Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Ned Satchfield, Julia Fenton
ECE-370 Spring 2021
Lab 2: PN Junctions in Semiconductors
Introduction:
The objective of this lab is to examine the various characteristics of pn-junctions, n-type
semiconductors, and p-type semiconductors. These characteristics were observed and
calculated with the aid of Nanohub simulations.
Theory:
A PN junction semiconductor diode is an electronic device that limits current passing through it
to travel in only one direction. They are composed of two semiconductors connected at a
junction, with one side (denoted as the P side) doped with trivalent impurities, thus providing
“holes” for electrons to fill. The other side of the semiconductor (The N side) is doped with
pentavalent impurities, meaning that this side is more negatively charged with more electrons
present.
After the junction is formed, the holes and electrons from the P and N sides respectively diffuse
across the junction creating positive ions in the P region and negative ions in the N region. This
leaves a depletion region between the two, without mobile charge carriers, and the positive
and negative ions on either side induces an electric field across it, which in turn makes it more
difficult for any further diffusion of charge depending on the size of the field. However, the field
does push minority carriers from their respective junctions to flow across, resulting in a
relatively small drift current flowing in the opposite direction. The amount of drift current
strongly depends upon temperature.
One can model the built-in barrier-potential across the junction with the following:
𝑁𝑎 ∗ 𝑁𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑡 ∗ ln ( )
𝑛𝑖
Eq. 1. Built in Barrier Potential
𝐾∗𝑇
𝑉 =
𝑄
Eq. 2. Thermal Voltage equation
Where NA and ND are the respective doping concentrations of the P and n Sides.
In a forward biased diode, the positive terminal of a battery connects to the P-side connector
(the anode), and the negative terminal to the N-side (the cathode). As such, the positive and
negative terminals repel the holes and electrons from their respective regions across the
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
depletion region, overcoming the barrier potential and allowing a current to pass through
normally. The current with respect to the applied voltage from the battery is given as follows:
𝐼 = 𝐼 (𝑒 − 1)
Eq. 3 Diffusion current through a forward-biased diode
𝐷 𝐷
𝐼 = 𝐴𝑞𝑛 ( + )
𝐿 𝑁 𝐿 𝑁
Eq. 4 Saturation current
In a reverse biased diode, the positive terminal connects to the cathode, and the negative
terminal to the anode. Thus, holes and electrons from the P and N regions respectively are
attracted away from the junction, condensing the bound charges to increase on their sides,
thus increasing the barrier voltage. The reverse current that flows through is nearly equivalent
to the saturation current (found in Eq. 4) and is caused by the flow of minority carriers. It is
unaffected by barrier potential but varies greatly with temperature.
Experimental Procedure:
The first Nanohub simulation performed was “Illinois Solid State Electronic Devices Classes
Tools” 1-Bulk Silicon Transport Data. In this simulation, the donor and acceptor concentrations
can be manipulated to observe many different properties of silicon. After running the
simulation, change the donor concentration to 1e16cm-3 for an n-type Silicon semiconductor.
Run the simulation then save the data for majority and minority carrier mobility, resistivity, and
drift velocity of the majority carriers. From the resistivity data, the conductivity of the
semiconductor versus concentration can be plotted. After completing data collection for the
first concentration, repeat all data collection for Silicon with an acceptor concentration of
1e16cm-3.
Again, using the “Illinois Solid State Electronic Devices Classes Tools” select the 2-Effects of
Doping on Semiconductors. After loading this application, use the sliders to manipulate the
donor and acceptor doping levels, and temperature. By manipulating these values, observe the
factors that effect the location of the Fermi level in semiconductors and how the Fermi level
affects the concentration of carriers in each band.
The next simulation will be using the “PN Junction (New Interactive Front End)” tool. Change
the applied voltage to 1 volt and extract the energy band diagram. After that, set the p-type
length to 0 in order to create an n-type semiconductor. Set the donor concentration to
1e17com^-3 and extract the energy band diagram. Then, gather the energy band diagram for a
p-type semiconductor with an acceptor concentration of 1e17cm^-3.
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Using the same simulation as the previous section, create a p-n junction semiconductor with an
acceptor concentration of 10^16cm^-3 and a donor concentration of 5e10^16cm^-3. Set the
applied voltage to 0.5V and save the plot in the Electric Potential and Electric Field tabs.
Results:
Through the bulk silicon transport data simulation, the resistivity data was extracted for both
donor and acceptor doping scenarios, it could be used to calculate the semiconductor
conductivity which was then plotted as conductivity versus concentration. Semiconductor
conductivity was calculated using the equation 𝜎 = .
Conductivity vs Concentration (Donor Doping)
1.2E+19
1E+19
Concentration (/cm3)
8E+18
6E+18
4E+18
2E+18
0
-32 18 68 118 168
Conductivity (1/ohm-cm)
Fig. 1. Conductivity vs concentration for donor concentration 10 𝑐𝑚
Conductivity vs Concentration (Acceptor Doping)
1.2E+19
Concentration (/cm3)
1E+19
8E+18
6E+18
4E+18
2E+18
0
-8 12 32 52 72 92
Conductivity (1/ohm-cm)
Fig. 2. Conductivity vs concentration for acceptor concentration 10 𝑐𝑚
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Majority and minority carrier mobilities for both donor and acceptor doping were recorded and
are presented in Appendix 1 and 2. In the donor doping scenario, the majority carrier is the
electron, and the minority carrier is the hole. Conversely, for the acceptor doping scenario, the
majority carrier is the hole, and the minority carrier is the electron.
Additionally, the drift velocity of the majority carriers were collected and are given in Appendix
3 and 4 for donor and acceptor doping respectively. For high electric fields, the velocity
saturates, this is due to carrier scattering.
The location of the Fermi level is affected by: donor doping concentration, acceptor doping
concentration, and temperature if the concentrations in conduction and valance band are not
equal. In a semiconductor with donor doping, the Fermi level will shift away from the midgap
position towards the valence band in order to obey the mass action law as well as to fulfill the
overall electrical charge neutrality. In a semiconductor with acceptor doping, the
semiconductor will obey the same two principles as in the donor doping scenario except that
with acceptor doping the Fermi level with shift towards the conduction band. If the conduction
and valence bands have different effective masses for electrons and holes respectively, with
increasing temperature the Fermi level with shift towards the band with smaller effective mass.
In contrast, if the conduction and valence bands have the same effective mass, the Fermi level
will stay and the mid-gap energy regardless of an increase in temperature.
In cases of highly doped materials, majority and minority carriers are easy to observe. If a
semiconductor is highly doped with acceptors, the majority carrier will be holes and the
minority carrier will be electrons. When a semiconductor is highly doped with donors, the
majority carrier will be electrons and the minority carrier will be holes.
From a pn-junction semiconductor with an applied voltage of 1V, the band diagram can be
observed in Fig. 3.
Figure 3. Energy band diagram of pn-junction semiconductor at 1V
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
The energy band diagram for an n-type semiconductor with a donor concentration of
10 𝑐𝑚 is shown in Fig. 4.
Figure 4. Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor at 1V
The energy band diagram for a p-type semiconductor with an acceptor concentration of
10 𝑐𝑚 is shown in Fig. 5.
Figure 5. Energy band diagram of p-type semiconductor at 1V
Both the p-type and n-type energy band diagrams look very similar. Compared to the pn-
junction semiconductor, the p-type and n-type semiconductor energy bands decrease in energy
level sooner, around 2.75um, whereas the pn-junction semiconductor energy bands decrease
around 5.75um.
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
In an abrupt silicon pn-junction that contains 10 𝑐𝑚 acceptors and 5 ∗ 10 𝑐𝑚 . From this
information the built-in-potential of the pn-junction can be calculated as shown from the
equation below.
𝑁 𝑁
∅ = 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛( )
𝑛
(5 ∗ 10 )(10 )
∅ = 0.0259ln ( = 0.76𝑉
10
The width of the depletion region can be determined if the applied voltage equals 0, 0.5, and -
2.5V. Shown below is the equation used to calculate the depletion region width as well as the
calculation for 𝑉 = 0𝑉.
2𝜀 1 1
𝑤= + (∅ − 𝑉 )
𝑞 𝑁 𝑁
2(8.85 ∗ 10 1 1
𝐴𝑡 𝑉 = 0𝑉, 𝑤 = ( + )(0.76 − 0) = 0.315𝜇𝑚
1.6 ∗ 10 10 5 ∗ 10
The maximum electric field can be calculated in the depletion region at 0, 0.5, and -2.5 V, as
shown below.
2(∅ − 𝑉 )
𝐸=−
𝑤
2(0.76 − 0) 40𝑘𝑉
𝐴𝑡 𝑉 = 0𝑉, 𝐸 = − = 𝑐𝑚
0.315
Finally, the potential across the depletion region in the n-type semiconductor can be solved for
at 0, 0.5, and -2.5 V. The equation and example are shown below.
(∅ − 𝑉 )𝑁
∅ =
𝑁 +𝑁
(0.76 − 0)10
𝐴𝑡 𝑉 = 0𝑉, ∅ = = 0.105𝑉
10 + 5 ∗ 10
All data for each applied voltage are summed up in Table 1 below.
𝑉 = 0𝑉 𝑉 = 0.5𝑉 𝑉 = −2.5𝑉
w 0.315μm 0.143μm 0.703μm
E 40kV/cm 18kV/cm 89kV/cm
∅ 0.105V 0.0216V 0.522V
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Table 1. Depletion region width, maximum electric field, and potential across the depletion
region for three applied voltages
Using the data in the case of the abrupt silicon pn-junction and the “PN Junction Lab” Nanohub
simulation, the graphs of electric field and electrostatic potential were obtained and are given
in Figure 6 and 7.
Figure 6. Electric field of pn-junction
Figure 7. Electrostatic potential of pn-junction
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Discussion:
In figures 1 and 2, as the concentrations of either the acceptors or donors in the diode are
increased, the diodes conductivity is increased as well, meaning that the more charge carriers
there are, the more current can pass through the diode. This result was expected, in that it
aligns with the increased probability of charge carriers diffusing due to an increased number of
charge carriers that could diffuse across the gap.
When the energy-band diagrams were recorded for diodes in various conditions (Figures 3, 4, &
5), very little difference was shown between them, regardless of the concentrations of charge
carriers in the regions. The band gap and fermi level remained relatively constant, and the only
real change was the position at which the energy level decreases, implying a lack of correlation
between any of these factors.
In measuring the carrier mobilities in acceptor and donor regions (Appendix 1. And 2.), mobility
decreased for all of the types of carriers when the concentration was increased. This makes
sense, as it lines up with Eq. 1, which states that as the concentration of carriers increases, the
barrier potential across the depletion region increases, due to the increased electric field. This
further inhibits carriers from moving across the region, making them less mobile.
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Appendix:
Appendix 1. Donor doping majority and minority mobility
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Appendix 2. Acceptor doping majority and minority mobility
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021
Appendix 3. Donor doping majority Appendix 4. Acceptor doping majority
carrier velocity carrier velocity
Dn = 𝜇 n*Vt = 1000 * 0.0258 = 25.8 Dp = 𝜇 p*Vt = 300 * 0.0258 = 7.75
np0= ni2/Na = 1020/1016 = 104 cm-3 pn0= ni2/Na = 1020/4*1016 = 104 cm-3
Ln = √
Lab2 Satchfield, Fenton May 7, 2021