Displacement Methods

2.2.1 Slope-Deflection Method

In the force method, the unknown redundant forces are determined first by solving the structure’s
compatibility equations. Then, the other response characteristics of the structure are evaluated by
equilibrium equations or superposition. An alternative approach that can be used for analyzing
indeterminate structures is termed the displacement (stiffness) method. Unlike the force method,
in the displacement method the unknown displacements are determined first by solving the
structure’s equilibrium equations. Then, the other response characteristics are evaluated through
compatibility considerations and member force deformation relations.
The slope deflection method takes into account only the bending deformations of structures. One
of the main values of the slope deflection method lies in that it forms the basis of the other
methods such as the Cross and Kani moment distribution methods. These methods are numerical
iteration solution of the slope deflection simultaneous equations. In the slope deflection method
the rotations and relative joint displacements are the unknowns and the moments at the joints are
found in terms of rotations, joint displacements, stiffness and length of members which are
determined from the solution of simultaneous algebraic equations. The method assumes all joints
to be rigid; that is, the angles between the members at the joints do not change under applied
loads. Also, displacements due to axial and shearing forces, being very small, are neglected.
Consequently, the joint is considered to rotate as a whole and a single angle of rotation is
sufficient to define the rotation of all members at a joint.

Development of Slope deflection equations

The slope-deflection equations relate the moments at the ends of a member to the rotations and
displacements of its ends and the external loads applied to the member.
 Sign Convention
There are different sign conventions used in different textbooks. In all subsequent discussion a
sign convention suitable for beam and frame analysis is:
a. Moments: an end moment M is considered positive if it tends to rotate the member
counter-clockwise.
b. Member Rotation: the rotation of the chord connecting the ends (∆/L) is positive if the
member turns in counterclockwise direction.
 The slope deflection equations
To develop the slope defletion equations, consider a structure which is a straight prismatic
restrained beam AB of span L and moment of inertia I subjected to a system of loads. Due to the
effect of loads and the adjacent members, the beam is displaced as shown in fig below. In
reference to the original position, the ends rotate through θ A and θB at A and B, respectively, and
a relative vertical displacement of ∆ of the member ends. The end moments produced at A and B
are MAB and MBA respectively. The member AB is equivalent, both statically and kinematically,
to the sum of those shown in fig d-f. Note that the end and member rotations are assumed
clockwise and therefore positive. The effect of each displacement component to determine the
end moments at A and B are discussed as below.

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These components are:
a. Fixed-end moments: for the applied load system the fixed-end moments M FAB and MFBA
are first determined.
b. End moments due to rotation θA: the member AB is propped cantilever with clockwise
rotation θA (Fig d). Using the conjugate beam method, the rotation and displacement at
support A are

From which

Therefore

Hence

(2.16)

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 c. End moments due to rotation θB (fig. e)
In a similar manner as above,

and

From which

Therefore

Hence

(2.17)
d. End moments due to relative displacement ∆ ( fig. f)

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The slope at support A is

Thus

Using the conjugate beam method

Hence

(2.18)
The separate moments of Fig. c-f may be superimposed to represent the true end moments for
beam AB according to the bending moment sign convention:

Or interms of the end rotations and displacements:

Adopting the statical sign convention the equations are revised as:

(2.19)
The above equations are known as the slope deflection equations. They express the end moments
of a member in terms of its end displacement. Note that the sign of the fixed-end moment is
shown as plus. However, its correct sign will be determined by the direction it tends to rotate the
joint following the adopted sign convention.
These equations can further be generalized as a single equation in the form:

(2.20)
where: the subscripts j and m represent the near and far end of member JM respectively,

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 I jm
K jm=
L jm
The slope deflection equations given by equation (2.20) represent two equations with six
unknowns. The unknowns are solved by applying boundary conditions for the displacements and
continuity conditions for the moments.
 Fixed-End moments
When a beam whose supports are completely fixed against rotation or translation is subjected to
transverse loads the beam is called a fixed end beam. The bending moments at the supports of
such a beam are called fixed-end moments.
Application of slope deflection equations to beam problems
 Beams with no Support Settlements
The slope deflection equations for a member with no relative lateral displacement between the
ends are:

(2.21)

The values of the fixed end moments for common types of loadings are:

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 Beams with Support Settlements

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Support yielding in continuous beams induces bending moments at all supports of the beam. The
general slope deflection equations used to analyze continuous beams with support settlements
are:

(2.22)
The procedure for the analysis of continuous beams by the slope deflection method can be
summarized as follows:
a. Determine the fixed-end moments in each span
b. Use the slope deflection equations to express the end-moments and end-rotations
c. Establish the equilibrium equations of moments where the support rotations are the
unknowns, at each joint capable of rotating: the sum of the end moments of all members
at the joint is zero.
d. Evaluate the rotations by solving the simultaneous equations
e. Substitute the rotations back into the slope deflection equations to compute the end
moments.
Application of slope deflection equations to frames
 Frames without sidesway
The slope deflection equations for frames without sidesway are:

(2.21)
Under this case all joints of the frame remain fixed in location during loading. Such frames are
either physically held against sidesway or are symmetric and subject to symmetric loading
system. The slope deflection solution of a frame without sidesway is essentially the same as that
of a continuous beam.
 Frames with sidesway
When loads are applied to frames, there are cases in which lateral movement occur through
unknown distances, although usually in known direction. The effect of such translation is to
cause the joints to deflect relative to initial unloaded positions. In such cases, the joint rotations
and relative displacements are the unknowns in the slope deflection equations.
The slope deflection equations for the analysis of frames with sidesway are:

(2.19)
Assuming that all axial deformations are so small as to cause no change in member lengths, the
relative sidesway of the joints may be evaluated depending on the geometry of the frame.

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Multistory Frames
In simple frames the sway equation was obtained by considering the horizontal static equilibrium
of the frame. In more complicated frames, such as two or more storey frames, the equilibrium of
the appropriate parts of the frame must be examined. To achieve this number of independent
sway modes must be identified. This may be done by replacing the rigid joints by hinged joints;
the number of independent sway modes is then equal to the number of independent kinematic
mechanisms. Since an independent mechanism corresponds to the action of different loading
systems, each mechanism then corresponds to an independent equation of equilibrium. The sway
equations are therefore obtained by considering the equilibrium of the parts of the frame
corresponding to the independent mechanism in turn.

2.2.2 Moment Distribution Method

Like the slope deflection method, the moment-distribution method can be used only for the
analysis of continuous beams and frames, taking into account their bending deformations only.
The moment distribution method starts from the same basic assumption made in the slope
deflection method. Therefore, in applying the moment-distribution method, we will adopt the
same sign convention as used previously for the slope-deflection method. In the analysis of
continuous beams and frames all joints are assumed fixed and the moments are then corrected by
means of the slope deflection equations. The moment distribution method starts by assuming
each joint of a structure is fixed. Then, by unlocking and locking each joint in succession, the
internal moments at the joints are distributed and balanced until the joints have rotated to their
final or nearly final positions. It will be found that this process of calculation is both repetitive
and easy to apply.
Fundamental factors used in moment distribution:
 Rotational( Member) Stifness:
Consider a prismatic beam AB, which is pinned at end A and fixed at end B and pinned at end
B, as shown in Fig. (a) & (b) below. For a beam with far end fixed, if we apply a moment MAB at
the end A, the beam rotates by an angle θ A at the pinned end A and develops a moment M BA at
the fixed end B, as shown in the figure (a) below.

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The relationship between the applied moment M AB and the rotation θA can be established by
using the slope-deflection equation derived in previous Section.

4 EIθ A
M AB=
L
Or

M AB
Since the value of is a measure of the resistance of the beam to rotation, it is defined as
θA
the stifness of the member. Thus, the stifness of the member can be expressed as:

When the modulus of elasticity for all the members of a structure is the same (i.e., E=constant), it
is usually convenient to work with the relative bending stifnesses of members in the analysis.
The relative bending stifness, K, of a member is obtained by dividing its bending stifness, , by
4E. Thus, the relative bending stifness of the beam of Fig. (a) above is given by:

When a beam has its far end hinged (pinned) instead of fixed, less moment is required to rotate
the end through a given angle. Figure (b) above, is simply supported at the far end and a moment
MAB is applied at the near end. By the slope deflection method:

Or

3 EIθ A
Thus M AB=
L
The expression for the bending stifness of the beam when its far end is pinned can be written as:

The relative bending stifness of the beam can now be obtained by dividing its bending stifness by
4E:

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Generally,

-bending stifnesses of a member

-relative bending stifness of a member

The stifness of the beam at the near end when the far end is pinned is three-fourths of the stifness
when the far end is fixed. The significance of this ratio is that it permits the establishment of
3 EI
distribution factors consistent with true end hinged(pinned) taken as ; the far end can be
L
released in the first balancing operation and then left free during subsequent calculations, or no
moment is carried over to the hinged end.
 Carry Over Factor
Let us consider again the hinged-fixed beam of Fig. (a) above. When a momentM AB is applied at
the hinged end A of the beam, a moment MBA develops at the fixed end B , as shown in the
figure. The moment MBA is termed the carryover moment. The slope deflection equation gives
the corresponding moment at the far end, as
2 EIθ A
M BA =
L
The ratio of the induced moment MBA to the applied moment MAB

is defined as the carry-Over factor

Note that when the far end of the beam is hinged, as shown in Fig. (b), the carryover moment
MBA is zero. Thus, we can express the carryover moment as:

The carryover factor (COF) can be expressed as:

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  Distribution Factors
If there are several members framed into a joint, and if a moment is aplied to joint A as shown in
Fig. below, then

I ij
K ij =
L
where

The moments of the members at joint A are

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Thus the applied moment Mo is distributed to the members in proportion to the relative stifness
K
K. The term is known as the distribution factor, which is denoted as DF.
∑K
K
Thus DF = . The sum of all distribution factors at a given joint must be equal to unity.
∑K
2.2.3 Kani Method
The moment distribution and Kani methods are both iterative procedures to solve the slope
deflection equations. However, the moment distribution method obtains the unknown end
moments by iterating the moments increements, while kani’s method iterates the end moments
themselves as the unknowns. Kani’s method consists of carrying out a single operation applied
repeatedly at the joints of a structure in an arbitrary sequence. Using kani’s method the results
may also be obtained to any desired accuracy by continuing the calcualtions a sufficient number
of times. In addition to its simplicity, the method has the advantage of acquiring a built in error
elimination scheme. Morever, the method is more suitable for frames with high degree of
redundancy, including frames with sidesway, since only one set of computations is necessary.
For such frames the required computational effort by kani method is minimal when compared to
other methods.
 Frames Without Sidesway
Consider member j-m as integral part of a frame (Fig. below) and that there are many such
members meeting at joint j so that m is the general designation, for the far ends. Let M jm and Mmj
be the end moments due to the applied loads at joints j and m, respectively. The slope deflection
equation for member j-m at joint j which is considered part of a frame without sidesway is
written as:

The same equation may be written in the form:

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may be written as

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Since Mjm for any member must be proportional to the relative stifness of the member, the
moment in any member j-m is:

This equation forms the basis for Kani’s method for frames without sidesway where the rotation
contributions are evaluated for member j-m. These contributions and the fixed-end moments are
then added algebraically to determine Mjm.

However, their final values may be determined by successive approximations using iteration
scheme where the rotation contributions proceed from estimated values( starting with initial
zero-approximation), the subsequent values being obtained with better approximation. The
iteration is teminated when the latest approxiamtion furnishes a value acceptably close to the
preceding result.
Kani’s method for frames without sidesway may be summarised as follows:
a. Detemine the fixed-end moments of all members. At each joint evaluate the resultant
fixed-end moment, restraint moment, ∑Mj.
b. Calcualte the relative stifnesses ( K values) of all members using the iteration scheme.
c. Evaluate the final end-moments using the equation:

Hinged (pinned) End Members

In a structure which contains a pin located at one end, the stifness of the member becomes three-
fourths of the stifness of a corresponding beam fixed at both ends. Such members, after the fixed
end moments are determined based on the actual member length and introduced into the
calculation scheme, are replaced by fictitious members fixed at the pinned ends with the K
values which are three-fourth of the actual K values of the members in the original structures.
This substitution is justified since the end moment required to produce a unit rotation in the
original member is the same as the substitute with three-fourths stifness. The pinned-end is then
left free and its final end-moment is set to zero.

 Frames With Sidesway

When a frame is either structurally unsymmetrical or is symmetric with unsymmetrical loading,
joint translation loading or sidesway occurs. Figure below shows member j-m of a frame with
lateral displacement. The rotations at joints j and m are θ jm and θmj respectively, and ∆jm is the
relative lateral displacement between j and m. The slope deflection equation for the member j-m
is:

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Where

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Defining the algebraic sum of the fixed-end moments at joint j as the restraint moment,

Then equation

may be written as

This equation forms the basis for kani’s method for frames with sidesway where the rotation and
displacement contributions must be evaluated for member j-m. These contributions and the fixed
end moments are added algebraically to determine the final joint moment M jm. However, while
the evaluation of the rotation contributions are easily computed as described in previous section,
the determination of the displacement contribution M ' ' jm could be involved depending on the type
of loading on the structure and whether there are columns of different length. The cases arising
in the determination of displacement contributions are discussed below:
(a) Vertical Loding:
Consider the frame shown in Fig.(a) below subjected to vertical loading only. The frame
undergoes sidesway due to the unsymmetrically placed vertical loads. The frame analysis may be
carried out in two steps as was done in moment distribution method.
 No-Sway solution
As shown in Fig.(b), artificial joint restraints are applied at storey heights to prevent sidesway.
The analysis of the frame without sidesway follows the same procedure presented in previous
section. After the joint moments are evaluated the artificial joint restraints may be determined if
required, from equilibrium considerations of the shear forces at every storey.

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  Sway solution
Since the artificial joint restraints introduced in the no-sway solution do not actually exist in the
given frame, their presence may be nullified by applying a consistent force system Fig.(c) whose
forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the respective artificial joint restraints.
By cutting horizontally through all columns at the r th storey and from the consideration of
equilibrium conditions, the algebraic sum of the column shear must be zero,

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Hence, the algebraic sum of the displacement contribution of all columns at the r th storey is
determined to be -1.5 times the sum of the rotation contributions of the column ends of the same
storey. Since all the columns at this storey undergo the same lateral displacement, the
displacement contribution M 'jm' for any individual column is proportional to its relative stiffness
value. The displacement contribution of any column is, therefore, obtained by distributing the
sum among the columns in the rth storey in proportion to their stiffness values. Thus, for
any column j-m

Where:
is the sum of the K values of all columns of the rth storey.
In order to make the computation more convenient, and to make an analogy to rotation factor, a
displacement factor D jm is defined for column j-m as

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Equation

may be written as

Since the displacement contribution M ' ' jm and the rotation distribution M ' jmand M ' mjare
interrelated, the above equation may be solved by using the same convenient iteration scheme.
Once the displacement contributions are known the rotation contributions M ' jm are obtained as:
[
M jm=R jm M j+ ∑r ( M mj + M
' ' ''
jm ) ]and from these again the following approximation of the
displacement and rotation contributions are calculated until the results of a desired accuracy are
obtained. The final end moments are then obtained by using equation:

(b) Horizontal Loading

The principle in determining the displacement contributions in frames subjected to horizontal
loading remain the same as in vertical loading. However, the presence of horizontal loads on the
frame requires an additional effort in the computation. Consider a frame subjected to horizontal
loads applied as shown in Fig.(a) below. Again, the analysis may be carried out in two steps:
 No-Sway Solution
Artificial joint restraints are applied at storey heights as shown in Fig.(b) below to prevent
sidesway. These joint restraints may be determined from no-sway solution of previous section.

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  Sway Solution
Since the artificial joint restraints do not actually exist, they may be eliminated by applying a
consistent force system (Fig. (c)) whose storey shear at any section is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the algebraic sum of the applied horizontal force above that section.
Designating the sum of the restraint forces above the r th storey as the storey shear Vr, the
horizontal equilibrium condition above the rth storey requires that

Assuming the columns are not subjected to intermediate horizontal loads (such as by applying
equivalent loads at the storey heights that will give the same global effect on the frame), all
fixed-end moments become zero. Then,

Rearranging:

The quantity Vrhr/3, which is one-third of the product of the storey shear and storey height, is
defined as the storey moment M 'r .

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This gives the sum of the displacement contributions of all columns in the r th storey. As
explained in the case of vertical loads, the moment in any column j-m is obtained by distributing
this sum in proportion to their K values.
Thus,

Notice that the displacement factors D jm are the same as for vertical loading, so that the
displacement contribution in the case of horizontal loading differs in the extra term M r from the
case of vertical loading. Therefore, the analysis of frames subjected to horizontal loading differs
from the analysis of frames with vertical loading only by the extra term M r which must be
calculated for each storey and be added algebraically to the sum of the rotation contributions of
the two ends of the columns of the storey considered.

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