father gave him a lot of money.
_______________________________________________________________________
2.A. He worked hard.
B. He became rich.
______________________________________________________________________

23
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
3. A. Abebe‟s parents are wealthy.
B. They are not happy.
____________________________________________________________________
4. A. We need Ato Bekele at the next monthly meeting.
B. We have changed the date of the meeting.
____________________________________________________________________
5. A. Bahir Dar is growing fast.
B. Debremarkos is growing slowly.
____________________________________________________________________
1.6.2 Subordination
Coordination is the joining of an independent clause and a dependent clause in the same sentence by
using subordinators. In subordination, the status of one of the sentences to be combined is reduced in
to a subordinate (dependent) one. As you might recall from the above discussion, in coordination the
status of the sentences to be combined is not reduced; they remain independent. The linking devices
we use in subordination are: Subordinating Conjunctions and Relative Pronouns

1.6.3 Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunction is a kind of conjunction that joins subordinate clauses with independent
clauses. Here the subordinate clauses cannot stand alone; they must be joined to an independent clause
to be grammatically correct. They tell when, where, why, how, and to what extent. When a writer
wants to emphasize the idea in one clause over the other, the most important idea is contained within
the independent clause, and lesser ideas are written in the dependent clauses. More often we use a
subordinating conjunction to show a difference in importance and strength of ideas.
Example
Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
Because the train was late, I arrived late to work.
Subordinate clause Independent clause
PATTERN DISCOVERY
Instructions: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts, then answer the questions
below.
 Even though polar bears look like land animals, they are extremely adept in the water.

24
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
  Pups also love the snow because they like to slide down inclines.
 They love to roll around in the snow if a good snowstorm hits.
 If they can punch through the ice sheet, polar bears love swimming most.
 Rachel was reading fiction while her brother was listening music.
1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the sentence?)
2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location differ from sentence to sentence?
3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from sentence to sentence?

Notice

With the addition of because at the beginning of an independent clause, the independent clause
becomes a dependent clause. Similarly, when other subordinating conjunctions are added at the
beginning of independent clause, the independent clause becomes a dependent clause.
Meaning Subordinating Conjunction
cause because, since, as
contrast/concession although, as though, even though, though, even if, whereas,
while,
condition even if, if, as if, as long as, provided that, unless, provided
result that, so that, in order that
time after, until, as soon as, before, since, when, while, once,
whenever, after
place where, wherever
comparison as, than, as…..as

25
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
EXERCISE

INSTRUCTION: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate subordinating
conjunctions. Rewrite the sentences in the spaces provided, revising the sentences as necessary.
if before
while because
although in order that
7. I took the rapid - reading course
I could not read textbooks quickly enough to keep up with my daily assignments.
____________________________________________________________________
8. George had to walk five miles to get help.
His car broke down on a deserted stretch of country road.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
9. Julia was working all day as a school teacher.
Her little daughter was playing with other young children in a day - care center.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
10. Utopian Socialism was an early school of modern thought in Europe. Utopian Socialism has
few followers today.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
11. Lions spend most of their time sleeping and resting. Most people picture lions constantly
stalking prey.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
12. The expert spoke to the farmers slowly and simply. Every farmer could understand what he
was saying.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
13. Melina reaches home quickly. She will tell her father about the accident.
____________________________________________________________________

26
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 1.6.4 Relative Pronouns
Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative pronouns are used to join subordinate clauses
with independent sentences. They also introduce relative clauses.
Example
-The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor.
(The italicized part is a subordinate clause.)
What makes the subordinate clause in relative clauses different from the other type of subordinate
clauses is, the subordinate clause in a relative clause is an adjective clause.

In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are dependent clauses that modify a noun or a
pronoun in the main clause, usually begin with relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, or
that.

PATTERN DISCOVERY
INSTRUCTION: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts, then answer the
questions below.
 The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in the harbor.
 The Crescent Moon, which was Mr. Mitchell's boat, was brand new.
 Mr. Mitchell, who was a stockbroker, liked the status a boat afforded.
 His guests, whom Mr. Mitchell chose with little care, partied on the boat to all hours.
 One guest, whose criminal record was unknown to Mr. Mitchell, stole the boat, then sank
it when the police got too close.
1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the sentence? Why is it
there?)
2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location differ from sentence to sentence?
3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this differ from sentence to sentence?
4. What are the words that begin each italicized portion?

Note:
In relative clauses:
• The adjective clauses answer the question Which one? Or What kind of?
• Adjective clauses are always placed after the noun or the pronoun they modify.

27
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 • The relative pronoun that introduces an adjective clause can function as a subject, as an
object, or as a possessive marker.

Relative Pronoun Use

who, which Subjective case

whom, which Objective case

Whose Possessive case
Note: The relative pronoun “that” can be used in place of who, which or whom, but not in place
of whose.
Restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses
Adjective clauses may be restrictive (also called essential) or non-restrictive (non-essential).
- A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to make the meaning of the sentence complete. For
example, in the sentence „the movie that I saw yesterday won a Grammy Award, the information in
the adjective clause that I saw yesterday is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Without it, it
is difficult to the reader to identify which special movie the writer is discussing about.

- A non-restrictive adjective clause merely adds information to a sentence the full meaning of
which is already clear.
Example
New York, which is America‟s populous city, is one of the world's leading commercial, financial,
and cultural centers.

Note: You can see in this example that the noun „New York‟ is defined by itself. So, the relative
clause does not define it. In other words, it is non-defining or non-restrictive. A non-restrictive
adjective clause is separated from the main clause by commas.
EXERCISE

INSTRUCTION: Join the following sentences using the most appropriate relative pronouns.
Rewrite the sentences in the space provided, revising the sentences as necessary.
who whom which whose
[Link] woman has been arrested. Her child was accused of theft.
________________________________________________________________
[Link] police were looking for the thief. The thief has been caught.

28
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 _____________________________________________________________
3. Professor Wong came in 1960 to study chemistry at Yale University.
_____________________________________________________________
4. He was born in San Francisco's Chinatown in 1943.
_______________________________________________________________
5. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship. Roberto is a talented portrait artist.
________________________________________________________________
6. The medicine is very expensive. Helen needs the medicine.
________________________________________________________________
7. Rahel went abroad. Daniel wanted to marry Rahel
_________________________________________________________________
8. The man called a police. His car was stolen.
_________________________________________________________________

1.7 Major Errors in sentence construction

 What are the main errors that you commit in writing sentences?
 Can you list the major problems you face in writing sentences?
Characteristics Of Effective Sentences
 Clarity
 Economy
 Emphasis
1.7.1 Clarity
The first requirement of a good sentence is clarity. Most failures in clarity come from three
sources:
 from errors
 from vague diction
 from over involved sentence structure
[Link] Errors which affect clarity of a sentence

1. Confused Pronoun Reference

A pronoun depends for its meaning up on its antecedent, the noun or other pronoun to which it
refers. If the antecedents of the pronouns in your writing are not clear, your writing will not be
clear.

29
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
To avoid faulty reference of pronouns each pronoun should refer to a single antecedent. Pronouns
can, of course, refer to compound antecedents in such sentences as:
Daniel and Abel both believed they had performed well.
(Here, the pronoun they refer to Daniel and Abel.)
However, if a pronoun can refer to either of two possible antecedents, it will be ambiguous, and
readers will not know which antecedent intended.
Example
AMBIGUOUS Arthur went with John to the airport, where he took a plane to Phoenix.
[Who took the plane to Phoenix, Arthur or John?]
CLEAR After going to the airport with John, Arthur took the plane to Phoenix.
After Arthur went to the airport with him, John took the plane to Phoenix.
2. Omission of unnecessary word
A sentence will be confusing if the writer omits words needed for clarity and accuracy. Sometimes,
of course, writers omit words through haste or carelessness. This sort of omission can be caught
with careful proof reading.
Right I admire her more than Solomon does.
Meaning I admire her more than I admire Solomon. (This was the meaning what the writer
wanted to convey)
ERROR I admire her more than Solomon ( ).
[Because of the omission of the word does in the above example, it could be
ambiguous, i. e, it is not clear if the writer wants to mean more than Solomon
admires her? Or more than the writer admires Solomon?]
Here what we have seen was how omission of a word can affect the clarity of a sentence. Not
only the omission of a word but also omission of an apostrophe can affect the clarity of a
sentence.
Right A lawyer‟s income is greater than a doctor’s.
MEANING A lawyer‟s income is greater than that of a doctor. OR
A lawyer has a greater income than a doctor has.
ERROR A lawyer‟s income is greater than a doctor ( ).

30
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 [Because of the omission of the apostrophe - ‘s in the above example the comparison is illogical
since it compares or seems to compare two things (income to a doctor) that cannot be sensibly
compared. But actually, logic requires the comparison of income to income or of lawyer to doctor.]
See how omission of an article can affect clarity of a sentence.
In writing, the student should not allow even careless omissions of an article. In the following
example, we will look how the writer‟s omission of an article altered the meaning of the sentence.

Right: She has a black and a white dress.

MEANING (two dresses, different colors) (This was the meaning what the writer wanted
to convey)
ERROR She has a black and ( ) white dress.
MEANING (one dress, two colors)
Note: A word or apostrophe or on article often get left out, particularly from hasty writing, because
the mind works foster than the pen or even the type writer; such omissions can make your work
illiterate or can even result in serious misreading. Never let a piece of writing leaves your hands
without a careful word- by- word proof reading.

3. Dangling modifiers

PATTERN DISCOVERY
Instructions: Examine these sentences especially the italicized parts, then answer the questions below.
 Going to Egypt, Daniel visited the ancient pyramids.
 Driving through the mountains, Edward saw three rabbits.
 Rushing to the class, she dropped the books all over the stairs.
 Talking on the phone, she felt the earpiece pinched her ear.
 Excited by her Uncle Ned’s visit, Hanna invited her uncle.
 Looking through the door’s peephole, I couldn‟t see who rang the doorbell..
1. What is the function of the italicized part? (What is it doing in the sentence? Why is it there?)
2. Where is the italicized portion located? Does the location change?
3. How is the italicized portion punctuated? Does this change?
4. Look at the subject of the independent clause. Compare that to the implied subject of the italicized
portion. How are they related?

31
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
Verbal phrase
Verbal phrase are phrases that start with a verbal. Verbal come in three forms: Participles,
Gerunds, and Infinitives. We will focus, however, on the verbal phrase (participles) that is needed
for this topic.

Participles function as noun modifiers. They have three forms: present, past, and perfect.
- The present participle ends in –dancing, waiting).
- The past participle usually ends in –ed (danced, waited).
- The perfect participle is formed by the past participle preceded by having (having danced,
having waited).
A participial phrase contains a participle and any complements and modifiers it may have. The
entire phrase functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun:
- Coming in for a landing, the plane skidded off the way.
- Built in the 1700s, the church was a historic place.
- Having finished the cake, James started on the cookies.

When we come to a dangling modifier, it occurs when the implied subject of a verbal phrase is not
the same as the subject of the independent clause. Who or what is doing the action in the verbal
phrase must be named as the subject in the independent clause. When these two subjects are not
the same, you have created a dangling modifier. It is obvious that a modifier must have something
to modify, but a dangling modifier has nothing to modify because the word it logically should
modify is not present in its sentence. A modifier that opens a sentence must be followed
immediately by the word it is meant to describe. Otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling,
and the sentence takes on an unintended meaning.

For example:
Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Driving through the mountains is a participial phrase that can modify anything capable of driving.
The sentence says that the bears are driving, but common sense tells us bears can‟t drive. Although
the writer surely meant that the bears were seen by some person who was driving, the sentence
contains no words directly identifying such a person.

There are two ways to correct / revise a dangling modifier:

32
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 1. Change the subject of the main clause or state an appropriate subject for the main clause so
that the stated subject goes with the implied subject of the modifying phrase.

Error Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.

Revised Driving through the mountains, he/she saw three bears.
2. Change the dangling phrase into a subordinate clause by adding a subordinating
conjunction (while, as, after…) and a subject.
Error Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Revised While Edward was driving through the mountains, he saw three bears.
EXERCISE

INSTRUCTION: The following sentences have problems. Revise them as necessary. You may
have to change a word or two to make the sentence meaningful. Rewrite the sentence on the line
provided.
Example: Brushing the street, I saw the street sweeper go by.
Brushing the street, the street sweeper went by me
1. Blowing at 100 miles per hour, the roof was ripped off.
_________________________________________________________
2. Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, the razor nicked Edward's chin.
__________________________________________________________
3. Reading the newspaper, my dog sat with me on the front steps.
__________________________________________________________
4. Pitching his tent, a snake bit Tony on the ankle.
________________________________________________________________
5. Munching leaves from a tall tree, the children were fascinated by the giraffe.
_________________________________________________________________
6. Chopping the onions, the knife cut her finger.
________________________________________________________________
6. Turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.
__________________________________________________________________
9. Knowing the answer, my hand was raised.
_______________________________________________________________
10. Walking in the rain , my shoes got wet.

33
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 _____________________________________________________________
11. Tired after work, a nap was what I wanted.
_______________________________________________________________

4. Misplaced modifiers
Modern English relies heavily upon word order to show relationships among words for word order
is crucial to meaning in English. Just as word order is the principal way to keep subject–verb–
object relations clear, so it is the principal way to keep many modifiers attached to the words they
modify. Phrases and clauses that modify nouns require special care, since they normally attach to
the nearest noun preceding them.

Misplaced modifiers are words that, because of awkward placement, do not describe what the
writer intended them to describe. Misplaced modifiers often confuse the meaning of a sentence. To
avoid them, place words as close as possible to what they describe.

Example:
Error: Frozen shrimp lay in the steel pans that were melting rapidly.
(The italicized clause is a misplaced modifier.)
Revised: Frozen shrimp that were melting rapidly lay in the steel pans.
Error: Katherine performed the role with a dark attitude.
(The italicized phrase is a misplaced modifier.)
Revised: Katherine with a dark attitude performed the role.
Activity 1.20: Underline the misplaced word or words in the following sentences. Rewrite the
sentences and place the misplaced modifiers next to the words they describe.

1. Mr. Yassir Arafat was born in Jerusalem who was the first president of Palestine.
________________________________________________________________
2. The sweater was torn which I bought from Tana Supermarket.
________________________________________________________________
3. The man is a company manager who invited us to dinner.
_______________________________________________________________
4. The girl is my sweetheart with a long hair.
________________________________________________________________
5. The woman is a medical doctor in a green coat.
________________________________________________________________
6. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter the most famous man at the Dogali.

34
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 ________________________________________________________________
7. The bank robber pointed his gun at the teller in the ski mask.
_______________________________________________________________

5. Errors in Punctuation
• Fragment
• Run-on
PATTERN DISCOVERY
Activity 1.21: Examine these sentences, especially the italicized parts, then answer the questions
below.
 Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
 This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci.
 Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
 Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
 As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
 The dog ran fast it jumped over the barrel.
 Caffeine is a stimulant it gives some people the courage.
 Hanna got the highest grade she is my best friend.
 He is the person the person gave me the letter.
1. What is the problem with each italicized part in the first five sentences?
2. What is the problem in the remaining four sentences? There are two errors.
a. __________________________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________________________
3. How should each be corrected?
a. The error in the first five sentences can be corrected:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________
b. The error in the remaining four sentences can be corrected:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

35
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________
A. Fragments
A fragment is a piece of a sentence punctuated as if a complete, independent clause. Fragments can
create misunderstanding and distract your readers. A fragment is usually either a phrase or a
dependent clause. For Example,
The first five sentences in the Pattern Discovery box on pp. 24 are fragments, i. e,
- sentence one shows an adverb clause as a fragment.
- sentence two shows an adjective clause as a fragment
- sentence three shows a noun phrase appositive as a fragment
- sentence four shows a verbal phrase as a fragment
- sentence five shows an adverb clause as a fragment
Most of the time, the problems occur when the writer added a thought which is not complete. But
the most common fragments are caused when the writer punctuates as a sentence one of four
different constructions that cannot stand alone. These constructions are: adverb clause, adjective
clause, verbal phrase, and adverb phrase.

Most of the time, fragments are continuations of a sentence before. Sometimes, however, it seems
they attached well with the next sentence, so the student needs to read the sentences and decide
which sentence the fragment belongs to.

To correct fragments, for example in the Pattern Discovery box above (pp. 24) (in all cases
except two and three) simply change the incorrect punctuation to a comma, and the capital letters
in the middle of the sentence also need to change to lower case letters.

See how the fragments are corrected.

 Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
Even though the pizza was hot, he ate it quickly.
 Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
Traveling through six cities in one week, they lost their luggage.
 As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
As a result of this event, he had learned this lesson.
 This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci.

36
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 This was the painting that was portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci.
(Here, the comma is not necessary)
 Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
(Here, the fragment is placed in a wrong place.)
Alula, the most famous man at the Dogali, was a former Ethiopian fighter.
B. Run-ons
The term run-on sentence labels an error with several different names, the most common being
fused sentence and comma splice.

Fused sentence refers to the error of two independent clauses put together without any separating
punctuation or linking device between them.
Example
(The last four sentences in the Pattern Discovery box on pp. 24 are fused sentences)
 The witness was unwilling to testify, he was afraid of the accused man.
 I avoided deserts I was trying to loose weight.

Comma Splice refers to the error of two independent clauses punctuated as one sentence. Placing
a comma in between two main clauses without a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor,
so, yet) results in the comma fault or comma splice.

Example
 The witness was unwilling to testify, he was afraid of the accused man.
 I avoided deserts, I was trying to loose weight.
Fused sentence and comma splice can be corrected in one of the following ways:
- Connect the main clauses with a coordinating conjunction and a comma.
- Replace the comma with a semicolon.
- Make a separate sentence of each main clause.
- Change one of the main clauses to a separate clause.
Example 1

Revised 1 The witness was unwilling to testify, for he was afraid of the accused man.
Revised 2 The witness was unwilling to testify; he was afraid of the accused man.
Revised 3 The witness was unwilling to testify. He was afraid of the accused man.

37
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 Revised 4 Because the witness was afraid of the accused man, he was unwilling to testify.
Example 2
Revised 1 I avoided deserts, for I was trying to loose weight.
Revised 2 I avoided deserts; I was trying to loose weight.
Revised 3 I avoided deserts. I was trying to loose weight.
Revised 4 Because I was trying to loose weight, I avoided deserts

6. Faulty Parallelism
The other error which affects the clarity of our sentences is faulty parallelism. But before we directly
proceed to faulty parallelism let‟s see what a parallelism is.

Parallelism is a basic principle of effective writing. Sentences that have coordinated clause phrases or
words are considered as having parallel structures (parallelism) when matching ideas are expressed in
similar ways. Parallelism is useful for constructing effective sentences, for combining successive
sentences to achieve economy and clarity, and for maintaining coherence throughout an entire
paragraph. When you coordinate two or more elements in a sentence, the writer is expected to state
them parallel, that is, to state them in the same grammatical form. Noun should be matched with noun,
verb with verb, phrase with phrase, and clause with clause. On the other hand, lack of parallelism can
throw a reader off and produce ineffective sentences.

FAULTY: This product is sturdy, light and costs very little.

PARALLEL: This product is sturdy, light and inexpensive.
FAULTY: Ms. Kramer told us to check the value of the property and that our insurance
should be increased
PARALLEL: Ms Kramer told us that we should check the value of the property and
that we should increase our insurance.
OR Ms. Kramer told us to check the value of the property and to increase our insurance.
Parallel elements after a pair of correlative conjunctions
Parallelism works not only for pairs of words but also for pairs of conjunctions. Whenever it is not
awkward, have the correlative conjunctions taken parallel positions within a sentence; where ever
possible, and use parallel elements after both parts of conjunctions used in pairs. For example, If not
only is followed by a noun, but also should be followed by a noun;

38
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
If either is followed by a modifier or by a verb or by a whole clause, or should be followed by a
modifier or by a verb or by a whole clause. Elements so joined should be of equal weight.
FAULTY: The man gave not only money, but also advised me.
(Not only is followed by a noun; but also is followed by a verb)
PARALLEL: The man gave me not only money, but also advice.
(The terms on both sides of the coordinating conjunctions match.)The man not only
gave me money but also advised me.

FAULTY: Our president not only visiting the casualties but also arranges immediate aid.
PARALLEL: Our president not only visits the casualties but also arranges immediate aid.
Activity 1.21: Revise the following sentences, rewording as necessary to express coordinate ideas
in parallel grammatical form.
1. My job includes checking the inventory, initialing the orders, and to call the suppliers.
________________________________________________________________
2. Lola likes to ride her moped, to do needlepoint, and playing games on her personal
Computer.
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
3. Chocolate makes me gain weight, lose my appetite, and breaking out in hives.
________________________________________________________________
4. Adam convinced most of the audience because he argued logically, calmly, and was
reasonable.
________________________________________________________________
5. Curling over grown vines, porch furniture that was rotted, and sagging steps were my first
impressions of the neglected house.
_______________________________________________________________
6. The jewel thief saw the diamonds on display and for the next morning planning the
robbery.
________________________________________________________________
7. He is either visiting the buildings or work in his office.
________________________________________________________________
8. I like baking and to eat them.

39
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 ________________________________________________________________
9. England, the USSR, and Americans were allies in WWII.
________________________________________________________________
10. The doctor advises plenty of green vegetables, relaxing sensibly, and to sleep eight hours
daily.
________________________________________________________________
11. The insurance policy neither covers fire nor theft.
________________________________________________________________
12. 12. Ellen has neither the dedication nor does she have the management experience for
that job
________________________________________________________________
13. Either Halima will fly to Addis or drive there.
________________________________________________________________
Vague Diction
diction – choice of words
vague - something which is not clear or ambiguous
One of the errors which affect the clarity of a sentence is vague diction. Vagueness is one of the
major weaknesses in diction. Words are vague when, in context, they do not convey to a reader
one specific meaning. We may have a word with several meanings. And any word that has more
than one meaning is bound to cause trouble.

Consider this sentence:

Example:
I could tell by the funny look on her face that she was mad.
If you take the word mad
very angry: affected by great displeasure or anger
She‟ll go mad when she finds out.
mentally ill: affected with a psychiatric disorder
exciting: very exciting or boisterous
passionate about something: very fond of, enthusiastic about, or interested in something, often to
the exclusion of everything else
I‟m not mad about the color.

40
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 mad
markedly aggressive: unusually aggressive or ferocious (refers to animals; offensive in some
contexts)
Words like “funny” and “mad” can have quite specific meanings, but not in this context. What
does “mad” mean here? Certainly not “insane”, which it might mean in another sentence. “angry”,
then, or “annoyed”, “irritated”, “offended”? A reader cannot be sure. But the writer can remove
any doubt by using more specific diction:

I could tell by the way her face stiffened that she was offended.
In order to make our messages clear, when we choose words, we should deserve special caution,
i.e., the words we choose should be which give one clear interpretation; they should be free from
vagueness.

The other major weakness in diction is jargon. Jargon is a language that is used by a particular
group, profession, or culture, especially when the words and phrases are not understood or used by
other people. The chief characteristic of jargon is: highly abstract diction, often technical, with a
fondness for “learned” rather than popular words.

A word in one profession may give a different meaning in the other profession.
Medical jargon Common Use
patient patient
stool stool
examination room examination room
patient (common) (ordinary use) - capable of waiting, able to tolerate difficult circumstances
patient (medicine) (jargon)- somebody who is being given medical treatment stool (common)
(ordinary use) - a simple seat with three or four legs and no back or arm rests stool( medicine)
(jargon)- a piece of excrement stool(botany) (jargon)- the base of a plant, a clump of shoots or
suckers examination room(common) (ordinary use) – a place where students are evaluated with
paper and pencil. examination room (medicine) (jargon)- a place where a patient is investigated for
a disease.
Note:
During diction - Know your audience.
- Don‟t use jargons in ordinary writing.

41
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 - Use common words which give one clear interpretation for all peoples.
Over involved sentence structure:
The other failure in clarity comes from over-involved sentence structure. The following example
deals with the lack of clarity that comes from trying to handle too many ideas in one sentence.

Last month while I was visiting the federal buildings in Washington

on a guided tour, we went to the National Art Gallery, where we had been for an hour
when the rest of the group was ready to move on to the Treasury Building and I told
a friend with the group that I wanted to stay in the Art Gallery a while longer and I
would rejoin the group about half an hour later, but I never did, even though I moved
more quickly than I wanted to from room to room, not having seen after about four
hours all that there was to see.

As written, this sentence of 106 words consists of three main clauses and eight subordinate clauses.
This involved structure is hard going for both writer and reader. The revision should seek to
simplify the structure by reducing the number of clauses per sentence. This can be done by either
or both of two methods; by distributing the clauses into two or more sentences, or by omitting
material not necessary to the statement. The second method depends on the writer‟s view of what
is necessary. There are several ways of revising the sentence. Let us consider two:

While I was visiting the National Art Gallery with a tour group last month, I decided to
stay longer when the group left after an hour, and so I told a friend that I would rejoin
the group at the Treasury Building in about half an hour. I moved from room to room
much more quickly than I wanted to, but after four hours I still had not seen all there was
to see. I never did rejoin the tour group that day.

This revision distributes the entire original into three sentences and makes the passage easier to
read. In addition, the revision saves twenty-three words, a reduction of 20 per cent.

The following revision cuts the original drastically by leaving out material not considered
significant.
While visiting the National Art Gallery with a tour group last month, I stayed for four
hours after the group left. Even then I did not see all I wanted to

42
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
This version reduces the original eleven clauses to four and condenses the 106-word sentence to
thirty-one words in two sentences.

1.7.2 Economy

The other requirement to achieve an effective sentence is economy. Economy is a relation between
the number of words used and the amount of meaning they convey. A sentence is not economical
because it is short or wordy because it is long. The focus is not the number of words but the
amount of information they convey. Consider the following two statements.

WORDY: I should like to make it entirely clear to one and all that neither nor any of my
associates or fellow-workers had anything at all to do in any way, shape, or form with this illicit
and legally unjustifiable act that has been committed.

IMPROVED: I want to make it clear to everyone that neither I nor any of my associates
had anything to do with this illegal act.

The first version takes forty-six words to say what is more clearly said at the second version in
twenty-four. The extra words do not add any significant information; they merely make reading
more difficult and annoy the reader by useless repetition of the same idea in different words.

Wordiness

The other failure in the achievement of effective sentence is wordiness. Wordiness is using a large
number of unnecessary words. A wordy writer uses more words than are necessary to convey his
meaning. The weight of unnecessary words also tends to obscure meaning.

WORDY: He attacks the practice of making a profitable business out of college athletics from
the stand point that it has detrimental and harmful influence on the college students
and, to a certain degree and extent, on the colleges and universities themselves.

IMPROVED: He attacks commercialization of college athletics harmful to the students, and

even to the university themselves.

43
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 The common methods to achieve economy:
Good writing says things in as few words as possible without losing clarity or completeness. It
makes every word count. Then, you can often make your writing more direct and economical.
Here we are considering wordiness within a sentence.

The two most common methods are:

 Cutting out unnecessary words within a body of a sentence
 Substituting more economical expressions for wordy ones
1. Cutting out unnecessary words within the body of a sentence
Examples:
* As we walked in the direction of home, I felt as if I had never been happier.
- As we walked home, I felt I had never been happier.
* The task of every English teacher is to help develop in their students the ability to
understand and communicate in their native language.
- The task of every English teacher is to help students to communicate in their native language.
 The truth of the matter is, to call a spade a spade, that he is afraid of her.
 The truth is that he is afraid of her.

2. Substituting more economical expressions for wordy ones

A good style involves avoiding unnecessarily long words when simple words can give
an equally clear meaning. It means avoiding the complex structure when a simple one is available,
and it also means avoiding unnecessary words or repetitions.

Consider the following examples:

WORDY: We find the situation that exists at the moment intolerable.
IMPROVED: We find the present situation intolerable.
WORDY: I think the time has come for us to be leaving.
IWMPROVED: It is time to leave.
WORDY: The idea of communication has led the vanguard of the “New English”.
The emphasis now placed on the teaching of linguistics ties into the
importance implied in teaching children to communicate effectively.
IMPROVED: The modern trend is to emphasize the teaching of linguistics as an aid to
effective communication.

44
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
A. Preferring one exact word to two or more approximate words because many groups of words
are simply roundabout ways of expressing what a single exact word expresses more directly.

Wordy Direct
This day and age today
Of an indefinite nature indefinite
At this point in time now
By means of by
Call up on the telephone telephone
Destroy by fire bum
Was made recipient was given
Wordy: She described her deeds and doings as a foreign correspondent.
Revised: She described her adventure as a foreign correspondent.
B. Avoiding Redundancy:
Expressions such as visible to the eyes and audible to the ears are said to be
redundant; they say the same thing twice.
Redundant Direct
Advance forward Advance
Continue on Continue

Refer back Refer

Combine together Combine
Circle around circle
Small in size small
Disappear from view disappear
Throughout the whole throughout
Basic fundamentals fundamentals
Important essentials essentials
Wordy: We planned to go at 3 o'clock p.m. in the afternoon.
Revised: We planned to go at 3 p.m.
Wordy: In their opinion they think they are right.
Revised: They think they are right.

45
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 1.7.3 Emphasis
The other requirement to achieve an effective sentence is emphasis. Emphasis is a reflection of
purpose. There are usually several ways of expressing any idea, and if one way gives greater
emphasis than others to what a writer wants to stress, that is the best way. Here we shall discuss
three ways of obtaining purposeful emphasis.

1. Emphatic word order

2. Emphatic repetitions
3. Emphatic voice
1. Emphatic Word Order
The way word order is used to obtain emphasis in a sentence depends on two considerations:
• What words does the writer wish to emphasize?
• What positions with in a sentence provide the most emphasis?
In an English sentence, both the beginning and the end are emphatic positions. The most important
material is put in these positions, and less important material is placed in the middle. Notice the
difference between the following statements.

 On July 31, 1973, a plane crash which killed eighty-eight people and which was the first fatal
crash for Delta Airlines in 95 million passenger miles occurred at Boston's Logan International
Airport.

 Eighty-eight people were killed in a plane crash at Boston's Logan International Airport on
July 31, 1973, the first fatal crash for Delta Airlines in 95 million passenger miles.
The first version puts the date and place in the most emphatic positions in the sentence, the
beginning and the end, and the number killed and Delta‟s impressive safety record in the least
emphatic position.

The second version puts the most significant information, that is, the number killed and Delta's
impressive safety record in the beginning and in the end (where it will get the greater emphasis),
and fills in the middle with the place and date.

2. Emphatic Repetition
Key words and ideas can be repeated for emphasis for the fact that intentional repetition can
produce a desired emphasis. Careless and awkward repetition of words makes sentences weak and

46
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
flabby, but careful, deliberate repetition of key words, when not overdone, can be an effective way
of gaining emphasis, as in the following sentence.

A moderately honest man with a moderately faithful wife, moderate drinkers both, in a
moderately healthy home: that is the true middle-class unit.

3. Emphatic Voice
Verbs in the active voice create more emphasis than verbs in the passive voice. The active voice
puts the subject (the actor) first, following it with the active verb, and then the object (the receiver
of the action).
Eg. The cat killed the rat.
The passive voice turns things around, putting the receiver in front, then the verb, and finally the
actor.
Eg. The rat was killed by the cat.
Of the two, the active is almost always more direct, more forceful and emphatic, and also more
economical. Therefore, if your goal is to emphasize the actor and the action itself, the active voice
is the better choice. If you want to emphasize the receiver or result of the action, downplaying the
action and its initiator, the passive voice is usually preferable.

Active: The firefighter saved the terrified child.

Passive: The terrified child was saved by the firefighter.
The first example sentence focuses our attention on the rescue; the second focuses on the object of
the rescue, the child. Bear in mind that, as its name implies, a sentence in the passive voice will
always be less forceful than in the active voice, and longer as well. If your goal is economy and
directness, choose active voice verbs. That is why students are urged to use verbs in the active
rather than the passive voice. This advice is generally sound because the active voice is usually
more natural and the so called “weak passive” often leads to wordiness and awkward shifts in
structure.
But there are situations in which the passive voice is more emphatic than the active. The beginning
of a sentence is, as we have seen, a position of stress, and putting an unimportant word or phrase
there tends to emphasize it - sometimes unwisely.
For example:
-The mail man delivers mail twice a day

47
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 -A person cannot smoke in this section of the plane.
-People should expect some delay in these circumstances.
- Someone stole her car from the parking lot.
In these sentences the stress should not fall on the grammatical subjects, which are of almost no
interest to the thoughts conveyed. Passive constructions, ignoring these subjects entirely, give
more accurate emphasis.

 Mail is delivered twice a day.

 Smoking is prohibited in this section of the plane.
 In these circumstances some delay is to be expected
 Her car was stolen from the parking lot.

1. Complete the sentences below with the words in the box.

all it person place reason thing what

1 _______________________ was my mum who suggested skiing.

2 The ___________________ we chose was a resort in the Alps.
3 ______________________ we needed to do was buy a permit.
4 _____________________ happened was that the snow melted.
5 The _________________ who complained most was my dad.
6 The __________________ that annoyed him was that we couldn‟t get a refund.

2. Change the structure of the sentences to make them emphatic. Include the words in
brackets.
1 I went home early because I felt ill. (reason)
____________________________________________________.
2 My cousin Matt first got me interested in sailing. (person)
___________________________________________________.
3 I only ate half a cheese sandwich. (all)
_____________________________________________________.
4 A few people in the crowd started singing. (happened)
__________________________________________________.

48
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
5 The ancient Greeks first brought boxing to Europe. (it)
__________________________________________.
6 I love going for walks by the sea. (place)
___________________________________________.
7 Honesty matters most in a relationship. (thing)
___________________________________________.

3. Rewrite the sentences in a more emphatic way.

1 I‟m not going to lend you my bike.
No way __________________________________________.
2 I‟d hardly arrived at school when the fire alarm rang.
Hardly ____________________________________________.
3 I only understood the next day why she‟d been to upset.
Only the next day ____________________________________.
4 Nobody could sleep because the hotel was so noisy.
So noisy ___________________________________________.
5 As soon as I‟d found my phone, it rang.
No sooner ___________________________________________.
6 I‟ll never spend £400 on a camera again.
Never ______________________________________________.
7 I definitely wouldn‟t go to that hotel again.
Under no circumstances _________________________________.
8 Not many films have generated so much publicity.
Rarely _______________________________________________.

49
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 UNIT TWO
2. PARAGRAPH WRITING

Objectives of the unit:

Up on completion of this unit, students will be able to:

 Identify the key features of a paragraph;

 Recognize the parts of a paragraph;
 Identify qualities of an effective paragraph and produce paragraphs with these qualities;
 Select topics, create topic sentences and details of a paragraph;
 Write coherent and complete paragraphs;
 Edit their own and others paragraph;

2.1 Definition

Different writers give their own definitions to the term paragraph. The followings are some of
these.

Paragraph is defined as a group of related sentences expressing and developing a basic idea, or a
series of related sentences so arranged as to explicate a single topic, dominant idea or particular
phase of thought. In essence, a paragraph is an expanded sentence, a unit of thought; and a good
test of the thought unit is that except for a descriptive or a narrative paragraph, it may be cast more
or less in to a single sentence summing up the content of the entire paragraph.

Morris H. Needleman (1968)

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea, which is expressed in the topic
sentence, usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a summary sentence,
informing the reader of a paragraph‟s topic, of main idea. All other sentences in the paragraph
most help, show, prove, or explain that topic sentence.
Katherine Ploeger (2000)

A paragraph is usually defined as a group of sentences that deal with the sane subject or topic.
One of these sentences of some kind about the topic. This statement is called the topic sentence.

50
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
The other sentences in the paragraph give additional information about the idea stated in the topic
sentence. These other sentences are called supporting sentences. Once a writer can recognize both
types of sentences, it will be easier for him/her to use them to build paragraphs.

Edwin Ezor, and Lewis (1984)

A paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one major idea. It usually
begins with an indentation, and its length varies according to the complexity of the main idea to be
developed. A typical paragraph quite often has about one hundred words and seven to ten
sentences in which every point in the paragraph having a useful role to play in fulfilling the
purpose of the paragraph.

Solomon G/ Giorgis (1991)

We can understand from these definitions that the difference between them is simply that of
wording. What are central in the definitions are:
 A paragraph is a group of sentences
 All these sentences together talk about (develop) one idea.
One of these sentences is broad and carries the main idea of the paragraph. A paragraph is a group
of sentences which are arranged in a logical order to provide appropriate details or information on
a single topic. In other words, a paragraph contains sentences which have interrelated meaning and
which develop a single issue or topic. It is a basic building block for any prose or it can be a
complete work in itself. A paragraph helps to subdivide and present longer information in
segments or chunks. It also helps to group related details for readers benefit because a paragraph
treats only one idea at a time. There is no clear-cut decision on how long a paragraph should be.
However, it is usually advisable not to extend a paragraph to more than eight to ten lines or one
hundred twenty words.

2.2 Elements of a Paragraph

A paragraph, despite its length, should include the following parts:
 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion

51
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 2.2.1 Introduction
The introductory sentence is an opening sentence in a paragraph. This sentence identifies the
topic for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the topic. This sentence leaves the
reader with the feeling that more information will follow. The reader expects that there will be
some description or explanation within the paragraph that tells how many, which one, what kind
of, when, where, how, why, etc. But what these always happen is when the introductory sentence
is a topic sentence.

Note that the introductory sentence in a formal paragraph is usually a topic sentence.
Example:
Suppose you want to write a paragraph about Police Work. The introductory part (topic sentence)
of your paragraph might look like:
Police officers perform many important services.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________ .

Notice that this sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence by itself
does not talk enough about: What are these services? Why are they important? Who performs
them? When and where are they performed? And so on. But you should know that though this
sentence doesn't answer such questions, it introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later
in the paragraph.

2.2.2 Body
The body section of a paragraph is the part of the paragraph which provides details that refer back
to the introductory sentence. The job of providing the specific information that answers questions
about the introductory (topic) sentence is carried out by the other sentences in the paragraph.
These other sentences are usually called "supporting sentences". The information they give is
commonly called "details" or "supporting details".

Supporting sentences can supply information about the topic in a number of ways. They may
answer the question what kind of? by defining or explaining something in the topic sentence, or

52
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
by offering examples or a description of it. They may answer the question why? by giving
reasons that will help the reader to understand or agree with the idea suggested by the topic
sentence. In answering some other questions, they may describe the causes or origins of the topic
sentence, draw a conclusion from it, predict new events or ideas, or compare certain ideas with
other ideas. They may also accomplish several of these purposes at the same time.

Let's refer to our example about police work to review more thoroughly how supporting sentences
can add information. Notice how the writer has added some details after the opening (topic)
sentence:
Police officers perform many important services. They may be involved in solving
crimes. They may find themselves helping lost children. Often police officers are also
called upon to calm frightened people or to assist someone who has been wronged.
They may give aid to motorists whose cars have broken down or who have been in
accidents.
The details the writer has added explain How? or In what ways? police officers can perform
important services. A writer needs to be sure that most of the details that are included in the
material refer directly back to the topic sentence. Other details may be indirectly related; that is,
they may describe one of the directly related details.

If we go back to our sample paragraph on police work, for example, "helping children" is a
directly related detail because it answers the question How? about police work. The word "lost"
describes children, however, rather than police work, and is therefore an indirectly related detail.
The details in this paragraph all refer back to the topic either directly or indirectly. Therefore, it is
clear, as you read the entire paragraph, exactly what the topic is.

2.2.3 Conclusion
The concluding sentence draws the paragraph to a close, and reflects the ideas, expressed in the
topic sentence. In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the
paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. Here is a sample paragraph
in which the concluding sentence summarizes the information presented by the supporting
sentences.

53
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has
an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable
price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well–trained
teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada‟s cites are clean
and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As
a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

Note:
1. The concluding (clincher) sentence restates the main idea, rather than merely repeating it, in
terms of the nature of the development of the paragraph.

2. Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is very
short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding sentence.

3. A concluding sentence may not be the last sentence of a paragraph, as the writer may want to
end within a sentence that leads to the point of the next paragraph.

Topic Sentence
Each paragraph has a clear topic sentence. The topic sentence alerts readers to the essence of the
paragraph by stating the central idea and by expressing the writer‟s attitude toward it.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It tells the reader what
to expect about the information that will follow. Without the use of a topic sentence, developing a
paragraph can be difficult.

Positions of Topic Sentences

As it has been said earlier, a topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea claims or controls the
rest of the paragraph; the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the
topic sentence‟s main idea or claim.

Topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for
example, after a transition sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph. In other words,
topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph.
Position(s) of topic sentence(s) in a paragraph can be:

54
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
  the beginning of the paragraph
 the middle of the paragraph
 the end of the paragraph
 the beginning and the end of the paragraph
Here are some examples of a topic sentence in different positions of a paragraph (in bold
print):
1. There were a variety of reasons why people said they went to football games. Some of the
fans said they went to games because they felt it would help their team to win the series. Others
considered going to football games more exciting than watching them on TV. A few felt that
purchasing tickets to football games would ensure the financial success of the game and, thus,
its continuance. And a very small number explained that going to football games was strictly a
social occasion.

2. Homework is one of those necessary evils of being a student. The one sure way that a teacher
knows how to measure your progress in his/her course is to assign homework that tests your
knowledge of the information that is taught. Some instructors, however, seem to use
homework as a way of reassuring themselves that they have “taught” the information to the
students. Many students, aware of these ideas about homework, tend to treat homework as a
chore, putting little or no thought into the work that is turned in. However, like any designated
task, homework is a reflection not only on you as a student, but also on you as an individual.

4. In Arab countries, where women do not have equal rights, men commonly cut in front of
women at ticket window. In Britain and the United States, where “first come, first served” is
almost an obsession, many businesses have customers take numbers to ensure that “first come‟
is really “first served.” By contrast, in southern Europe, where people don‟t like businesses
regulating their behavior, lines are disorderly, with lots of pushing and shoving for the best
position; the strongest or most aggressive win. Anthropologists who study line-forming
behavior have concluded that the way people wait in line reflects cultural values about
fairness.

5. The wonder of omelets is that so many things can be put into them. Take cheese, for
example. All sorts of cheese, like Swiss or provolone, feta or mozzarella, slide deliciously into
the omelet's fold, enhancing the texture of the eggs. And vegetables, from the predictable

55
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 onions and green peppers to the less common spinach and kohlrabi, add vital flavor. Still more
lavish, for those who are not vegetarians, is the addition of a meat, possibly pepperoni or bacon
or ham. But the omelet's most exotic components might be the fruits that give it tang: raisins
and avocados. Maybe someday an enterprising chef will figure out how to mix liquor and
candy with eggs to produce vodka – and – fudge omelets.

NOTE

Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all paragraphs need a topic
sentence. For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail the steps in an experiment do
not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are useful, however, in paragraphs that analyze
and argue. Topic sentences are particularly useful for writers who have difficulty developing
focused, unified paragraphs (i.e., writers who tend to sprawl). Topic sentences help these writers
develop a main idea or claim for their paragraphs, and, perhaps most importantly, they help these
writers stay focused and keep paragraphs manageable.

Summary
 Topic sentence expresses the main idea of a paragraph
 A topic sentence usually states a definite opinion or attitude.
 A topic sentence provides the reader with a clear understanding of what a paragraph is
about.
 A topic sentence gives direction to a paragraph that both the writer and reader can follow.
 A topic sentence often begins a paragraph or is found near the beginning of a paragraph.
 Other sentences within a paragraph relate to the topic sentence
 The final " wrap - up " sentence in a paragraph often reinforces the topic sentence
Exercise
Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph: the sentence that expresses the paragraph's main
idea. [Remember: The topic sentence may not always be the first sentence in the paragraph.]

1. The weather in March was unpredictable. One day there was heavy ground fog, and the next
day was clear. It rained for a few days and cleared up and then it rained again. One day the
temperature ranged from 45 degrees to 75 degrees, and the next day the temperature stayed

56
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 around 55 degrees all day long. It was difficult to plan activities or know what to wear with
such un- predictable weather.
2. Your sweaters are quite colorful. I like the bright red one you wear to football games. I also
like the purple turtleneck sweater you wear every Friday. My favorite is the red, white, and
blue striped one you wear on holidays. But the wildest one has to be the fluorescent orange
pullover with the pink and black polka dots. I couldn't believe that you wore it to church last
Sunday.
3. Freddie is very shy. At parties he sits in a corner by himself all night. When he is in a crowd,
you would never notice him. When you talk to him, he looks at the ground and stammers out
one-word replies. He never speaks in class, and I've never seen him talk to a girl. He is a nice
person but few people ever get to know him.
4. The sky is a clear blue. Sparrows chirp in the early mornings. The fruit trees in the backyard
are beginning to bloom. The hills are turning green, and purple and yellow wildflowers are
appearing in the fields. The snow on top of Camel Mountain has all melted. It must finally be
spring.
5. The sidewalks in our neighborhood are filthy. The melting snow has left a muddy film on the
concrete. Garbage is piled up because of the collectors' strike. Packs of dogs have left their
waste everywhere. Old newspapers carpet the sidewalks, and neighborhood drunks have left
their bottles piled against the buildings. You can't walk anywhere without stepping on
something.

2.3 Types of paragraphs

2.3.1 Descriptive paragraph
Descriptive writing portrays person, place, or things with enough vivid details to help the reader create a
mental picture of what is being written about. Its purpose is to enable the reader to share the writer‟s
sensory experience of the subjects. In such writing, the writer relies on an adjective to explain how
something, feels, looks, tastes, smells, or sounds in his/ her sense organs.

Samples of descriptive paragraph

I am forty years old, rather tall and I have blue eyes and short black hair. I wear causal clothes when I
teach students in a relaxed atmosphere. I enjoy my job because I get to meet and helps so many different
people from all over the world. During my spare times, I like to playing tennis, which play at least three

57
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
times a week. I also love on listening to classical music and I must admit that I spend a lot of money on
buying new CDs! I live in a pretty seaside town on the Italian coast. I enjoy eating great Italian food and
laughing with likeable people who live here.

Common adjectives we used in descriptive paragraph.

Age Body Build Height Face Hair Distinguishing personality
Features feature
young - thin plump Mediu long - round - long short -beard - shy - reserved -
elderly fat muscular m baby - thin - curly waist mustache -scar moody - sociable
middle huge heavily tall full lips - thin long on -square jaw - alert - intelligent
aged - built skinny short lips - bonny - shoulder -beauty spot - - good looking -
teenager frail slim dwarf wrinkled - long -plait - dimples - friendly/cheerful -
- in early bonny tallish frowning nose dark - wrinkles -side overt - hidden -
- late slender over rather - straight - flat smooth - burns -clean confident - untidy
30‟s - weight broad tall - short - kinky -bald shaved -a scar - bad tempered -
aging shoulder rather broken - -thinning - Female - cheerful -
short Chinese - receding attractive - generous -
flaring nostrils color fair pretty - reliable -
- turned up brown beautiful – conceited -
eyes black going homely friendly
grey
2.3.2 Narrative Paragraph
Narration is the first and the most easily recognized model of discourse. Narration is the way in which the
author wants to tell the occurrence of an incident in a chronological order. The writer gives emphasis for
his/her writing, why because his/her purpose is to relate an event either it is real or imaginary in the way
of chronological sequence of the event.

Note:
 Narrative paragraph talks about one main incident or happening
 The author brings the incidents to life so the reader shares the experience
 Here you can describe a scene or introduce a topic sentence and character
 It also contains the closing of the event.

At this, there are a signal words and phrases of the paragraph in the event. These are: when, at the
same time, during the morning, that night, after, while after, next, around, finally etc.

58
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 Sample of narrative paragraph

Yesterday evening, I got home from school 4 o‟clock. My mother had dinner prepared which we
ate as soon as Dad came home from work. After eating, I helped my mother clean the tables and do
the dishes. After we got the kitchen cleaned, I had to sit to do my homework. Mother always
says, no television until your homework is done. Finally got my math finished, so I went into the
family room and traveled on the television. I was watching American idol, when the phone rang. It
was my best friend, Mary. I talked to her for a while then it was a time for bed. I put on pajamas
and turned on my favorite CD. Finally, I started to get sleepy around 9:30. The next thing I knew,
mother was calling me to get ready for school.

2.3.3 Expository paragraph

Expository writing is the most common mode of discourse. As this type you will encounter in your
colleague writing. It is essentially factual writing with a straight forward purpose. The main purpose of
expository writing is:

 To inform something for the reader

 To clarify for something for the reader
 To instruct for the reader
 To define something for the reader
By giving this information for the reader to get the appropriate information

Sample of expository

During the past five years, the number of people killed annually in car accidents has climbed to more
than 5500. This needless slaughter on streets to three and high ways can be?

2.3.4 Persuasive paragraph

This type of writing sometimes called argumentation, though technically there is a different type of
argumentation.

Persuasion is an attempt to change the idea and intentions of another person‟s feelings or opinion by
giving an effective means. In another word, the persuasive mode reflects the writer‟s attempt to convince
the reader that a particular idea or opinion worth holding to win the reader over to a certain point of view
to get the reader to change his/ her mind.

59
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
Sample paragraph of argumentative

Some people consider abortion as natural and urge the government to give it legal base. They claim that
abortion helps as a means of controlling population growth. However, in my opinion, abortion should not
be legal for many reasons. First of all, it is against the word of God to deliberately kill human being.
Secondly, abortion can facilitate the spread of HIV/AIDS and other diseases because if abortion is legal
youngsters are encouraged to make unsafe sex for they are sure that they can get rid of any possible
unwanted pregnancies. It is also against the right of human being to deny the baby the right to live.
Abortion can also create some psychological and moral crisis on those females who commit it. Therefore,
governments should not give abortion any legal support.

2.4 Principles of Paragraph Construction

2.4.1 Unity
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops one main point or idea. One important feature of an
effective paragraph is unity: all sentences within the paragraph are related to the main point. Here is
an example of a unified paragraph. The first sentence expresses the main point of the paragraph and
the rest of the sentences relate to the main point.

[Link] Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her
complexion is flawless, and she has a lovely big smile. Her long, black hair is
full and shiny. She is tall and slender, and her every movement is graceful. She
also dresses stylishly, and her assortment of passant skirts and loose- fitting
blouses look great on her.

The main point of the paragraph (how attractive the woman is) is supported by a number of
specific details: beautiful eyes, flawless skin, a lovely smile, beautiful hair graceful movements,
and stylish dress. Notice that there is even more specific detail to describe some of these features;
large, dark eyes, full, shiny black hair, and passant skirts and loose- fitting blouses.

Identifying irrelevant sentences

Each of the following paragraphs breaks the rule of unity because it contains one or more
sentences that do not directly support the topic sentences.

Step1. Locate and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph

60
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 Step 2. Find the sentence(s) that do not support the topic sentence and cross them out.
Paragraph 1

Tourism is the state of Hawaii‟s leading industry. Every, year some 3.2 million tourists visit the
islands. During the popular winter months, a planeload or shipload of tourist arrives every fifteen
minutes. New hotels, new resorts, and new restaurants are being built every year to accommodate
the increasing numbers of visitors. Sugar cane and pin apples are also important industries in
Hawaii.

Paragraph 2

The convenience and economy of small cars account for their popularity. They are easy to park
quickly and take smaller parking spaces. Small cars are also a means of conserving energy
because they use less gas than big cars. Small cars are inconvenient and uncomfortable on long
trips, however, because of their limited passenger and trunk space. They are also more economical
to operate and maintain, and they cost less. Because of all these advantages, the next car I buy is
going to be an econo-Midgate.

61
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
Exercise 1: Circle the letter of one sentence in each group that is not clearly related to the topic
for that group of sentences.

1. Topic: I am sick of eating 'Ambasha'

a. I've been eating 'Ambasha' twice a day all semesters.
b. It is starting to taste like dog food
c. I love Injera very much.
d. I'm getting fat from eating 'Ambasha'.
e. I get a stomachache just thinking about eating another „Ambasha'
2. Topic: There are many ways to study for a test.
a. You can review a few hours the night before the test.
b. You can study an hour a night the week of the test
c. You can study with friends and help each other
d. You can get up early the morning of the test and study
e. You can improve your grades by attending class regularly
3. Topic: Bahir Dar is a pleasant place to live
a. There are three movie theaters in town.
b. The people are friendly.
c. There is very little crime.
d. There is a bad smell coming from the town dump.
e. There are many places to shop for clothes.
4. Topic: The baby isn't hungry this morning.
a. She keeps spitting out her food.
b. She keeps playing with her food.
c. She turns her head when I try to feed her
d. Her stomach looks stuffed.
e. She loves rice pudding for lunch.
5. Topic: Registration this semester was confusing.
a. Many of the classes I wanted were closed.
b. I had to go to six different buildings to register.
c. I couldn't find the teachers whose signatures I needed.
d. I had to fill out three different applications
e. The computer for registration worked very well.

62
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
Exercise 2
Each of the following paragraphs contains one sentence that is not clearly related to the
topic for that paragraph. Cross out the unrelated sentence so that the paragraph
becomes unified.

1. We had a short spring this year. The weather was cold through March and into April due
to storms moving down from Canada. There was still snow on the mountains in late April
hugely. It is usually gone by the end of March. We had only two nice weeks in May with
the temperatures in the low 70s. The winter was unusually mild, however ... But by Mid-
May temperatures were in the 90s, and it was hot from then on.
2. The dormitory rooms were unusually large. They were sixteen - foot - high ceilings added
to the feeling of spaciousness, as did the light - colored walls and the mirrored closet
doors. There was space in the rooms for two double beds, dressers, a console television,
and a sofa and chair. The cupboard space was small and cramped. They looked twice the
size of your average dormitory rooms.
3. My brother is driving me crazy. First, he borrows my razor and doesn't put it back. Then
he'll sneak into the kitchen and eat the pancakes I've cooked for myself. He helps me with
my homework, which I appreciate. Then he borrows my car and returns it with the gas
tank empty. Finally, he borrows money from me and never pays it back. I‟ll be glad when
he moves out of the house.

Exercise 3
Each of the following paragraph topics is followed by two sentences that relate to the topic.
Add two more sentences of your own that are also related to the topic, and hence, would
make a unified paragraph
Example
1. Topic: Mildred's front yard is full of flowers.
a. There are rose bushes below the kitchen window.
b. Blooming sweet pea vines cover a trellis to the north of the living room
window
c. Petunias cower the bed in front of the low
d. Pansies glow in pots on the front parch
2. Topic: Aberash enjoys living away from home.

63
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
a. She is glad to be closer to the University.
b. She likes being away from the younger brothers
c.
d.
3. Topic: The library is a good place to study:
a. It's quiet most of the time.
b. The lighting is very good.
c.
d.
4. Topic: It's difficult going to school and working at the same time.
a. There is no time for any social life.
b. It is easy to get tired and run - down
c.
d.
5. Topic: I hate the desks in room 36.
a. The seats are hard and cold.
b. The desks squeak constantly.
c.
d.
Exercise 4:
The followings are groups of sentences each of which contain one unrelated sentence.
Identify the unrelated sentence in each group.
Topic: It's hard to find a good baby–sitter
a. Many high school girls go out on weekends.
b. A lot of girls won't work for baby-sitting wages.
c. Our favorite baby- sitter is Clarissa.
d. Baby - sitting is not as popular with girls as it once was.
e. Some girls who baby -sit aren't very responsible.
1) Topic: your Uncle Bernard is very strong.
a. He has bulging arm and leg muscles
b. He can lift eighty - pound sacks of cement easily
c. He can lift me over his head with not trouble

64
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
d. He is an excellent piano player
2) Topic: your new hairdo is very attractive.
a. Your earrings are quite colorful
b. Your hair is always in place.
c. Your hairdo sets off your big eyes.
d. It is the perfect length for you face
3) Topic: The swimming pool in Textile factory is in bad condition.
a. The tiles are covered with a white film.
b. Algae grow on the steps.
c. Bugs and leaves float on top of the water
d. The plaster is cracking on the bottom.
e. The water is sparking blue.
2.4.2 Coherence
Literally, the word to cohere means to hold together. A paragraph is said to have coherence
when its sentences are woven together or flow into each other. If a paragraph is coherent, the
reader moves easily from one sentence to the next without feeling that there are gaps in the
thought, puzzling jumps, or points not made. If a paragraph lacks coherence the reader will
feel that he is reading a collection of separate statements rather than an integrated discussion.
Therefore, the notion behind coherence is related to having natural flow of ideas in the
paragraph.

You can achieve coherence in your paragraph by using several cohesive devices. The
followings are some of these devices.

Pronouns: Since each pronoun must refer to an antecedent, a pronoun and its antecedent
form a link. You can often make a paragraph coherent merely by using pronouns properly.
On the other hand, incorrectly used pronouns can weaken coherence. In the following
examples, notice how pronouns in the second sentence of each pair provide coherence by
referring to the important subjects in the first.

Example:
 Self-help books continue to proliferate. They appeal to anxieties of our middle-
aged society.

65
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
 Patients must fast for twelve hours before the test. They should also avoid red meats for
seventy-two hours before coming in.
Repetition: Substituting a pronoun for a noun is actually a kind of repetition. Direct
repetition of a word or expression will also produce a similar effect. In other words, you can
achieve coherence by repeating some key words.

Example:
Exposure to too much sun can damage the skin. This damage is irreversible and can result in
skin cancer.
- Use direct repetition with care. Overdoing it will give an awkward, immature ring to your
writing.
Example:
Daily receipts are taken to the central office. Daily receipts are then tallied….
You can get much the same transitional affect by using synonyms or slightly altered forms of
the repeated expressions.
Example:
Bill Clinton has been somewhat distant since leaving the White House. The former
president has settled in to a life of privacy.

Transitional markers: Transitional terms make a paragraph coherent by relating ideas. They
are referred to as the „glue‟ to hold ideas together. Like pronouns, many of these terms come
to mind automatically, but you should carefully choose among them. The commonest
markers are the simple connectives and, or but, for, which serve as a bridge over which the
reader may easily pass from one sentence or clause to the next. Others - sometimes called
transitional connectives - indicate the direction, which the new sentence is about to take and
to prepare the reader for what is to follow. Here is a partial list of common transitional terms:

Time: next, then, after, before, during, while, following, shortly, thereafter, later on, the
next day, secondly, finally

Place: over, above, inside, to the left, just behind, beyond

Contrast: however, but, on the other hand, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding,

on the contrary, conversely, yet.

66
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
Cause - effect: so, therefore, thus, accordingly, consequently, as a result, hence,
because of this.

Addition: and, furthermore, moreover, likewise, similarly, in a like manner, too, also

Emphasis: indeed, in fact, especially, most important

Summary: in other words, in short, to sum up , in conclusion, to conclude, all in all, in a

nut shell, generally, in general, finally, at last, etc.

Example: for instance, for example, that is, in particular

The following examples illustrate the use of transitional terms:

Indulgences developed from the medieval church's concept of penance

Time as a substitute for punishment due to sin. At first, the penitent was
Contrast required to make a pilgrimage or perform an act of charity. But such
activities were only substitutes for the real punishment, and it was a
simple step to make further substitutes for the original ones. For
Example example, the sinner could make his penance by paying the cost of going
on a pilgrimage rather than actually making a trip. In an age when
Repetition travel was both expensive and dangerous, such a monetary

Effect substitution was sensible. As a result, the sinner suffered financially,

Effect and the church could use his money for acts of charity. Thus
Repetition indulgences were born. The opportunities for abusing this practice of

Contrast giving money in place of penance, however, were numerous.

Repetition Indulgences were frequently criticized, and Luther’s famous attack on

Pronoun them was one among many. Yet the principle is sound and difficult to Contrast
attack without undermining the entire theology of penance.

Common Transitional Words/ Phrases for Coherence

1. Addition
again besides further more like wise then too
also finally in addition more over thirdly
and fourthly in addition to this secondly too
and then further in like manner similarly

67
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
2. Comparison
at the same time In the same way
in like manner Like X, Y [verb]….
in the same way X and Y are similar in that (they)…..
like wise X is similar to Y in that (they)…..
similarly One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..
Another way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..
3. Concession
but I know that of course
granted that to be sure now
4. Contrast
otherwise in contrast where as /while but
conversely instead not withstanding yet
however inversely on the contrary though
in another sense never the less on the one hand to be sure
in contrast with this nonetheless on the other hand still
yet at the same time despite it turning now to another matter. even so
5. Emphasis
above all I repeat likewise
add to this in any event moreover
and also indeed that is
besides in fact too
even more in other words
6. Enumeration
finally further second then again
first next then
7. Illustration
all things considered incidentally thus thus it follows
as you will see in connection with that is take the case of
for example in this way therefore as an example of this
for instance just as to illustrate in particular
8. Parenthesis

68
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
by the way incidentally to digress
coming back to parenthetically to resume
9. Progression
as (in consequence) hence on that account
for that reason in the first place therefore
further in the next place
further more more over
10. Retrospection
as has already been suggested hitherto up to this point
if what I have said is correct so far
11. Similarity
by the same token in similar manner similarly
in like manner likewise
12. Succession in time or place
after this (incident) beyond presently to the left
afterwards later then
before this (event or place) next to the right
13. Time and Sequence
after this while
after wards eventually here up on next
at last formerly in the mean time now
at length forth with meanwhile previously
at the same time from now on immediately since then
subsequently there after there upon where upon
14. Summary
as has been said indeed in short in retrospect
for these reasons in fine in sum to sum up
in a word in general we now see
in brief in other words to recapitulate
15. Result/ conclusion
accordingly consequently in fine there up on
after all finally later thus

69
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
as a consequence hence so
as a result in conclusion then
at last in consequence therefore
Sequencing

Suppose you have many notes about your ideas for a writing assignment. How do you put all
these ideas together in a logical way that will make sense to the reader? The sentences should
follow each other in the most sensible order for developing the main idea of the paragraph.
This process of putting things in their proper order is called Paragraph sequencing.

 There are several possible orders for sequencing:

A. Chronological sequencing
B. Spatial sequencing
C. Generality sequencing, and
D. Sequence in importance
A. Time order (chronological order)
In telling about an event the clearest way to present the moment is to give the details in
chronological order. You should use this sequence for related details or examples when you
want to state them in the time order in which they occur. In other words, you will list the
earliest details first in your paragraph and the latest or most recent details toward the end of
your paragraph. This is a very common sequence for a series of events. The details in a
paragraph of this kind tend to answer such questions as what happens first. And then what
happens last? Paragraphs that relate either a series of incidents or steps in a process often
follow such chronological order; in this way is mostly used in narrative paragraphs or essays.
The following paragraph, for example, is narrative. (The details are arranged in chronological
order)

First: The most terrifying day in my life came in July of 1946. I was washing lunchtime
dishes in our farmhouse in middle Georgia when my husband unexpectedly
appeared at the door." Appeared" is the best word that I can think to use, because
he was not walking but crawling, dragging his left leg.
Second: I got out of him as quickly as possible that he had bitten by a copperhead of
some three feet, a snake large enough for its venom to be fatal. We lived thirty

70
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
 SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
miles from the nearest hospital, I did not have a driver‟s license (and in fact, had
never driven a car), but my husband was dying before my eyes.
Third: I pushed/ pulled him into the back seat of our Chevrolet and pointed the car
toward Atlanta.
Example 2
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 am to attend an Easter sunrise service. Then I
had duties at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon, I visited the Manor Rest
Home and talked to shut–ins who seldom has visitors. Then I went to my aunt‟s for dinner and
played cards with Uncle Herman until about 9:00 pm. Then I drove up in to the hills with my
family for a special Easter midnight chapel service in the pines. We stayed in a mountain
cabin with ten other people that night and did not get to sleep until after 2:00 a m. I was
exhausted after twenty-one hours of activity.

Bridging thoughts through transitions, idea connectors, which move the reader from place to
place.
Connecting words – connecting through time.
Later on Third Tomorrow Further
Afterward Suddenly Then Previously
Years ago Now In the past When
Earlier Sometime later Thereafter at last
Before Once Former meanwhile
Next Often Latter
First Yesterday In the first place
Second Today In the next place
B. Spatial Order
If you want your readers to be able to picture a scene or object you are describing, you could use a
spatial sequencing of details. This sequence describes a scene or object by going from one part of it
to another in an organized. For instance, if you intended your details to describe a building of some
kind you might want to sequence the details so that you went from the bottom to the top of the
building by answering such questions as what is on the first floor? the second floor? the third floor?
and soon, until you had covered all the floors. or you might wish to go in the opposite direction
,beginning at the top and proceeding down , floor by floor, to the lowest floor. Or you might
describe the same building by going from side to side; answering questions like what is on one side

71
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
of the building? the section in the middle? the other side of the building? And, of course, you could
move in any direction inside the building; left to right , north to south, up to down, side to side, near
to far, or whatever.

Example 1:
As you enter the library, you are greeted by paintings on each side of the door. The painting
on the right is of the town‟s high school, and on the left is a watercolor of the town‟s city
hall. There are several other works of art in the main body of the building. As you face the
archway on the left, you discover pieces of pottery enclosed in a glass case. A ceiling mural
appears over the archway, and on the right a wall hanging has been hung. The entire library
is filled with works of art.

Example 2:
The kitchen was living room, dining room, and cooking room. There were two long narrow
windows in one wall. An iron coal range was recessed in another wall. Above the stove the recess
was made of coral-colored bricks and creamy white plaster. It had a stone mantelpiece and a slate
hearthstone on which Martha could draw pictures with chalk. Next to the stove was a water boiler
which got hot when the fire was going. Often on a cold day, Martha came in chilled and put her
arms around the boiler and pressed her frosty cheek gratefully against its warm silveriness. Next to
the boiler was a pair of soapstone washtubs with a wooden cover. The partition could be removed
and the two thrown into one for a bath tub. It didn‟t make a very good bath tub. Sometimes when
Martha sat in it, the cover banged down on her head. The bottom was rubble and she came out of
what should have been a refreshing bath, all sore from sitting on what wet roughness. Then there
were four faucets to contend with. No matter how the child tried to remember that they were
inflexibly there and wouldn‟t give way, she would jump up suddenly out of the soapy water and get
her back whacked good on a faucet. Martha had a perpetual angry welt on her back.

72
JKU, English Language and Literature Department Sophomore English Module
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Expressions which help to answer the details question “where?” such as:
Over Far On top (of)
Under On bottom (of)
In front of Along side (of)
Behind Outside (of)
Near Inside (of)
C. General Sequencing
1. Specific-to-General
2. General-to-Specific
1. Specific-to-General

Specific terms give more information than general ones. For example, surgeon implies doctor,
but doctor does not identify a person as a surgeon. If you find yourself writing people when you
mean college students or taxi drivers, you are not asking yourself this important question: am I
identifying what I am referring to as specifically as I should? The following list shows how little
effort it takes to become more specific.
Example 1
General Specific More Specific
vehicle car Toyota Cressida
religion Christianity Roman Catholicism
building hotel Sheraton Hotel
Example 2
General: The vegetables were prepared.
Specific: We chopped the tomato, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
Specific: We steamed the carrots and baked the Idaho potatoes.

Example 3 (At paragraph level).

If a paragraph begins with specific details involving many layers of details and examples and if
it is closed with a general statement at the end, it is reasonable to say that the paragraph is
organized from specific-to-general.

In Arab countries, where women do not have equal rights, men commonly cut in front of
women at ticket window. In Britain and the United States, where “first come, first served” is

73
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

almost an obsession, many businesses have customers take numbers to ensure that “first come‟
is really “first served.” By contrast, in southern Europe, where people don‟t like businesses
regulating their behavior, lines are disorderly, with lots of pushing and shoving for the best
position; the strongest or most aggressive win. Anthropologists who study line-forming
behavior have concluded that the way people wait in line reflects cultural values about
fairness.

Example 4

They should be good listeners. They should also be good talkers, since they have to sum up and
restate what both sides say. They have to promise to keep private what is said at a mediation
session. They also need to be able to encourage others to open up and say what is on their
minds. These are the qualities of good mediators.

2. General-to-Specific

When writing about a topic that involves many layers of details, you can start the paragraph
with a general statement, followed by supporting details and examples that become more and
more specific.

Example 1

When a paragraph begins with a general statement and followed by specific details, it is logical
to say the paragraph is organized from general-to-specific.

Dreams are common events during sleep. Dreams occur during rapid eye movement sleep.
During these rapid eye movement sessions, the body is paralyzed to prevent harm coming to the
sleeping person from unconscious muscle movements that occur in response to the images in
the dream. Rapid eye movement sessions sleep takes place about every 90 minutes.

Example 2
In the future, a young woman trained to be an engineer will not only improve her own life
but may also make our country a better place for everyone. She may, for instance, devise a
new kind of automobile engine that does not require gasoline at all. That would make our
country less dependent on other nations for oil imports. Her invention would also serve the

74
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

cause of world peace, because our country truly free from pressure by other countries would be
stronger politically, economically, and militarily and would be better able to resist threats to
world peace. She also involves in any activities of the society as many women engineers of
today step through factories‟ corridors in greater numbers than ever before.

D. Sequence in Importance
You generally sequence the points by their importance; you should use this sequence when you
want to give several details or examples and wish to start your paragraph with the most
important or more interesting ones. You may do this in order to attract the attention of your
readers at the very start, especially readers who may be impressed for time or who may be
uninterested in your subject.

To start with the least important and to lead to the most important, for example, a comparison of
two cars might start with the engine and its importance, then work outward to the passenger
compartment, its dimension and comfort, ending with the sporty exterior and sunroof. You must
decide which sequencing method is best for your purpose and audience.

Example:
Suppose you wanted to write a paragraph for this topic sentence:
When I returned to my old neighborhood, I was sad to see how many things had changed.
-Mr. Lewis, my old history teacher, had died in a car accident.
-Mike‟s Pizzeria, a local hangout, was destroyed in a fire.
-The park bench where I spent hours reading was gone.
From the incidents, because it seems to be the most important would best be first in the
paragraph, it would be best discussed first in the paragraph.

Example:
Our department needs lots of fixing-up. Though it may be difficult to fix-up all of them at the
same time, we have got to fix the leaky roof first before the September rains come. Next, we
need to patch the big holes in the bed room walls and then strip the peeling paint off the walls.
Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are painted, we can work on replacing the
linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or cracked. Later, the living room carpet needs

75
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

shampooing, and we should replace that old swaybacked sofa. Then we won‟t be embarrassed
to have company over once in a while.

Of course, only the writer himself could determine which was most or least significant. The
writer can follow the opposite approach, for example, the least important ones come first in the
paragraph, the important next and the most important details come last. This arrangement
allows you to build up your reader‟s interest gradually (to create suspense if it is in fiction
writing), with your final details providing a climax.

2.3.3 Completeness
Completeness is relative. How much explanation an idea requires depends on how much the
reader needs. This is a decision the writer must make out of knowledge of the subject and of the
audience. It is an error to give either too much explanation or not enough. Usually, the latter is
the more serious. Giving a reader unnecessary explanation may be boring but giving too little
may block communication.

Consider the following example.

Pregnant women sometimes attempt to mold the character of an unborn child by studying
poetry, art, or mathematics. What we know of prenatal development makes such attempts
seem utterly impossible. How could such extremely complex influences pass from mother
to child?

This statement is incomplete. If the writer stops here, all he has given his readers is an unsupported
judgment that these attempts will have no influence on the child. But that is not enough. Readers
still need to know why the attempts will not work. The rest of the paragraph explains why not.

There is no connection between their nervous systems. Even the blood vessels of mother and child
do not join directly. They lie side by side and the chemicals are interchanged through the walls by
a process that we call osmosis. An emotional shock to the mother will affect her child, because it
changes the activity of her glands and so the chemistry of her blood. Any chemical change in the
mother's blood will affect the child. But we cannot see how a liking for mathematics or poetic
genius can be dissolved in the blood and produce a similar liking or genius in the child.

(William H. Roberts, Psychology)

76
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

The following example illustrates the same fault and the way to correct it.
Television programs can be classified into three main categories: Entertainers, cultural
Enhancers, and Eye Openers. The Entertainers are created simply for Entertainment-nothing
more. They make us laugh or cry, for a moment. Sitcoms are prime examples as we laugh at or
with the characters as they struggle through life, and might even identify with the characters.
For momentary pleasures, watch the Entertainers. Cultural Enhancers involve some kind of
“culture “or highbrow activity, such as opera, theater, dance, or song. Also included here are
the movies made from the classics or literary fiction, such as Moby Dick or any of
Shakespeare‟s plays. These programs are often concerned with universal themes or issues: love,
evil, power. They can be found on “arts” cable stations such as A&E and Bravo, as well as the
public Broadcasting system. For a taste of culture, watch Cultural Enhancers.

As you observe in the above paragraph, the writer's intention was to classify the kinds of
television programs grouping in to three. But he has mentioned only two of them. Since he
didn't say anything about the third one, the paragraph is incomplete. To provide a fuller
explanation, the following sentence gives the remaining information.

A third category, Eye Opener programs, includes topics about science and nature, history, true
crime, and other information. They are often found on cable channels: the Discovery Channel,
the Learning Channel, and the History Channel. The Public Broadcasting System, on the
network side, also provides these programs. A viewer might learn about tornadoes, or the
legend of Robin Hood, or the African crested crane. Often this information, such as programs
about strong storm systems, is interesting because it is relevant to viewers‟ lives. Television has
much to offer viewers, and it is our choice what we watch.

NOTE:
A good paragraph is fully developed. Here are the main qualities of a well-developed paragraph.

 It provides enough supporting points for the main idea expressed in the topic sentence to be
clearly understood.

77
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

 It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative.

 It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared up with a little
more detail or an additional example or two.

 It concludes with a sentence that clearly" wraps up" the paragraph and relates to the topic
sentence in some manner.

2.4.3 Variety
Effective writers have the ability to use a variety of sentence structures to express their
thoughts. Less experienced writers tend to use a few basic structures over and over, which
weakens their expressive powers and leads to a monotonous writing style. The confidence and
skill to use a variety of sentence structures helps you convey your ideas to readers.

Consider the following paragraph and detect what the problem of the paragraph is:
I enjoy Christmas very much. I like shopping. I like decorating the tree. I like
giving presents. I enjoy eating on Christmas Day. I enjoy eating turkey. I like a
lot of dressing. I like pumpkin pie. I also like being with the family. I like seeing
my grandmother. I like seeing my nieces.
The sentences in the paragraph are all of similar length (5, 3, 5, 4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 7, 5 and 5 words
respectively). Moreover, they are all simple sentences of the same basic structure (subject +
predicate). This lack of variety becomes monotonous.

Let us consider another example:

The horror movie at the drive-in was terrible. The acting was bad. The plot was bad. Every
scene was filled with blood. There was blood on the bodies. There was blood on the walls.
There was blood in the bathtub. The ending of the movie was the worst part. It was stupid. It
was unbelievable. A six-year-old girl poisoned her mother, father, brother and dog with rat
poison. She did it for fun. She did it to shock her friends. It was the worst movie I have seen in a
long time. I went home. I didn't go to another movie for a month.

In general, a short or a long series of sentences identical or very similar in length and structure
is monotonous. But a series of well- written, varied sentences provides the reader with more

78
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

than mere absence of monotony. It reflects the writer's careful choice of length and structure to
supply emphasis that creates meaning.

Consider the following paragraph. Notice the variety in length and structure of the seven
sentences that make up the paragraph.
Complex One of the great paradoxes in history is that the truest expression of Christianity is
to be found not in the West but in the East.
Complex In India countless millions of people are living out the ideas of Christ, though they
do not call themselves Christians and are unfamiliar with Christian theology.
Simple They are the poor, the meek, the merciful, and the pure in heart.

Compound They regard life as sacred and they will not harm it in any
Simple of its forms. They practice renunciation. They believe in
Compound- Complex nonviolence and they worship the memory of a human
being who perhaps has come closer to enacting Christianity
than anyone in modern history. Interestingly enough,
Simple Gandhi‟s struggle was directed against a Western Christian
nation.
- Norman Cousins, Human Options

Notice how pleasing this paragraph is to the ear. By using a variety of sentence structures, the
writer changes the tempo of the writing, avoiding monotony. Notice, too, how the changes in
tempo lead to sentences of different length, ranging from three (they practice renunciation)
to twenty-six words (They believe in nonviolence and they worship the memory of a
human being who perhaps has come closer to enacting Christianity than anyone in
modern history). Thus, the two strategies - varying sentence length and varying sentence
structure -work together.

Consider the following paragraph. Notice the variety in length and structure of the eight
sentences that make up the paragraph.

The trouble with the families many of us were born into is not that they consist of meddlesome
ogres but they are too far away. In emergencies we rush across continents and if need be

79
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

oceans to their sides, as they do to ours. Maybe we even make a habit of seeing them, once or
twice a year, for the sheer pleasure of it. But blood ties seldom dictate our addresses. Our
blood kin are often too remote to ease us from our Tuesdays to our Wednesdays. For this we
must rely on our families of friends.

If our relatives are not, do not wish to be, or for whatever reasons cannot be our friends,
then by some complex alchemy we must try to transform our friends into our relatives. If
blood and roots don‟t do the job, then we must look to water and branches.

Jane Howard, Families

The length of these eight sentences ranges from the seven- word But blood ties seldom dictate
our addresses to the long thirty- three word sentence beginning If our relatives are not.
Structure varies from the simple subject - verb - object pattern of the crisp fourth, fifth, and
sixth sentences of the much greater complexity of the opening twenty-six-word sentence and the
two closing sentences of thirty - three and sixteen words respectively.

NOTE:
Short, simple sentences and longer, more complex sentences can work together to achieve
variety that enhances meaning. If you are effectively using coordination, subordination,
parallelism, and other sentence structures, your writing will already contain a good deal of
variety. you will have discovered, for instance, that short sentences are good for introducing a
topic or summing up a point and that longer sentences lend themselves to elaboration, detailed
explanation, or qualification of a main idea.

2.5 Paragraph Development Methods

Write the paragraph!
Think a topic, then build the full paragraph gradually.

The Introductory sentence

 The opening sentence sets the tone
It not only introduces the topic, but where you are going with it (the thesis). If you do a good
job in the opening, you will draw your reader into your "experience." Put effort up front, and
you will reap rewards.

80
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

 Write in the active voice

It is much more powerful. Do that for each sentence in the introductory sentence. Unless
you are writing a personal narrative, do not use the pronoun "I."
 Varying sentence structure
Review to avoid the same dull pattern of always starting with the subject of the sentence.

 Brainstorm to find the best supporting ideas

The best supporting ideas are the ones about which you have some knowledge. If you do not
know about them, you cannot do a good job writing about them. Don't weaken the
paragraph with ineffective argument. Before writing, spend some time being creative with
the possible thesis and supporting arguments. Put them down as they occur to you and then
try and develop a flow or pattern to the ideas. See "How to Brainstorm".

 Practice writing introductory sentences on various topics

Even if you do not use them, they can be compared with the type of writing you are doing
now. It is rewarding to see a pattern of progress.

Supporting sentences

 Write the topic sentence: The topic sentence usually appears at the beginning.
 Write a transition to establish the sub-topic: The transition can be included in the topic
sentence. Each sentence has to flow, one to the next.
 Supporting ideas, examples, details must be specific to the sub-topic. The tendency in
supporting sentences is to put in just about anything --avoid this. The work you have
made above with details and examples will help you keep focused.
 Vary sentence structure: Avoid repetitious pronouns and lists. Avoid beginning
sentences the same way (subject + verb + direct object).
 The Ending or Summary or concluding sentence: This is a difficult sentence to write
effectively. You cannot assume that the reader sees your point

81
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

 Restate the introductory thesis with originality: Do not simply copy the first sentence
 Summarize your argument with some degree of authority: this sentence should leave
your reader with no doubt as to your position or conclusion of logic
 Be powerful as this is the last thought that you are leaving with the reader. If possible,
use your best sentence here as it is the last thought that will be left with the
grader. Often a B can be lifted to a B+ etc.

Edit and revise your paragraph

 Check your spelling and grammar: Subjects and verbs agree, and verb tenses are
consistent
 Examine your whole paragraph for logic
Thought builds and flows?
Avoid gaps in logic, or too much detail.
 Review individual sentences

 Use active verbs: Avoid passive constructions and the verb "to be"
 Use transitional words and phrases: Avoid sentences beginning with pronouns,
constructions as "There are....,"

Example: "There is a need to proofread all works" becomes "Proofreading is a must."

 Be concise: though vary the length and structure of sentences

Ask a knowledgeable friend to review and comment on your paragraph and to repeat back
what you are trying to say. You may be surprised. Their comments should reflect your ideas
Short Summary: Steps for building a paragraph
a. think and select a topic
b. write a general statement (topic sentence) about the topic
c. jot down possible details that answer questions about the topic sentence
d. order (arrange) the details according to relevancy, logical order, chronological etc…
e. develop these details in to complete sentences

82
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

f. read the whole paragraph and check and make whatever changes you feel will improve
your writing. For instance, you may check for grammar, for appropriate terms (diction),
for punctuation, capitalization etc.
Example
a. topic: Rural areas of Ethiopia
b. topic sentence: Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems.
c. what are these three problems?
The answer to this question is used for writing the details.
Point 1- poverty
Point 2- lack of education
Point 3- poor medical care
Activity
In the above example, a topic sentence with possible details is given. Write a complete
paragraph by writing complete sentences of the details. You may start with the topic sentence
followed by details like this:

Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems. One of these is poverty. It______________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________

We can develop an idea in to a paragraph by using varieties of paragraph development

methods. The common methods of paragraph development are:
 Definition
 Exemplification (Illustration)
 Classification
 Cause
 Effect

83
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

 Cause-effect
 Comparison
 Contrast
 Comparison-contrast
The following section attempts to present a detailed discussion of these paragraph development
methods.
2.5.1 Definition

One way to make a term or idea clearer is to answer the question What does the term or idea
mean. To answer this question, you can give a sentence defining the term or idea, followed by
examples. Or you can try to answer the question by relating the term or concept to some term or
idea the reader already knows about or understands.

Suppose, for instance, that the topic of a paper you are writing is empathy and that the statement
you plan to make about it is the basis for all good public relations. A reader who does not know
the meaning of the term empathy will find the paper difficult to understand. To help your reader
to follow and to accept the ideas about empathy expressed in your paper, you will need to
supply a paragraph of definition.

Read the paragraph below and notice that the term “empathy” appears in the first sentence and
that a definition immediately follows the term in the same sentence. The writer has chosen to
follow the definition with a list of several examples of how empathy helps in police work, using
a simple topical- listing sequence details. The writer‟s purpose in this paragraph is to help the
reader understand more fully the meaning of the term “empathy”.

Example 1

Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person‟s point of view. It is a great
asset in police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid being closed- minded. It
will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a criminal incident. Empathy eliminates
bias and, instead, introduces tolerance, understanding and sympathetic human relations.

84
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Example 2

The paragraph below defines a term, explains it a bit, and then gives examples of it. After
reading the paragraph, see if you can answer the following questions that follow.

Emblems are gestures or body motions that mean the same as words or phrases. Just as we
learn the meanings of words, we learn the meanings of emblems in our society. One common
emblem in many places is the thumbs-up signal, which often expresses success or hope. Other
emblems are shrugging of the shoulders, which can mean "I don't know," and nodding the head
to communicate "yes."

What term is being defined? ----------------------------------------

Which sentence gives the definition? -----------------------------

Which sentence explains something about the term? -----------

2.5.2 Exemplification

An example paragraph is one that uses specific examples to illustrate a point made in the
writing. An example can be a fact, a historical example, a statistic, an event or a behavior.

1. Fact
A fact is an idea understood as true or real by the community and not to be disputed. It is a fact
that the earth circles the sun, that chocolate has caffeine, that people get heart playing some
sports.

2. Historical Example
This example involves retelling a historical event or relating a piece of historical information.
these examples can trace a progression of events for a causes and effect paragraph or show how
the present is a reflection of the past. You could use different people from history to illustrate
about leaders or criminals or people who helped others without much reward.

85
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

3. Statistic

A statistic is a number that results from analyzing information: it is often an average or mean.
Statistics are complicated and can be misused, but statistical analysis is a valuable tool to
prove a point, especially with academic writing.
4. Event

An example can be one specific event you might mention the date and time of the event, or if
part of common knowledge, mention the name of the event and gives some details.

5. Behavior

Specific behavior of an individual person or animal can also be used as an example to prove a
point. If you want to say that dogs can sometimes be annoying, refer to specific behaviors:
they chew everything in sight, dig up gardens, get hair or fur allover furniture, make a mess at
their eating place, bark at the wrong times (usually at 3:00 am). Each behavior is one example
that adds detail to the writing.

Here is a sample example paragraph:

Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different functions to
users. The programs most often used are word processors. These programs can produce letters,
reports, articles, announcements as well as other documents. Another kind of computer
program is the database, which allows the users to sort all kinds of information in a variety of
ways. You might put on a database a library catalog, all the business products in inventory, or
all the names and addresses of students attending a school. Another kind of program is the
communications program, which allows the user to connect to the Internet and to send
electronic mail to others. If you can access the Internet, you can search thousands of databases,
files, and Web sites for information. You can access university libraries, company Web sites,
government information agencies. The computer offers many kinds of programs for users, each
with a distinct function or benefit to the users.

In this sample paragraph three main examples of computer software programs are given: word
processors, data bases, and communications programs. With in each main example are more
specific examples that further explain and illustrate the writer‟s ideas.
Examples are often introduced by transitions like the following:

86
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

for example to illustrate

for instance such as
as an illustration including
Characteristics of a Good Example
1. Relevance
- Does the example relate specifically to the point being made?
- Will the reader understand your reasons for including the example?
- Does the reader understand the connection between your generalization and the example
used?
2. Accuracy
- Is your example accurate?
- Are you being honest about your facts and statistics?
3. Sufficient Details
- Have you used enough examples to prove your point?
- Have you included enough detail for the reader to understand your point ?
- Have you included details that answer the questions: who, what, where, when, why and
how, to create a clear and complete picture in the readers mind?
2.5.3 Comparison and/or Contrast
A writer uses this pattern when he/she wants to make something clearer to his/ her reader by
showing how it is like or unlike something else. When using this pattern, the writer would need
to answer these questions for his or her readers:

- How is (something) similar to (something else)?

- How is it different from (something else)?

In a paragraph a writer may be discussing two or more topics. These could be two objects,
events, places, persons, or ideas, or some aspects of these. Usually, the writer will want to
discuss their similarities only, or their differences only, with in a single paragraph. The
paragraph is called a comparison paragraph when it describes similarities and it is called a
contrast paragraph when it describes differences.

87
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for example,
your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew up) and your university town.
Such topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either around the similarities between
these two subtopics (for example, between your hometown and your university town) or around
the differences between them. If you write about the similarities, the paragraph will be a
comparison paragraph. On the other hand, if you want to write about the differences, your
paragraph will be a contrast paragraph.

This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure sentences to write a
comparison or contrast paragraph. We will first look at comparison paragraph and then briefly
look at contrast paragraph.

Sample Comparison Paragraph 1

Consider the following paragraph.
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small rural
communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about 10,000
people. Similarly, my college town, subnormal, consists of about 11,000 local residents. This
population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are attending classes. A second
way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock
is surrounded by many acres of farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and
soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise
hogs and cattle…

The passage above is from a comparison paragraph. That is, a paragraph which discusses the
similarities between two subtopics. How the ideas in this paragraph are organized. As usual, the
topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph. After that, the paragraph continues by
discussing one point of similarity between the towns of Gridlock and Subnormal, namely, their
small population. Specific details are given to support the statement that “both are small rural
communities.” Following this, the paragraph briefly discusses a second point of similarity
between the two towns, that is, their geographic surroundings. Here, the paragraph also gives
supporting details to illustrate their similarity, namely, they are “both located in rural areas.”

88
 SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

As you can see, therefore, this comparison paragraph is structured (organized) according to the
points of similarity between the two towns. This particular paragraph discus only two points of
similarity, but of course we can imagine a paragraph that gives three, four, or even more points
of similarity. This paragraph, for example, might continue in this way.

….Thirdly, both of these towns are similar in that both contain college campuses.
Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural
Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Likewise, the
town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which is well known
for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest.

We can place the points of similarity and their supporting details in a table in order to see more
clearly how this short paragraph is organized:

Sample Comparison Paragraph 2

My house and my car are similar in many ways. First of all, both places are untidy. In my house,
you can see clothes strewn on chairs, papers littering all surfaces, and dishes in the sink. Similarly, in
my car, the back seat and floor are covered with sports clothes and shoes, books, empty soft-drink
cans, and gum wrappers. Second of all, I like to spend a lot of time in my house and in my car. After
work, I usually go home, eat dinner, and flop down onto the sofa to watch videos or read a
book. Likewise, on weekends, I usually take long out-of-town trips in my car; sometimes I even
sleep in it to save money on hotels. Finally, I do some identical activities in my house and in my
car. In my house, I get dressed, listen to loud music, and eat. In the same way, I change into my
sports clothes in the car, listen to loud music on my car stereo, and eat snacks on my way home after
work or the gym. Although I treat my home and my car alike, I should probably clean both of them
up, so that people won't be afraid to visit or drive with me!

Comparison Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points (Point-To-Point Organization)

TOPIC SENTFNCE My (a) hometown and (b) college town are similar
POINT # 1 Both are small rural communities.

DETAIL (a)  Gridlock has about 10,000 people.

DETAILS (b)  Subnormal has about 11,000 local residents

89
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

 It has about 4000 college students.

POINT # 2 Both are located in rural areas.

DETAILS (a)  Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland.
 This farmland is devoted to growing corn.
 The land is also used to grow soybeans
DETAILS (b)  Subnormal is un the center of land used for raising hogs.
 This land is also used to raise cattle.
POINT #3 Both towns contain college campuses

 Gridlock is home to Neutron College.

 This college is famous for its Agricultural Economics Program.
DETAILS (a) It is also famous for its annual Corn–Watching Festival.
 Subnormal contains Quark College
 This campus is famous for its Agricultural Engineering department
DETAILS (b) It is also famous for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest

Point-To-Point. The above table shows a diagram of the organizational style called point-to-
point, and shows an example of a comparison paragraph using the point-to-point organizational
structure. Here, each section of the paragraph covers one major point that proves the topic
sentence. The two major items being compared (Gridlock & Subnormal) are addressed in their
own section, within each point‟s part of the paragraph.

Look the following diagram of point-to-point organizational style

Topic sentence
Generalization: Point A
Details about Item 1
Details about Item 2
Generalization: Point B
Details about Item 1
Details about Item 2
Generalization: Point C

90
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Details about Item 1

Details about Item 2

Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Subtopic (Whole-To-Whole Organization)

Another way of organizing a comparison is called whole-to-whole organizational structure,

which each “whole” being one of the two items being compared. In this structure, the first item
is discussed in its entirety before moving on to the other item. The points are analyzed, one at a
time, for the first time; then the other item‟s points are analyzed, one at a time.
Look the following diagram of whole-to-whole organizational style.
Topic sentence

Generalization: Item 1

Details about Point A

Details about Point B

Details about Point C

Generalization: Item 2

Details about Point A

Details about Point B

Details about Point C

Example: Based on the above diagram of whole-to-whole organizational style, look how the
following paragraph is organized.

My home town and my college town have several things in common. My hometown and my
college town have several things in common. First, my hometown, Gridlock, is a small town. It
has a population of only about 10,000 people. Located in a rural area, Gridlock is surrounded
by many acres of farmland which are devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock
also contains a college campus, Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics

91
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. As for my college town, Subnormal, it
too is small, having a population of about 11,000 local residents, which swells to 15,000….

As you see, after the topic sentence, this paragraph first discusses the relevant details about
Gridlock and then presents the details about Subnormal, as with the paragraph above, we can
illustrate this paragraph‟s structure in the following way:

Comparison Paragraph – Organized using Whole-To-Whole Organization

TOPIC SENTENCE My hometown and college town are similar

SUBTOPIC # 1 GRIDLOCK
 Gridlock is a small town
DETAILS ABOUT  It has about 10,000 people grow soybeans.
GRIDLOCK:  Gridlock is home to Neutron College.
 This college is famous for its Agricultural Economics Program.
It is also famous for its annual Corn–Watching Festival.
SUBTOPIC#2 SUBNORMAL
DETAILS ABOUT  Subnormal is a small town.
SUBNORMAL  Subnormal has about 4000 College students.
 It has about 11,000 local Residents.
 Subnormal is in a rural area
 Subnormal is in the center of land used for raising hogs.
 This land is also used to raise cattle.
 Subnormal contains Quark College
 This campus is famous for its agricultural engineering department.
 it is also famous for its yearly Hog-Calling contest.
Comparison conjunctions

92
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

In the above paragraph you will see various conjunctions that contribute to paragraph
coherence. We can look at the above paragraph again to see what conjunctions are:

My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are small
rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of only about
10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about 11, 000 local
residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college students are attending
classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is that they are both
located in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland, which is
devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way, Subnormal lies in the
center of farmland, which is used to raise hogs and cattle. Thirdly, these towns are
similar in that both contain college campuses. Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron
College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economical program as well as for its
annual Corn - Watching Festival. Likewise, the town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful
campus of Quark College, which is well known for its Agricultural Engineering
department and also for its yearly Hog -Calling contest.

This paragraph, of course is organized according to similarities. Notice how the order of the
similarities is the same throughout the paragraph. That is, at each similar point, the paragraph
first discusses Gridlock and then it discusses subnormal keeping the same order throughout the
paragraph prevents the reader from getting confused. Also notice how the conjunctions
(similarly, X is similar in that….) are placed near each similar point. Now examine the
following paragraph, which is organized by subtopic:

My home town and my college town are similar in several ways. First, my home town
Gridlock is a small town. It has a population of only about 10, 000 people. Located in
rural area, Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are devoted mainly
to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college campus, Neutron College,
which is famous for its Agricultural economics program as well as for its for its annual
Corn -Watching Festival. Yearly Hog -Calling contest. Subnormal, it too is small, having
a population of about 11, 000 local residents, which swells to 15,000 people when
students from the nearby college are attending classes. Like Gridlock, Subnormal lies in

93
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle. Finally Subnormal is similar
to Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful college campus, called Quark College. This
college is well known for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly
Hog -Calling contest.

These are not the only ways to give coherence to a comparison paragraph. There are other
conjunctions, too. Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:

Short conjunctions
like alike resembles similarities as---
just like likewise also same ----too.
just as equally similarly similar both
Longer Expressions
In the same way
X is similar Y in that (they)…..
X and Y are similar in that (they)…..
Like X, Y [verb]….
In like manner
One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..
Another way in which X is similar to Y is (that)…..

Organizing Contrast Paragraph

As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at least) two
things. You can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you can organize
comparison paragraphs, that is, you can organize them either according to points of similarity or
according to sub topic. Here is an example of such a paragraph organized by subtopic. Notice
the contrastive expressions in bold letters.

Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly
different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona
is large, having area of 114,000 square miles, whereas Rhode Island is only about a tenth
the size, having an area of only 1, 214 square miles. Another difference is in the size of
the population of each state. Arizona has about four million people living in it, but

94
 SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Rhode Island has less than one million. The two states also differ in the lands of natural
environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large
desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is
located in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In
addition, while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies
on the Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.

Contrast Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points

TOPIC (a) Arizona, and (b) Rhode Island are strikingly different in many ways

SENTFNCE

POINT # 1 The physical size of each state is different.

DETAIL (a)  Arizona is large, having area of 114,000 square miles.

DETAILS (b) Rhode Island is smaller, having an area of only 1,214 square miles .

POINT #2 The size of the population of each state is different.

DETAILS (a) Arizona has about four million people.

DETAILS (b) Rhode Island has less than one million.

POINT #3 The two states are different in the lands of natural environments

DETAILS (a) Arizona is desert.

DETAILS (b) Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone.

POINT #4 The two states are different in relation to a water body

95
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

DETAILS (a) Arizona is a landlocked state

DETAILS (b) Rhode Island has a significant coastline.

Here are some common transitions showing contrast.

however on the other hand different

in contrast as opposed to differently
instead unlike differs

Here are some more contrast conjunctions that you can use:

Short conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions

in contrast, even though + (sentence)
by contrast, although + (sentence)
, but where as + (sentence)
, yet unlike + (sentence)
nevertheless while + (sentence)

Comparison/Contrast Paragraph

The writer may wish to develop a combined comparison/contrast pattern with in the same
paragraph, i.e., the writer may wish to discuss both the similarities and the differences between
two objects, persons, places, events, aspects, etc., within one paragraph. With this type of
paragraph, however, there is no rule or regularity about which should come first. The first step
what the writer should do is identifying the two subjects he/she is comparing or contrasting.
Sometimes the writer may wish to begin with discussing similarities, and other timers he/ she
may want to begin with discussing differences. Whatever the writer wanted to discuss first,
he/she begins by telling his/her reader that he will be discussing similarities as well as
differences.

96
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

2.5.4 Classification
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-
defined groups. Each group‟s members or items share similar traits or characteristics that are
unique; no other group has the same traits. The writer should put similar looking or acting items
or behaviors into the same group and describe one group‟s unique traits, behaviors, attitudes, or
other characteristics.

Many classification systems are already in place; for example, movies are classified by genre:
Western, Romance, Science Fiction, and Thriller; subjects in school are classified by
discipline: Science, Mathematics, English, and Home Economics. Since these categories,
already exist, they do not present much challenge to the reader. In English classes, it is more fun
and creative to come up with your own topic and classification system. For example, if a hotel
prepares various foods, you might group them by type of food: vegetables, fruits, meat, cookies,
cheese and so forth. you might group drinks in to beverages, alcohol, soft drink. Or you might
put the original groups such as those prepared in home, and in factories. Or each can be
classified, for example, soft drinks, can be further classified as: Coca Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Fanta,
Mirinda, Seven-Up, Mineral Water and so on.

Example 1
Homework assignments can be categorized according to the various emotional traits they
produce. For example, “The I- Will-Do-It-Later-Tonight” assignment is a relatively easy
assignment which takes no more than five or ten minutes and causes the student little
inconvenience or worry. Related to this type is “The- I- Thought-I-Could-Do-It-Later-
Tonight” assignment, which seems simple but is in reality much more than the student
bargained for. This type often causes a sleepless night for the panicking student. “The-
Impossible-Dream” assignment also causes the student a certain amount of panic. These
assignments also is known as semester projects , are designed to take the majority of the
semester to complete , and they seem to hang over the students head like a dark cloud of doom
.mach like this assignment , but perhaps ever more traumatic ,is “ The -I„m- Going To- Fail –
This- Course” assignment. The purpose of this one is to read the instructor of It is the process
of putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-defined groups. Each group‟s
members or items share similar traits or characteristics that are unique.

97
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Example 2
Television programs can be classified into three main categories: Entertainers, cultural
Enhancers, and Eye Openers. The Entertainers are created simply for Entertainment-nothing
more. They make us laugh or cry, for a moment. Sitcoms are prime examples as we laugh at or
with the characters as they struggle through life, and might even identify with the characters.
For momentary pleasures, watch the Entertainers. Cultural Enhancers involve some kind of
“culture “or highbrow activity, such as opera, theater, dance, or song. Also included here are
the movies made from the classics or literary fiction, such as Moby Dick or any of
Shakespeare‟s plays. These programs are often concerned with universal themes or issues: love,
evil, power. They can be found on “arts” cable stations such as A&E and Bravo, as well as the
public Broadcasting system. For a taste of culture, watch Cultural Enhancers. A third category,
Eye Opener programs, includes topics about science and nature, history, true crime, and other
information. They are often found on cable channels: the Discovery Channel, the Learning
Channel, and the History Channel. The Public Broadcasting System, on the network side, also
provides these programs. A viewer might learn about tornadoes, or the legend of Robin Hood,
or the African crested crane. Often this information, such as programs about strong storm
systems, is interesting because it is relevant to viewers‟ lives. Television has much to offer
viewers, and it is our choice what we watch.

Note:
Like the other paragraphs, first you will develop a topic sentence which is convenient for
classification. After finding a topic to classify, establish the central, unique characteristic of
each category. This is a criterion used for selection, the one main idea that helps you put
everything into its proper category. For example, if you were to classify a box of mixed tools
you picked up at a garage sale, how might you sort them? You could sort by:

 Type: hammers, saws, screw drivers, nails, screws, wedges, miters, drill bits and so on; thus
“type” could be the central unique characteristic.
 Size: bigger pieces of equipment (hammer, saw, miter), smaller tools (screw drivers,
wedges), and tiny pieces used to build other things (nails, screws); thus “size” could be
the central unique characteristic.

98
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

You could also sort them by type of metal or weight or age (if you collect antique tools). If,
while you are sorting, you find that something can fit into two categories, then you haven‟t
refined your categories well enough, or you have listed traits in one category that actually do
not belong there. You will need to reexamine your traits list.

1. The classifier approaches a body of unorganized material with the intention of organizing
it for some purpose. Different purposes will result in different classifications. For
example, people can be classified according sex, age, income, IQ, marital status, blood
types, and so on. The classifier‟s purpose determines how he is going to classify the
material.
2. The purpose determines the principle of selection to be used in deciding which items are
to be placed in which class. The principle of selection must be maintained for all main
classes, though a different principle may be used in going from main classes to subclasses.
For example, after people have been classified by sex, the sex groups may be subdivided
into age groups. Age then becomes the principle of selection in the subgroups.
3. Items are grouped within a class as they are seen to be alike in some characteristic which
is essential to the principle of selection. Thus, all words showing change toward narrower
meaning go in one group; all showing change toward wider meaning go in another. The
essential characteristic is what distinguishes one group from another, and is called class
characteristic.
4. Each class is given an identifying label.
5. In an ideal classification all items should fit into some class, and no items should be left
over. Unclassified items suggest a flaw in the classification. If items cannot be classified,
they are put in a class of exceptions, like the exceptions to the rules of English spelling.
Obviously, the more exceptions there are, the less useful the classification is. A pollster
seeking to find out whether people are generally satisfied with the present administration
would be unhappy if half of those polled had no opinion.
6. If a class is divided into subclasses, it must have at least two. Whether a class should be
divided into subclasses depends on the material being classified. Some classes of
classification may not require subdivisions, but some other classes do. But it would be

99
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

illogical to have only one subgroup of a class. If there are not at least two subclasses, no
subdivision is necessary.

2.5.5 Cause and Effect

At times making an important idea or event fully understood in writing may require the writer to
offer information which readers may need or want to know what led up to the event or idea--
that is, what caused it to become what it is now. Or they may need or want to know the effects
of the idea or event-- that is, the results or consequences. In other words, the readers will want
the writer to give the answers to one or both of these questions: What caused the event or idea?
What effects or consequences does event or the idea have? The writer should then include in
his/her paper a paragraph that has a cause pattern or effect pattern or a combined cause/effect
pattern. The supporting sentences will then answer one or both of these questions about the
event or idea.

Cause Paragraph
Here is an example of a writing topic asking for causes of a particular phenomenon.
These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in alarming rate.
You will get the details in the following paragraph. Notice that the first sentence identifies
the topic- desertification is expanding so large- and that all the supporting sentences
describe the causes of this phenomenon described in the first sentence. In other words, if the
topic sentence introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all describe causes for the
described event in the topic. The paragraph below illustrates the cause pattern.

These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in alarming rate. There
are many reasons for this occurrence. First, the clearing of vegetation cover to get new
land for farming resulted in rapid loss of forests. This depletion of forests degraded wild
life and soil. Second, the rapid growth of population made peoples to push cultivation into
areas that were entirely unsuitable for agriculture. These activities of man on highly
sensitive and delicately balanced ecosystem led to a progressive decline in the vegetation
cover. Third, the pastoral nomads are the other protagonists in the tragedy for the fact

100
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

that far more animals are building up than the system can maintain, i.e., the number of
animals is increasing beyond the potential of land. Finally, the progressive destruction of
the third world‟s stock of trees for the existing demand for firewood and timber as
building material is accelerating soil erosion and reducing its capacity to feed and employ
people. If forests continue to be depleted in such ways, it is inevitable that the problem
aggravates and our globe will be affected by desertification much higher than the present.

The diagram, below, show the model cause paragraph is organized. In this diagram you should
see that the topic – desertification is expanding so large - is given in the opening sentence.
Notice, too, that the supporting sentences give the causes for why desertification is expanding.

Effect (topic sentence) Causes (supporting sentences)

These days, the spread of deserts across the There is clearing of vegetation cover to get
world is increasing in alarming rate. new land for farming
[There are several reasons for this]
These days, the spread of deserts across the The rapid growth of population made
world is increasing in alarming rate. peoples to push cultivation into areas that
were entirely unsuitable for agriculture.
These days, the spread of deserts across the The number of animals is increasing beyond
world is increasing in alarming rate. the potential of land.
These days, the spread of deserts across the There is destruction of trees for source of
world is increasing in alarming rate. energy and constructions.

Exercise
Write a cause paragraph by using one of the following topics
 Causes of abortion
 Causes of student failure
 Causes of poverty
 Causes of richness
 Causes of famousness

Effect Paragraph

101
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Here is an example of a writing topic asking for effects of a particular event.

The last night storm caused a great damage.
You will get the details in the following paragraph. Notice that the first sentence identifies the
topic - a storm caused a great damage - and that all the supporting sentences describe the effects
of this phenomenon described in the first sentence.

In other words, if the topic sentence introduces a cause, the supporting sentences all describe
effects for the described event in the topic. The paragraph below illustrates the effect pattern.

The last night storm caused a great damage. The winds blew up to ninety-four miles
an hour and it rained very hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over, and the trees
hit the power lines and blacked out the areas for five hours. Before morning, as the
river overflowed its banks, homes were flooded, roofs caved in, and thousands of
families living nearby were forced to flee their homes with whatever belongings they
could gather. Downtown, the main street was flooded; the cars were left stranded in
the bumper-deep water, and even some automobiles floated over the streets.

The diagram below shows how the model effect paragraph is organized. In this diagram you
should see that the topic – a storm caused a great damage - is given in the opening sentence.
Notice, too, that the supporting sentences give the effects of the terrible storm.

Cause (topic sentence) Effects (supporting sentences)

The last night storm caused a great damage. It knocked down trees.
[There are several effects of this]
(The last night storm caused a great damage.) It caused a blackout.

(The last night storm caused a great damage.) It ruined homes and caved in the roofs.

(The last night storm caused a great damage.) It forced people evacuate their homes.

(The last night storm caused a great damage.) It blocked Main Streets.

102
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Cause/Effect Pattern
The writer may wish to develop a combined cause/effect pattern with in the same paragraph.
With this type of paragraph, there is no rule or regularity about which should come first (after
the topic sentence). Sometimes the writer may wish to indicate cause before effect, and other
timers he/ she may want to begin with the result or effect. Sometimes, in this pattern, one cause
is followed by several results. And sometimes several causes are followed by a single result.

Explanations of cause and effects very often use transitions such as the following:
thus reasons leads to
because result brings about
leading to effects therefore
since causes as a result
Here are some other common conjunctions that can be used to express cause and effect:
for this reason since because of +noun phrase
as a result because due to + noun phrase
therefore consequently
Exercise
If the following topic sentences are developed, they can form cause/ effect paragraphs
Develop one of them into a paragraph indicating both the causes and effects of the topic.
 The place where children grow may determine their future.
 How you behave in a society will determine your acceptance in that society.
 The way a teacher treats his/her students can have a great effect on students‟ life.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

103
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Types of paragraph exercises

I. Read the sentences below and determine whether they belong to a narrative
paragraph, a descriptive paragraph, or an expository paragraph. Fill in the blank
<N= for narrative, <D= for descriptive, or <E= for expository.
Topic Sentences:
1. __________ To play soccer, one must learn the rules, practice often, and join a
team.
2. __________ Monet‟s painting, Water Lilies, shows a messy pond that appears
peaceful and shimmering with the feathery clouds above reflecting in it.
3. __________ Last Halloween was the scariest, spookiest, and silliest night I ever
had.
Supporting Sentences:
1. __________ Buster‟s cottony, white fur feels so soft and cozy as I lace my fingers
through it.
2. __________ After dinner, we went to the theater and saw a play called The Lion King.
3. __________ Once the whites have been separated from the colors, load the whites into the
washer.
Concluding Sentences:

104
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

1. __________ When we got home from the amazing fishing trip, we made a photo album of it.
2. __________ Following these simple steps will help one be able to bake delicious apple pie.
3. __________ The happy sounds of lively instruments tapered off as the joyful song ended.

II. Read the following topic sentences. Decide which type of paragraph the author is writing.
1. I got lost on my very first day as camp counselor.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
2. The Civil War began in 1861. a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
3. My new candle smells like a freshly brewed stick of cinnamon.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
4. Students should never have to do their own laundry.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
5. My camping trip in the Smoky Mountains was exciting.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
6. The Florida Everglades’ invasive Burmese python can be dealt with in several ways.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
7. Tonight‟s sunset on the beach glistened in hues of red and orange.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive
8. The life cycle of a butterfly has several stages.
a. narrative b. descriptive c. expository d. persuasive

III. Read each paragraph carefully and decide whether it is a narrative, descriptive,
expository, or persuasive paragraph. Label it appropriately in the blank.
1. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive)
To be healthy, teens can exercise, eat nutritious foods, and keep themselves safe.
First, participating in various kinds of fitness can keep them in shape. This can include
walking, riding their bikes, and playing sports. Next, maintaining a nutrient-rich diet can
help teens stay well. Three balanced meals and two wholesome snacks a day can keep
their health on track. Finally, staying out of dangerous situations can keep teens healthy.
Avoiding strangers, wearing seatbelts in cars, and checking smoke detectors are all great
ways to accomplish this task. Teens who follow these tips will keep their bodies

105
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

unharmed and in good physical shape.

2. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive)
One of the oddest coincidences in my life happened when I left America to visit
Seoul, South Korea. A friend and I wanted to visit a castle in Seoul, so we found some
locals who agreed to take us to see it. As we were walking up some steps from one part
of the grounds to another, I saw some people watching us from the top of the steps.
When I got to the top, someone I had never seen before mentioned my sister‟s name and
asked if I was her sister. I almost couldn‟t talk! How could these people know my sister,
who lived in Australia? They explained that they were my sister‟s neighbors in Australia
and that I looked just like her. It was the strangest experience in my life!
3. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive)
Pets should be allowed in school for a number of reasons. First, they help students
feel more comfortable. Some students feel very uncomfortable in a school setting, but
taking along a pet gerbil or gecko might help students relax. Also, students can make
friends more easily with a pet. A pet frog or tarantula can gather quite a crowd; and
when students see what pets they have in common, they can unite around their common
interests. Finally, pets can keep students safe. Who wants to bully a student who has a
protective dog with him? For all of these reasons, students should be allowed to take
their pets to school.

4. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive)

Hanging on my bedroom wall is a picture of a train. Sometimes, when I‟m lying
on my bed, I take a closer look. The front of the train has a number of flags, but they
don‟t look like today‟s American flag. Instead, these flags have stripes and a circle of
stars. The train is at a station, and the conductor is walking toward the tracks in front of
the train. Is he preparing to speak to all of the hat-wearing men and children behind him,
or is he checking out the tracks? I can‟t decide. The clock on the post outside the station
says it is about six fifteen, and I‟m guessing that it‟s evening and not morning since it
doesn‟t look dark. I can just imagine the smell of coal and hear the sound of the train as
it snorts and breathes, chomping at the bit to get moving. The picture always makes me
think about life in the past.

106
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

5. Paragraph Type (narrative, descriptive, expository, or persuasive)

All students should be required to learn how to use the internet. First, because the
web gives students access to a tremendous amount of research from the comfort of
school or home, they can save time doing research if they learn to use this resource. For
example, if students want to write about poodles, they can easily go to a search engine
and find all of the resources they could possibly want or need on the topic. Next, the
internet allows instant communication with access to everything from email to Skype.
Students who have access to the web can communicate with parents and friends during
breaks, resolving issues or letting parents know about a schedule change. Finally,
learning to use the internet will help students compete in the highly-competitive and
technologically-savvy world. Many jobs today require employees to use the internet,
and if students don‟t know how to do this, they will be stuck in lower-paying jobs.
Clearly, the internet is a necessity in today‟s world, so all students should learn how to
use it.

107
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

UINT THREE
3. LETTER AND CV WRITING
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 differentiate between business and personal letters

 write business and personal letters
 write curriculum vitae

Activity 3.1: try to answer the following questions individually and then compare with your
friends

1. For what purposes do people write letter?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you write in the same way when you write to your friend and to your boss? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3.1 Letter Writing
Letters are written messages that people send to each other over some distance. They are sent
for various purposes: almost every person who can read and write may send a letter to other
person at least once in life time. Letters can be divided into formal and informal.

3.1.1 Formal Letter

The formal letter is a standard genre in professional and academic settings. While the function
and purpose of the document may change based on the circumstances in which you are writing,
many of the formatting and organizational conventions will be consistent.

The most important element of writing formal letter is your ability to identify and write to your
audience. If you are addressing your letter to the department of English language and literature
in Jinka University, avoid overly formal and rigid language too.

108
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

The next element is that you make sure your present your objective in a clear and concise
manner. Do not be vague about your objective; most people will not have the patience to sit
there and guess at the meaning of your letter or the time to read a long-winded letter, just get to
the point without going into unnecessary details.

Another important element to remember is to remain professional. Even if you are writing a
complaint letter, remain polite and courteous, simply stat e the problem(s) along with any other
relevant information and be sure to avoid slang and casual language, clichés, short forms and
abbreviations. The writer should avoid overly formal and rigid language too. The letter should
be logically structured and well-organized.

Typically, formal letters follow a consistent set of genre expectations. Common formal letter
conventions include:
 The heading: the heading should include a street address, city, state, ZIP code and the date.
Your address should be at the top of the letter or in the right-hand corner. The date is usually
on the right below sender`s address.
U.S.: 8.20.2019 U.K.: 20.8.2019 (20th August 2019)
Other ways: August 20th 2019 20 August 2019 August 20,
2019
 The inside (receiver`s) address: the inside name and address are written on the left and
may be in a block form. Always write a proper title before the name (Mr. or Ms.). If you use
a title after a person`s name, do not use one before the name (Ken Hovind, M.D. or Mr. Ken
Hovind).
 The attention line and salutation: You can include the receiver`s name and position in an
attention line below which you can continue with salutation. Dear Sir/Dear Madam/Dear Sir
or Madam/Dear Sirs-U.K./Dear Gentlemen-U.S. are used when you do not know the name
or sex of the person you are writing to. If you do know the name, use:
U.S.: Dear Mr. Green Dear Ms. Green, Dear Dr. Green
U.K.: Dear Mr Green Dear Ms Green, Dear Dr Green
English usage places no full stop after Mr, Ms, Dr. Both, English and American, use comma
after the greeting. If a letter is intended for more than one person, use plural form:

109
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Dear Professors Hovind and Green, Dear Professor Hovind and Professor Green,
 The body of the letter: The body of the letter may be indented or blocked. It is usual to use
block form and leave a line space between paragraphs in the body. In any case, be consistent
with the style you choose.
 Complimentary close: it is the letter ending. It depends on salutation. If you start with Dear
Sir or Madam etc., finish with yours faithfully. If you begin with a person`s name Dear Dr
Green close with Yours sincerely, or sincerely yours,
The comma after complimentary close is optional.
U.S.: Yours truly, truly yours, Sincerely, Best regards
U.K.: Best wishes, Kind regards
Old fashioned phrases to be avoided: Respectfully yours, we remain yours faithfully
 The signature: the signature is below complimentary close, usually in black or blue ink and
above your typed name. Do not include your title in written signature, only after your typed
name below the signature.
(Signature)
--------------------
Ken Hovind
Sales Manager
 Enclosure (if applicable): If you are enclosing (attaching) additional information with your
letter such as a resume or curriculum vitae, skip two single lines after your typed name and
type Enclosure. I am enclosing, please find enclosed, Enclosed you will find.
Example

110
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Read the following sample formal letter:

Novomet1
Bratislava 999 99
Slovak Republic

11. 2. 2011

Healthcare People Management Association (HPMA)

HPMA Head Office

77 Mansfield Park

Richmond Surrey TW9 1PL

Dear Sir,

I am an Associate Professor of Paediatrics‟ at Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia. I

plan to apply for an internship at your association.

Would you please send me a copy of the HPMA catalogue, information on financial aid and
housing, and materials about your HPMA Internship Program?

Thank you for your time and assistance in this matter.

Yours faithfully,

(Signature)

3.1.2 Informal letters /Friendly letter

This type of personal writing is represented by personal correspondence, thank you letters, and
letters of congratulation or condolences. All of these can be printed or handwritten. How should
the letter be organized or formatted? The layout of an informal letter follows:

 Heading: The heading in the upper right corner may consist of an address and date. We do
not use punctuation at the end of the heading lines.

111
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

 Salutation: The salutation placed at the left-hand margin is rather friendly and informal. We
do use comma here, e.g. Dear Gran, Beloved Mum, Dearest Susie,
 Body: The body may consist of one or more paragraphs, dealing with personal topics.
 Complimentary closing: The complimentary close is followed with a comma:
E.g. Love, Jane sincerely yours, Tom Yours, Alan

 Signature: The signature is written below the complimentary close.

Example:
Sample friendly letter
18. 8. 2005

Dear Catherine,

Hi! I am sorry it took me so long to write. I have been really busy with work. You know how it
goes. How are things with you?

Do you start school soon? Summer goes too fast! The only reason I want school to start is so
that it will finish. I am ready for college.

I miss you! I loved Europe and I was so sad to have to come back to the U.S.A. I loved meeting
all the people, especially you, and learning about real culture.

The U.S. just doesn`t appreciate beauty the way Europe does. I am not going to live in the U.S.
after college. I think I want to live in Spain.

How is the building of the Bible College coming? We all had such a wonderful time working +
playing with all of you. I wish I were there now.

I hope all is well with you. Send your family my love. I don`t have my pictures back yet but I
will soon so I will mail you some then.

Love,

Signature

Kristina

112
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

3.2 Curriculum Vitae

The curriculum vitae, also known as a CV or vita, are a comprehensive statement of your
educational background, teaching, and research experience. It is the standard representation of
credentials within academic writing. It includes a summary of your educational and academic a
background, teaching and research experience, publications, presentation, awards, honours and
other details. The basic sections of CV are:

 Heading: Name, email address, mailing address (only one), and phone number;
 Education: List academic degrees, with in progress or most recently earned first;
Name of institution, city and state, degree type and major, month and year degree was
(will be) awarded. Thesis title and advisor‟s name are necessary, if applicable.
 Relevant Experience: List positions that show off your skills and expertise. You can
group experiences into relevant categories to enhance your CV (e.g. Research, Teaching,
and Administration). For each position, include:
Title, organization name, city and state, dates position was held.
Bullet points that summarize your activities/duties, accomplishments, and
successes. Use action verbs.
 Publications: Give bibliographic citations for articles, pamphlets, chapters in books,
research reports, or any other publications that you have authored or co-authored. Use the
format appropriate to your particular academic discipline for a clean look.
 Presentations (Oral and Poster): Give titles of professional presentations, name of
conference or event, dates and location, and, if appropriate in your discipline, also include a
brief description. Use the format appropriate to your particular academic discipline for a
consistent and clean look.
 Honors and Awards: Receipt of competitive scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships;
names of scholastic honours; teaching or research awards.
 References: Three to five are appropriate. If you are responding to an advertisement that
asks for references, include those requested on a separate addendum sheet.

113
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Optional Sections:
 Qualifications or Skills: A summary of particular or relevant strengths or skills which you
want to highlight. Typically, this is not included as a separate section, but addressed in
other sections. Occasionally, it may be appropriate to list special computing or language
skills.
 Grants Received: Include name of grant, name of granting agency, date received, and title
or purpose of research project.
 Institutional Service: List institutional committees you have served on, including offices
held student groups you have supervised, or special academic projects you have assisted
with.
 Certifications: List all relevant certifications and the year received.
 Professional Associations: Memberships in national, regional, state, and local professional
organizations. Also, list significant appointments to positions or committees in these
associations. Student memberships in professional associations are appropriate.
 Recent/Current Research: Description of research projects recently conducted or in
progress. Include the type of research and a brief description of the purpose.
 Community Involvement: Appropriate and relevant volunteer work, church work,
community service organizations, etc.
 Educational Travel: Names of countries, dates, purpose.
Curriculum vitae Format

1. Your Contact Information

Name:
Address:
Telephone:
Cell Phone:
Email:
2. Personal Information
Date of Birth;
Place of Birth:
Citizenship:

114
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Visa Status:
Gender:
3. Optional Personal Information
Marital Status:
Spouse‟s Name:
Children;
4. Employment History:
List in chronological order, include position details and dates
Work History
Academic positions
Research and Training
5. Education Include dates, majors, and details of degrees, training and certification
High School
University Graduate School
Post-Doctoral Training
6. Professional Qualifications
Certifications and Accreditations
Computer skills
7. Awards
8. Publications
9. Books

115
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Sample CV

1. PERSONAL INFORMATION
NAME: Jonathan S. Ekambi
POSTAL ADDRESS: PO Box 44400, Nairobi, Kenya (Tel. No. 723002/3/4)
PERSONAL DATA: Date of Birth- 10th December, 1957 Marital Status: Married
District: Vihiga
2. EDUCATION:
- 2004, MSc-information Technology Management, University of Sunderland/ Jomo
Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. Completed up to Post
Graduate Diploma.
- June 2005 BCom Accounting, Business Administration and management, Daystar
university.
- June 1999- Graduate Diploma of the institute for the management of information
systems at Honors level. From the Institute of Data processing
management/Greenwich university (IDPM London)
- June 1995 – Higher Diploma in Data processing management. From the institute of
Data processing Management (IDPMLndon)
- June 1992-Diploma in Data processing Management. From the Institute of data
processing.
3. PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATION:
Computer operation-Have knowledge of accounting packages. Have good knowledge of
Sage Accounts package. Have attended certificate courses on computer operations. I also
have some knowledge in a statistical package. Attempted and passed the following
Diploma subjects at the Mombassa Polytechnics, examined by the Kenya
4. WORK EXPERIENCE: Place of work: ministry of Livestock Development, P. O. Box
34188, Nairobi.

Present work
(1) Daystar University, Box 44400, Nairobi Period of work July 1992 to date. Duties-
administrative assistant. I have been able to teach on part-time basis for private colleges at
diploma level. I worked in Human Resource department dealing with human resource systems-

116
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

as Human Resource Assistant. (Records), Currently, I am working as an Information Support

Specialist/logistics in ICT department.

(2) Period of work October 1982 to June 1992 Duties-Clerical duties using computers. Input
and output of data.

(3) Place of work Cotecna International, Box 62526, Nairobi period of work 1989/1990 while
on attachment

Duties- Clerical duties using computers. Input and output of data

Personal Referees:

Mrs. Hellen Maleche, Lecturer, Daystar University, Box 44400, Nairobi

Pastor Lucas Chirimi, Daystar University, Box 44400, Nairobi daystar@[Link]

Ready to send in any more information and to come with my certificates for the interview.

Activity: Write informal and formal letters on the following situations.

1. Assume you want to apply for a job after you graduate from Jinka University. The vacancy
is advertised on Ethiopian herald on July 30, 2024. According to the criteria stated. You
feel that you are fit for the advertised post. Write letter of application to your imaginary
potential organization that may employ you after you graduate.

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

117
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Assume you have just come back from your summer vacation. Write a letter to your friend
by describing how you spent and what you did during vacation. Tell him/her about your
result as well.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________

118
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

UNIT FOUR
4. REPORT WRITING.
Overview

Dear learners, in this section, you will learn how to write different types of reports. It is
designed with the main purpose to acquit you with basic knowledge, skills and disposition
applicable in the context in academic writing. To this end, different types of reports will be
discussed to give you the basics about each type.

4.1 Definition of Report

Objectives:

At the end of this unit, you will be able to;

 Recognize the purpose of reports,

 Identify types of reports, and
 Write the model reports

Activity 1.3: try to answer the following questions individually and then compare with your
friends

1. What is a report?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
2. What makes a good report?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
________________

Dear students, a report is a written presentation of factual information based on an investigation

or research. Reports form is the basis for solving problems or making decisions, often in the
subjects of business and the sciences. What makes an effective report?

119
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

An effective report should be:

1. Clear, concise and accurate,
2. Easy for the audience to understand, and
3. Appropriate for the audience well organized with clear section headings.

4.2 Types of Reports

There are two types of reports. These are: project and research reports

4.2.1 Project Report

A project report is a formal document that provides account on the current status of a given
project. A detailed summary is given regarding accomplishments, problems encountered, and
expenses.

Preparing a project report is not different from writing a technical report. It must follow a
certain structure and format. The standard format for making a project report should consist of
the following sections:

1. Title page: This page lists the title of the project, the project head‟s name, and other
relevant information.
2. Abstract: A brief synopsis of the project is narrated here. You may also see consulting
report examples.
3. Table of Contents: If necessary, the list of tables and figures will follow this section.
4. Chapters: Various details of a project is clearly discussed in these chapters. This may
include the introduction, project information, and a conclusion. You may also like report
writing examples. A formal font style, such as Times New Roman or Arial, must be
used. Proper page numbering, indention, and spacing must be observed as well.

4.2.2 Research Report

Research reports follow a standardized format. This allows the reader to find the information
easily and focus on specific areas. Most research reports follow the following structures:

1. Title Page: The purpose of this is to give the title of the report, the student name/number,
the name of the person the report is being submitted to, and the completion date.

120
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

2. Table of Contents: This section presents the sections of the report. It gives the headings,
subheadings and page numbers.
3. Abstract or Executive Summary: It gives a summary of the whole report. It also outlines
the report‟s purpose, methodology, findings, conclusions and recommendations. Mainly
written in past tense, and prepared last.
4. Introduction: This part outlines the context, background and purpose of the report. It
defines terms and sets limits of the investigation so that the reader/audience can easily
identify what the report is about, how information was gathered, and why the report is
needed.
5. Procedure: it outlines the methods used to collect information e.g. interviews,
questionnaires, observations and/or research.
6. Findings: What was found during the research or investigation? It gives the facts only no
interpretation by the writer of the report. In this section, tables, graphs or diagrams can be
used. It must be relevant to the issues and problems identified in the terms of reference. It is
also arranged in a logical order with headings and sub-headings.
7. Discussion: The discussion draws together different parts of the findings and may refer to
findings of other studies and/or theories.
8. Conclusions: conclusion is brief statements of the key findings of the report (full
explanation is given in the Findings and/or Discussion). It is arranged so the major
conclusions come first. It should relate directly to the objectives set out in the terms of
reference or introduction. This must be completed enough for recommendations to be made
from them.
9. Recommendations: The opinions of the writer of the report about possible changes, or
solutions to the problems, including who should take action, what should be done, when and
how it should be done.
10. References: A list of the sources that are used in and referred to in the report. Use APA
referencing style.
11. Appendices: It contains additional relevant information. It may include interview questions,
surveys, etc.

121
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Note:
The major part of the report will consist of the introduction, procedure, findings and/or
discussion, conclusions, and recommendations.
Activity: Write your answer for the following questions.
1. What is the difference between a project and a research report?
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.

2. What are the major components of research reports?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

122
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Prepare your field/organization trip report using standard formats and procedures.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

123
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES

Atkinson, E .G. and B.M. Hudson (1980). Fundamentals of Writing. Faverly Publishing

Benson, B. and P. Byrd (1989). Improve the Grammar of Writing English: The Editing Process.
Boston: Heinle-Heinle Publisher.

Burlington, P. (1984) Gets it in Writing. Toronto: Charles E. Merrill Publishing

Carson, B.R. (1982). A Basis for Composition. Toronto; Charles E. Merrill Publishing. Group:
USA

Day, S. (1984). The Writers Workbook. (2nd ed) London: McGraw Hill.

Ezor and Lewis (1989) From Paragraph to Essay: A Process Approach for Beginning College
Writing. USA: McGraw-Hills, Inc

Fowler, H.R and Aaron, J.E. (1989) The Little Brown Handbook (4th ed) USA: Harper Collin
Publisher Inc

Hall, D. (1985) Writing Well (5th ed) Boston: Little Brow and Company.

Kolin, P.C. (1990). Successful Writing at work (3rd ed). Health and Company:

Madsen, S (2003). Professional Writing. Pal grave; McMillan.

124
SOPHOMORE ENGLISH JKU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

Pauley, S.E. and G. Riordan. (1993). Technical Report writing. (5th ed) Houghton Mifflin
Company: Boston.

Solomon, G/Ghiorgis. (1984). Writing for Academic Purpose Vol 1. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa
University Press.

Stewart, M.M. and K. Zimmer (1982). College English and Communication. (4th ed) New
York: McGraw Hills.

Tsegaw, A. (1988). A Guide to Effective Writing in English. Addis Ababa: Birehanina Selam
Printing Press.

Tichy, H.J. (1988). Effective writing for Engineers, Managers and Scientist. (2nd ed), New
York: John Wiley and Sons.

Wiener, H.S. (1984) Creating Composition. New York: McGraw Hills.

Wyrick, J. (1993) Steps to Write Well: A Concise Guide to Composition (5th ed) USA: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich, Publisher

125