COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND LEARNING

1.3 Definitions of Communication and learning

The study of communications dates back to the beginning of human civilization. The first communication
theories were developed by Plato and Aristotle during the 5 th century BC ( Trenholm , 1991).It became a
recognized field of study in the 1940’s with the development of models describing the communication
process.
Communication can be defined as “ a process by which verbal and non-verbal symbols are sent , received
and given meaning’. It can also be said to be the social process by which we come to understand and live
with each other through the deliberate use of sign symbols with intent to affect others , our environment
and ourselves. It is also the process of creating a meaning between two or more people ( Tubbs and Moss,
1994, p.6). Communication process has no beginning and no end. It can be said to be a continually changing
process ( Tubbs and Moss 1994, p.14). The process continues , the participants adjust their messages to fit
their changing understanding of one another.
The word communication has roots in the Latin word communis which means common. Therefore in a
teaching /learning situation commonness is created between the teacher and the pupils . In essence it
involves bridging the gap between the teacher and the learners.
Learning can be defined as
• A persisting change in human performance or performance potential … brought about as a result
of the learner’s interaction with the environment ( Driscoll 1994, p. 8-9 ).
• A relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience. ( Mayer
1982 . p. 1040 )
• An enduring change in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion , which results from
practice or other forms of experience. ( Shuell , 1986 , p.412)
• A complex mix of intelligence, motivation, psychological factors and even brain chemistry. It is a
continual process of assimilating , integrating and differentiating new experiences and information
so that it makes a difference in behavior or attitudes ( Hamachek D. E . p.219 )
Though measurement and observation of learning pose a challenge , it is important and helpful to identify
the common criteria used to signify that learning has taken place. Schunk ( 1991, p.2) outlined the process
of learning in the following way
• A change , or the capacity for such a change occurs in the learner’s behavior
• The change , or its capacity results from practice or other forms of experience like observations
• The change , or its capacity endures over time and is not due to fatigue, drugs or illness
1.4 Models of communication
A model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality that seeks to show the
main elements of any structure or process and the relationships between them.
1.4.1 Advantages of using models in explaining concepts
Models have the following advantages when used to explain concepts :
• Models have an organizing function by ordering and relating systems to each other and by
providing us with images of wholes that we might otherwise not perceive
• Models help in explaining by providing in a simplified way information which would otherwise be
complicated and ambiguous
• Models make it possible to predict outcomes
• Models aid in the discovery of new facts about any concept i.e they serve a heuristic function
1.4.2 Disadvantages of using models in explaining concepts
Models have the following disadvantages when used to explain concepts :
• They tend to limit users within confines
• They tend to represent communication as a one way process , thus denying circularity , negotiability
and openness of communication
• Models are inevitably incomplete , oversimplified or involve some concealed assumptions
1.4.3 Examples of models of communication
Communication is based on the relationship between two parties whereby through common understanding
and acceptance an exchange of various human elements are experienced. There are various models that
attempt to explain the concept communication.
[Link] Lasswell’s Formula ( 1948)
Harold Lasswell came up with the Lasswellian formula which takes the form of a statement “ WHO says
WHAT, in which CHANNEL , to WHOM and with what EFFECTS. In the statement WHO refers to the
source of the signals, WHAT refers to the message being passed , CHANNEL refers to the means or media
through which the message is passed, WHOM refers to the receivers of the message and EFFECTS refer to
the impact of the message.
The Lasswellian model is similar to what Aristotle proposed over 2300 years ago.
The Lasswellian model implies that communication is a persuasive process. It also assumes that messages
always have effects and was therefore ideal as a propaganda tool during the post World War II era. The
model has no feedback and is linear.
Braddock (1958) improved Lasswell’s model by asking “ Under what circumstances” and “ For what
purpose” is the communication taking place.
[Link] Claude Shannon and Warren Weavers ( 1949)
The machine technologies and telecommunications systems developed during the 1940’s led to the
mathematical model by Shannon and Weavers that were designed to provide precise description of the
mechanics of transmitting a message, without regard to the content or meaning of the message. . Shannon
worked for the Bell Telephone Laboratory and his theories and model relate primarily to this field by asking
“ How much of the transmitted message will be destroyed by noise between the transmitter and the
receiver”. The model is linear and is one way. Noise in this context is defined as anything that reduces the
clarity or accuracy of the message as it moves from the source to the receiver via the transmitter. The noise
distorts the message.
[Link] C E Osgood and Wilbur Schramn (1954)
The model by Osgood and Schramn put communication in the human context and focused on the meaning
of a message as a vital aspect of the process. This is a circular model that concentrates on the behavior of
the main actors i.e the sender and the receiver. The sender and the receiver exchange roles as the
communication process goes on. The two skills of visual literacy are in use namely encoding and decoding.
Encoding involves creating a verbal signal out of a visual image while decoding involves forming a visual
image out of a verbal signal. Interpretation by the sender involves organizing further messages in light of
the feedback received while interpretation by the receiver involves digesting the message and organizing
the feedback.
Schramn remarked “ We are little switchboard centres handling and rerouting the great endless current of
information ‘.
[Link] David Berlo
David Berlo’s model emphasizes the psychological nature of communication in respect of how it affects
both the sender and the receiver in any communication transaction. The model is commonly known as the
S-M-C-R model of communication. The components of this model are explained as follows:
S stands for Source which must have the following attributes. The source must have communication skills
, have favourable attitudes towards the receiver, must be knowledgeable and operate within some acceptable
socio-cultural context.
M stand for Message . This is content which must be coded and treated properly.
C stands for channel which corresponds to the five senses namely seeing , hearing , touching , smelling and
tasting.
R stands for Receiver who must have attributes similar to the source.
[Link] Tubbs and Moss (1994)
They presented a version of the transactional model . In this model communication occurs when two or
more individuals send messages to one another and receive messages from one another using one or more
channels . The messages are subject to distortion. Filters in the sender ( e.g inadequate vocabulary, lack of
organization or clarity, biases ) distort a message as it is sent. Filters in the receiver ( e.g fatigue,
daydreaming , limited knowledge about the topic ) distort a message as it is received. Other notable models
have been advanced by
1.4.4 Essential components of communication
Its possible for the sake of analysis to break down the communication process into its components but this
would be largely arbitrary as in actuality the process has no discrete parts. From the above highlighted
models various essential components can be identified. They are discussed here under.
[Link] Source
The source is the encoder and creator of messages. In class, sources of information comprise the teacher,
pupils, textbooks, handouts, and resource materials. The teacher is the main source as s/he categorizes and
organizes messages according to the understanding level of the pupils.
For the source to carry out this function it must be motivated. The source originates the messages for the
purposes of affecting the receiver in certain ways that s/he wishes to accomplish the set goals by actively
involving the receiver. Sometimes the source doesn’t actually originate the messages but simply re-
organizes already existing ones. In carrying out this function , the source must use a code i.e a language
which must be meaningful and acceptable to the receiver.
In summary the source has four distinct roles
• Determining the meaning of a message
• Encoding the meaning into a message
• Sending the message
• Perceiving and reacting to the receiver’s responses.
[Link] Receiver
The receiver decodes the message using any of the five senses. After a process of interpretation s/he exhibits
some observable behavior ( verbally or non-verbally). From the receiver’s behavior /response the source
determines whether s/he has been effective. If the message has had no impact, the receiver will re-examine
the message and re-encode it in order to achieve the desired effect. Thus the receiver’s response affects the
source significantly.
The source and the receiver are mutually interdependent as :
• The source encodes and transmits
• The receiver perceives, decodes and interprets
• The receiver responds either in another encoded message or in motor behavior
• The receiver’s response is in turn a message for the source
• The source now behaves like the receiver
The communication is depicted asa non ending process because :
• The receiver subjects the message to his/her own interpretation based on his/her prior experiences
• In encoding the message the source anticipates or predicts the receiver’s interpretation of the
message in light of the receiver’s experience
• When both the source and the receiver have similar prior experiences the source will be in a better
position to precisely predict the receiver’s interpretation
• The code ( language) used by the source should have a vocabulary that is within reach of the
receiver
The receiver has five distinct roles namely :
• Receive by listening , seeing, touching, smelling and tasting
• Attend to all messages
• Decode and evaluate the message
• Store and recall the message
• Respond to the source, channel, environment , noise and message

[Link] Message
The message can be a verbal or non verbal stimulus intended to affect the receiver. In a classroom situation
the message is the content. The message must be well selected and organized to get the receiver’s attention
and keep him/her tuned and actively participating in the process.
[Link] Channel
A channel is something that helps transmit or carry a message or series of messages between two or more
communicators. It is the link between the source and the receiver. It is natural for communication to involve
multiple channels. The channel can be either in the form of sound waves ( words) or light waves ( visuals ,
non verbal communication or print ). The channel must be acceptable to both the source and the receiver
e.g it is useless to speak to a dumb /deaf receiver or to use visuals for a blind receiver. The source must also
take into account the individual needs of the learners in selecting the channel.
[Link] Environment
This is the teaching / learning environment that surrounds the teacher and the learner. This environment is
made up of :
• The attitudes of the source and the receiver
• The socio-economic status of both the source and the receiver
• Room size , colour and temperature
• The seating arrangement
[Link] Noise
This is anything that interferes with or changes the meaning of a message. It can be in the form of day
dreaming as well as visual distractions. It is also anything that reduces the accuracy, meaning ,
understanding or retention of the message. In a classroom noise includes annoying habits or physical
movements , room temperature , poor lighting , poor acoustics, inattentiveness, lack of motivation or
physical impairments of the hearing mechanism.
[Link] Feedback
This allows the source to monitor the responses or reactions of the receiver. In a classroom situation this
can be in the form of pupils responding to the teacher’s questions or taking part in a discussion,
demonstrations, drama, debates, pupils carrying out some given tasks or by simply checking the pupils
facial expressions. Feedback helps the teacher to modify or change the instructional strategy, speed of
delivery, vocabulary level and helps him/her control the class more effectively.
1.4.5 Applications of principles from communication theory

The table below summarizes the theoretical principles and practical applications from communication
theory.

Theoretical principle Practical application

Communication is a continuous two way Communicate with students rather than to them
transaction
Filters and interference distort the message Identify the filters and interference ( actual and
potential) and reduce them as much as possible
There is no single best way to communicate Use more than one channel to communicate with
students.

1.4.6 Barriers to effective classroom communication

Broadly speaking barriers can be categorized into three namely :
• Psychological
• Physiological
• Physical or environmental
Specifically the barriers to effective classroom communication are :
• Language
• Age difference
• Content
• Lesson preparation
• Over emphasis of the cognitive domain
• Class management
• Teaching strategies
 • Media
• Culture
• Socio economic status
• Attitudes and motivation
• Noise
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Think back on a learning situation you have been in. Identify as many of the sources of interference
as you can. Briefly indicate how you would reduce the distortion caused by each source.
FURTHER READINGS
1. Driscoll M P ( 1994). Psychology of Learning for instruction. Boston . Allyn & Bacon.
2. Hamachek Don E. (1979 ). Psychology in Teaching , Learning and Growth. ( 2nd edition). Boston
Allyn and Bacon.
3. Mayer R E. (1982 ). Learning . In H E Mitzel ( Ed). Encyclopaedia of Educational Research ( p.
1040-1058) New York Free Press
4. Shuell T J ( 1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research. 56. 411-
436.
5. Schunk , D H . (1991). Learning theories : An educational perspective. Englewood Cliffs. NJ :
Merrill/ Prentice Hall.
6. Trenholm , S. ( 1991). Human communication theory. ( 2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs. NJ :
Merrill/ Prentice Hall.
7. Tubbs, S L & Moss, S. (1994). Human communication. ( 7th edition). New York. McGraw-Hill.

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

2.1 Definitions
Human communication takes place in two ways namely verbal and non verbal. In verbal communication
the message is communicated through the spoken word while in non verbal the message is through signs ,
gestures and postures which include facial expressions, eye contacts, body postures etc. Non verbal includes
all external stimuli other than the spoken word or written words and includes the use of space and distance.
Both modes are used in classroom interaction.
Birdswhistell R L has a theory that in communication 35% of the message is conveyed verbally while 65%
is passed non verbally. This implies that when a message is passed both verbally and non verbally and the
two versions contradict each other , the receiver tends to believe the non verbal.
2.2 Relationship between verbal and non verbal communication
The relationship between verbal and non verbal communication revolves around four dimensions namely ;
• Substitution relationship. This is the case where a response / reaction which could have been
communicated verbally is done non verbally. Example is nodding the head to mean ‘Yes’ or
shaking the head to mean “No’
• Complementary relationship. This is the situation where a verbal response/ reaction is reinforced
non verbally. For instance shaking the head and saying No at the same time. You can also explain
a process and at the same time demonstrate what you are saying e.g kneeling down , washing etc.
• Conflicting relationship. Sometimes the verbal communication seems to conflict with the non
verbal communication. For instance at the end of a lesson one pupil may approach the teacher and
express a desire to speak to the teacher. The teacher may say ‘ Yes’ but at the same time be busy
rubbing the chalkboard , packing books and checking the watch. This may leave the pupil confused
as to whether to go on and ask the question or leave the teacher alone.
Whenever there is a conflict we tend to rely more on the non verbal messages because the eyes ( a
direct extension of the brain ) have the capability to perceive more quickly than the ears. In other
words what we see is processed faster than what we hear.
 • Accenting relationship. Non verbal activities can stress parts of a verbal message just as underlined
words emphasize written ideas. For instance holding a pupil by the ear and saying “ when I speak
to you, look at the chalkboard’.
2.3 Sources of non verbal signs
There are two main sources of non verbal signs namely :
• Inherent . These are non verbal signs one is born with for instance the blink of an eye. We are born
with the tendency to react physically in certain ways and it is almost impossible to control the
reactions.
• Experiences common to culture , social class or family. These are learned the same way as the
spoken language. We learn them through observing and imitating people around us . It is worth
noting that not all people in any culture have identical patterns for example hand waving is a
common way of greeting in urban areas such as Nairobi as people are normally in a hurry whereas
in the rural areas it is common and fashionable to shake hands. The non verbal signs are read on
the basis of our own background and experiences.
2.4 Kinesics
This is a study that includes movements of the body, limbs, hands, head , feet and legs. It encompasses
facial expressions , eye behavior , posture and walk. A branch of Kinesics is known as proxemics and
refers to the use of space and distance.
Proxemics refers to the way people use and perceive social and personal space around them and how
they use the area ( territory) around them. The space extends and contracts on the basis of ones emotions
and activities. On the basis of proxemics one is able to come up with specific distances that help to
explain an individual’s territory. There are four main distances used during educational and social
relationships. These are :
• Intimate distance. These are cases where certain people prefer to stay at an arm’s length during
an encounter. Examples are situations where some people prefer to sit near a window or at the
back of the class.
• Personal distance. This is exemplified by the office arrangement where the officer sits behind
a desk and their juniors and clients sit on the other side.
• Social distance. A good classroom example is the situation where the person in charge ( i.e the
teacher in class ) stands and the listeners are seated. Also in certain cultures the son in law
cannot shake hands with his mother in law as a sign of respect.
• Public distance. This is the distance kept by public figures to establish barriers between them
and the audience. For example the distance between a teacher and the Inspector of schools.
Note that depending on one’s culture , the space and the territory expands and contracts according to
one’s emotional state and the activity being pursued.
2.5 Gestures.
These are non verbal behaviors . Five types of gestures are described below.
• Emblems or symbols. These are signs that a specific society or an identifiable group of people
hold in common. Examples are national flags, school badges, or signs used by matatu drivers
to describe positions of policemen on the highway.
• Illustrators. These are gestures that accompany speech. They are used to sketch a path , point
to an object or show the spatial position of a place on a map while speaking about the site.
• Affect displays. These are facial expressions that show emotions and feelings such as
happiness, disgust and sadness. These are through winking , smiling, frowning, raising or
lowering eyelids and eyebrows.
• Regulators. These are non verbal activities that maintain and regulate the back and forth nature
of speaking between two or more people. Examples include head nods, eye movements and
body shifts that are used to encourage or discourage conversation.
• Adaptors. These are restless movements of hands , feet, tongue, kicking motions of one’s legs
and finger tapping. They accompany boredom and show internal feelings of an individual
 besides regulating the situation. Bored pupils tap their fingers on their desks , keep checking
their watches or yawn.
2.6 Influence of emotions on non verbal communication.
Emotions directly affect the size of one’s territory and this can easily result in non verbal responses.
For instance :
• When a person gets upset the body becomes rigid. Nervous pupils will find their throats
tightening and stomach muscles contracting when asked to address their colleagues.
• An adult looks like a giant to a frightened child. Psychologists recommend that when dealing
with crying children adults should kneel down or at least come to the child’s level.
• Lawyers and court prosecutors know that moving closer to the accused may upset the accused
and this may force him/her to say something s/he would not have revealed under normal
circumstances.
• When a teacher leans towards one of the pupils suspected of being a ring leader of a strike, it
is likely to upset the pupil, and this may result in the breakdown of the pupil’s defence and an
admission of guilt.
2.7 Time as a variable in non verbal communication.
Punctuality is generally considered as a sign of good behavior. Persistent lateness may imply :
• That an individual wants top avoid something
• That an individual thinks punctuality is not important
• That an individual thinks the person to be met is not important enough to warrant the effort to
be punctual
• That probably the person has not been taught the importance of punctuality
The moment two parties conceive time differently there is likely to be a communication breakdown.
2.8 Effects of physical characteristics on non verbal communication
One’s physique , general attractiveness, body shape, height and weight are other forms of non verbal
communication. In an interview the more attractive the interviewee the greater his/her chances of
success. This also explains why senior security officers in general are heavily built.
2.9 Open and closed channels of communication
Non verbal communication can be used to either encourage or discourage a conversation . In a class
you might find some students nodding to accept the answer given by one of their colleagues, they may
smile to show pleasure or agreement. These are indications of encouragement and aspects of an open
communication channel. On the other hand when students start glancing at their watches, crossing of
arms and legs are signs that the channel of communication is closed and the end of the session is being
sought.
Clothing and physical adornments are all part of the open and closed channels of communication. For
instance a woman puts on a ring to symbolize that she is either engaged or married in which case she
is a closed channel.
Posture can also communicate, for instance a well dressed lady waiting a t a particular spot is an
indication of a closed channel compared to another well dressed lady walking up and down a street.
The message in the latter case is an indication of an open channel. There is no verbal communication
but a lot is communicated non verbally.
In a classroom situation the pupils can express their disapproval of you as a teacher by simply putting
their heads on their desks and pretending to be asleep as the teacher walks in.
2.10 Cross cultural context for non verbal communication
There are similarities as well as differences on the use of non verbal communication as one moves from
one culture to another. The following points should be born in mind when using non verbal
communication (NVC) :
• NVC signals in one culture might mean something else in a different culture
• NVC signals are restricted to a particular culture where they are commonly used
 • For one to communicate effectively non verbally one needs to know and understand non verbal
signals used in the culture the students come from
• There are NVC signals that are similar in two different cultures but carry two different
messages
• There are certain NVC signals made by the teacher in class that could easily be misinterpreted
and thus cast doubt on his/her integrity
• Certain gestures and movements used in NVC signals have no relation at all to the language,
they only have a social function like for example using both hands in receiving a gift or taking
off one’s hat when greeting another person.
2.10.1 Summary
To summarize the unit and relate the various aspects of NVC to the classroom situation we not that :
• Use can be made of eye contact by focusing one’s eyes directly on the pupils
• There is non verbal vocalization , that is a wide range of sounds made by the teacher and pupils.
This is done through the tone of one’s voice, speed of delivery , pitch, loudness and voice quality.
• There is the use of facial expression. This can provide feedback to the pupils besides regulating the
speed of delivery or even encouraging participation in class activities.
• The use of body posture
• The utilization of the physical space. Employ personal distance and public distance wisely and
sparingly.
• Punctuality is central to teaching as it reveals what kind of teacher you are.

VISUAL LITERACY
3.1. Introduction
When we think of literacy , the ability to read and write words quickly comes to mind. There are however
other forms of literacy besides reading and writing words. Another form of literacy is visual literacy which
allows learners
3.2. The concept of visual literacy and its relevance to everyday life and learning
Interest in the concept of visual literacy is fairly recent. Interest in this area only came into prominence in
the mid 1960’s when it became apparent that specific skills were required for one to “read “and “write “
visual messages in much the same way that specific skills are usually required to read and write words.
Like the skills of reading and writing words , it was recognized that the skills of visual literacy did not
evolve naturally as a consequence of maturation , but they were acquired through some kind of exposure
like even direct teaching. It is with this in mind that experts in education have since advocated the need to
purposely attend to the development of the skills of visual literacy.
At this point it is necessary to ask the question “ Why is it necessary to develop the skill of visual literacy
?’. One reason is that visual messages of all kinds confront us everyday , thus the skills of visual literacy
have become indispensable to everyday life. Examples of visual messages we are likely to encounter in our
day to day lives include pictures in books , newspapers and magazines, adverts in the print and electronic
media, directions on how to use a variety of products ranging from chemicals to machinery and tools.
There is a general trend worldwide towards the use of visuals or pictorial communication. This is because
visuals are a form of Esperanto. In other words, they are a universal language, likely to be understood by
all throughout the world.
But why is worldwide communication important? In a world of free-flow of ideas, products and people a
universally understood medium of communication is necessary. So far, no spoken or written language or
any other means of communication exists that is as efficient, universal and direct as visuals.
Some of the information often communicated visually bear to our safety , for example the ability to “read
“ ( interpret the meaning of ) the various colours of the traffic lights. Another kind of information usually
presented visually and one that relates to our safety is direction on how to use a wide variety of products
ranging from pesticides , machinery and tools. In each of these cases inability to “read” the visual messages
can well mean risk to limb or life.
Besides everyday living , visual literacy is also important from an instructional viewpoint. First, a large
number of instructional media such as graphic materials , films and slides have a visual component. They
make use of the sense of sight. Second, research on learning invariably reveals that the sense of sight is
indispensable to learning . This sensory channel contributes overwhelmingly to learning , much more than
any other sense. It is essential, therefore, that the sense of sight should be engaged if effective learning is
to be realized.
3.3. How visuals convey meaning
Visuals communicate meaning more readily than the written and spoken word. This is because visuals are
much more concrete and direct. Words whether written or spoken are arbitrary symbols , they usually
neither look like nor sound like the objects or things that they represent. Visuals on the other hand , resemble
things or objects and are thus able to communicate information much more directly.
Although visuals are suited for communication, not all visuals will communicate information to the same
degree. Different visuals present different degrees or levels of efficacy in as far as communication is
concerned. One of the major determinants of efficacy in communication is the degree of realism presented
in visuals , in other words the extent to which a visual resembles the thing or object it represents.
It is conceivable that visuals could be arranged on a continuum according to their degree of realism. On one
extreme we would have the highly realistic visuals and on the other the very abstract visuals. In between
the two extremes there would be a lot of shades of realism. The crucial question, then is, “ what degree of
realism is likely to be the most efficient communication wise ?. To most people, the highly realistic visual
is likely to be thought of as the most efficient with the argument being its close resemblance to the object
or event it represents. Further , its level of detail would be seen as likely to make interpretation much easier.
Despite this, however , research seems to contradict this view. Research shows that under certain
circumstances, realism can in fact interfere with communication and learning. For example , the ability to
sort out relevant from irrelevant details in a visual depends on age and experience. Thus , a wealth of detail
may distract rather than enhance communication and learning. Too little detail ( abstraction ) may also be
disadvantageous to communication and learning. It is difficult to understand a visual that presents too little
content.
But these observations cannot be applied wholesale. The right degree of realism in a particular lesson will
depend on factors peculiar to lesson contexts. Three major factors affect the right degree of realism for
instructional purposes. These are :
• The age and level of the learners. Age and experiences determines a learner’s ability to discriminate
between relevant and irrelevant details. A young learner may be overwhelmed by too much detail
making “reading” of a visual difficult.
• The purpose of the lesson . If the objective of a lesson were that the learner is to discriminate
relevant from irrelevant information ,then the visual presented for study would have to be very
realistic
• Learner’s picture preferences . the interest of the learners cannot be ignored if successful learning
is to be achieved. This is because learners’ interests always relate to issues of motivation . in this
regard , then a teacher planning to use visuals need to take into account what is likely to appeal to
learners ‘ interests.
• The most effective visual is usually that which presents moderate degree of realism. Not too much
or too little detail .
3.4. The skills of visual literacy
One is said to be visually literate if one is able to :
• To read visuals , referred to as the decoding skill. This is the ability to translate visual messages
into verbal messages.
• To write visuals , referred to as the encoding skill. This is the ability to create visuals. It can also
be said to be the process of translating information into some meaningful form that can be
remembered.
The development of the skills require practice over a long period of time using the right tools and in the
environment. These conditions must prevail where mastery of any kind of skill is required.
All subjects in the school curriculum are expected to contribute towards the development of the two visually
literacy skills . By being aware of her/his contribution towards the development of such an important ability,
a teacher will be better able to make a better job of the task.
3.5. Pictures preferred by learners and their effectiveness
It is important to stress that the kinds of visuals preferred by pupils are not necessarily those from which
they learn most. Whereas it is important that a teacher tries to incorporate in his/her teaching the interests
of the learners, s/he needs to also consider that which is effective. If it so happens that the visual selected
is that which will appeal to learners and at the same time prove to be effective for learning then this should
be perfect. However , in some instances a teacher will need to strike a balance or choose one or the other.
A good teacher will always strive to make the best judgment that suits his/her circumstance.
Why do we need to consider the learner’s interest ? The preference or interest of learners relates to issues
of motivation. When motivation is lacking , then we should not expect any meaningful learning to take
place.
3.5.1. Guidelines to preferred visuals and effective visuals.
Research findings reveal the following points in respect to preferred visuals on one hand and effective
visuals on the other. We , here below examine the following pictorial qualities of visuals in respect to
learner preference and effectiveness :
• Coloured and black and white visuals.
Most people prefer coloured visuals over black and white . However , studies show that there is no
significant difference between these visuals in as far as learning and communication are concerned
, except where colour is an important part of what is to be learnt e.g green matter in leaves , red
blood .
• Photographs and drawings.
Whereas most learners prefer photographs, in many situations drawings are more effective. This is
because drawings tend to emphasize important details.
• Highly realistic and very abstract representations
Although most people prefer very realistic ( detailed) visuals as opposed to abstract representations
, moderation tends to be the guideline for instructional purposes and communication.
• Simple and complex illustrations
Young children prefer simple visuals , older children and adults can cope with complex visuals.
Nevertheless , simple visuals are more effective irrespective of age.

PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA

4.1 Introduction and definition of print media

A medium is a channel of communication. It is derived from the Latin word meaning “between’ . The term
refers to that which carries information between a source and a receiver. They are considered instructional
media when they carry messages with an instructional purpose. The purpose of instructional media is to
facilitate communication and enhance learning.
Media serves several roles in education. Their primary role is to facilitate student learning. One way they
do this is by providing a stimulus rich environment. Media can provide and extend experiences
[Link] media are usually opaque paper-based materials suitable for individual use. They have
characters, numerals, words and may contain pictures and illustrations. They include electronic and
photographic means of storing and presenting documents.
Print media was introduced during the Renaissance period (16 th , 17th , 18th and early 19th century). Since
then print media have been in use in almost all learning institutions as well as in other sectors as a convenient
source of information . For private use outside the school , the print media has been very popular in such
forms as newspapers and magazines . In this unit we shall limit our discussion to written works and symbols
. For convenience of grouping we therefore talk of written works and symbols.
4.1.1 Characteristics of print media
Print media have the following characteristics:
1. They are usually on a paper surface. Note that even when printed documents can be displayed
electronically by computers or projected on film, they are often also available in paper or ‘hard copy’
form.
2. Symbols in the form of characters, numerals, and words are arranged on an area or surface called a page
which may include pictures and illustrations in the form of sketches, photographs, charts, maps, graphs,
tables or line drawings.
3. Print media have some mechanism for production, the most common being the typewriter, computers
and word processors. Once created documents can be produced in large quantities by use of machines
such as photocopiers and high speed printing presses.
4.1.2 Advantages of print media
Print media have the following advantages :
1. They are convenient and powerful media besides catering for individual working rates.
2. They provide useful and easy access to the messages contained and facilitate easy revision.
3. They are highly portable and economical to buy and maintain.
4. They often contain outstanding visualization of concepts and information with accompanying text to
explain them.
4.1.3 Disadvantages of print media
1. They are largely non-interactive.
2. Usually their authors ignore the needs of the audience.
3. If used as a class text (in the case of textbook), it can mislead the teacher to ignore the syllabus, schemes
of work and even the lesson plan.
4.1.4 Types of written works and symbols
There are several types of written works .We shall now go ahead and discuss some of them .
[Link] Textbooks
The term text refers to alphanumeric letters and characters , usually presented to students in the form of
printed materials or on a computer screen. Textbooks are published in various forms to specifically serve
certain purposes . Examples include study guides, manuals, worksheets, textbooks and computer displays.
In the classroom the textbook is the chief sources of information for both the teacher and the pupils.
Textbooks have long been the foundation of the learning process. For it to be of good use to the pupils it
should be attractive, colourful and well illustrated. The textbook can be in soft cover or paperback form .
They can be fiction or non-fiction . One main drawback in the use of textbooks is that with time they can
become outdated .
[Link].1 Functional Uses Of Textbooks.
Some of the functional uses of textbooks are:-
(i) They can be used as teaching assistants. They allow the teacher to mention the most important
points only, and leave the rest to be covered in assignments. They also act as source material for
both the teacher and the pupils.
(ii) They can be used to individualize learning through independent study assignments. The pupils can
use them to do assignments individually, the teacher will then be able to identify individual
difficulties and attend to them accordingly.
(iii) They can be used as the base on which content can be made come alive by
the use of appropriate accompanying media, taking field trips, arranging and
explaining displays or exhibits, listening to recordings and using other
suitable audio-visual media.
(iv) They help learners to improve language and research skills. This can be
done through:-
 Condensing the essence of several pages into a brief paragraph
  Comparing viewpoints of several books or of different sections in the same book
 Having pupils look up the meaning of new words and use them in new ways
 Teaching pupils to read footnotes and to use the library to locate references
(v) Avail visual content use. The visual content of a textbook includes the presence of:- charts, maps,
graphs, pictures, diagrams, and overlays. These supplement the text and provide extra visuals.
They also help the pupils to develop and practice the skills of graphic interpretation that are
essential to visual literacy.
[Link].2 Basic Consideration In Evaluating School Textbooks .
The following criteria or scheme of evaluation can be followed in selecting textbooks for use in schools:
1. CONTENT.
 Is the author competent.
 Does the textbook interpret the curricular objectives well.
 How is the textbook handling controversial issues.
 Does the subject matter contained therein promote sound moral values.
2. CONTENT TREATMENT
 Is the style adapted to the age level of the students (length of sentences, length of paragraphs)
 Is the vocabulary suitable for the grade
 Does the material cater for individual differences.
3. ARRANGEMENT OF CONTENT.
 Are the index and table of contents complete.
 Is there a glossary for difficult words.
 Are there illustrations, maps, sketches, tables, graphs to supplement printed matter.
 Do the visuals aids add interest to the textual matter (reality in colour, artistic page arrangement,
minimum irrelevant details).
 Are the suggested related activities practical.
 Do well organized summaries and review appear at the end of each chapter/unit.
 Do the bibliographies include the most up to date materials.
4. MECHANICAL STANDARDS.
 Is the type clear.
 Is there good spacing between lines for easy reading
 For under 7 year olds, 10 lines per 4 inches
 For 7 – 9 year olds, 20 lines per 4 inches
 For 9 – 12 year olds, 22 lines per 4 inches
 Above 12 year olds, 24 lines per 4 inches
 Are the lines of proper length for easy reading (3 to 4 inches)
 Is the paper of good quality, weight and durability
 Is the binding reinforced.
 Are the pages planned for easy readability

ACTIVITY 4.1
Evaluate the recommended class text for one of your teaching subjects using the evaluation criteria
outlined above . Does the book meet all the criteria ?
[Link] Encyclopedias
Encyclopaedias are a set of source books that contain background information on all aspects of learning to
the learners . They are very useful to the learner as a source book . They can be used to supplement
information in textbooks , motion pictures , film strips , field trips , and other media in exciting curiosity
and desire for more information . There are different types or sets of encyclopedias, but each gives pupils
an opportunity to find, organize, and evaluate basic facts. It is important to note that though they contain
useful information , they stand the risk of being outdated . Encyclopaedias are normally printed on paper
of very good quality and can last long periods. The main hindrance to their use is the unavailability in most
institutions and the cost as well as the lack of ease in updating them to make them contain current
information .
ACTIVITY 4.2
Visit a nearby established public library . With one of your teaching subjects in mind , peruse
through a set of encyclopaedia . Evaluate and comment whether the set would be useful in teaching
one of your subjects ?
[Link] Newspapers and Magazines
These are a very common source of information for the general audience . They are in two types
(i) those published for general audience
(ii) those published for school readers
They are useful in several ways such as providing:
 a study and analysis of current events.
 Background studies on important local, national and international problems.
 Practice in improving reading and discussion skills.
 Propaganda analysis.
 Opportunities to study writing and editorial styles.
 Foreign language training and bulletin-board display material and scrap book collection items.
They tend to have the latest and up-to-date information . This is mainly because most of them are daily ,
weekly or monthly publications . However , because most of them are not necessarily well researched
before publication they may be inaccurate at times. They are normally printed on cheap and low quality
paper and therefore cannot last very long or even withstand rough usage. They also have the advantage of
being relatively cheap compared to other print media .
ACTIVITY 4.3
Look through several newspapers / magazines and identify one with content that could be used to
teach a topic in one of your teaching subjects . Prepare a lesson plan incorporating the newspaper /
magazine clip .
[Link] Comics
Comic is a form of cartooning in which the same cast of characters enacts a story in a sequence of closely
related drawings designed to entertain the reader . Unlike the cartoon , the comic consists of continuing
story situations . Most comic-book series have turned into straight picture stories in strip or pamphlet forms.
The use of cartoons capitalizes on the fact that young readers enjoy picture stories, the comic books employ
the use of visual materials possibly in colour.
Many historical, scientific and literary subjects can be represented well and accurately in comic book forms.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Make a survey of comic book materials being sold at key newspaper stands in your community .
Find which comics are best sellers , which are objectionable , and which are useful from an
educational stand point .
[Link] Programmed Teaching and Learning Materials
This is a kind of instructional format where information is presented in steps, the presentation stimulus
demands an active response by the learner, and the learner is either told whether his/her response is correct
or s/he compares them with the ones given in the programme. The most important advantage of this format
is that each learner can learn at his/her own pace. These programmed teaching/learning materials can be
used when the teacher intends to:
 Teach new knowledge and skills independently of other materials of presentation.
 Enrich and complement the teaching programme.
 Review the teaching/learning materials.
 Assist poor pupils or those who have been absent to catch up with the regular classroom work.
Programmed materials have the following advantages:
 They allow educators to organize their teaching materials into logical step by step presentation
  Offer flexible teaching/learning possibilities that can be used by groups or individual learners
in the classroom, in learning resource centres or at home
 They give teachers a concrete and immediate feedback on a learner’s progress
 They incite learners to become active
 They reduce learner error by being more efficient in realizing specific goals than are other
forms of teaching and learning
 They are normally protested and revised to ensure validity and reliability
However , programmed materials have limitations some of which are :
 They lack intrinsic motivation as the learners work in isolation
 There is little provision in the programme for the learner to develop or to express himself as
creatively as an individual
 They compartmentalize knowledge in a manner that makes cross-disciplinary approaches to
subject content difficult
 Major principles and concepts are at times lost in programmed teaching/learning because
knowledge is so broken down in small steps that the broad aspects of subject maybe lost .
[Link] Teacher Prepared Handouts
Handouts are normally prepared to
 Present some required information.
 Guide individual study and practice.
 Inform learners of objectives and evaluation procedures.
Handouts give additional content not found in pupils textbooks but available in rare textbooks available to
the teacher only.
N.B: Words or graphics places on slides or video-tape are not print material.
QUESTION 4.1
How often do you use handouts in teaching your class . Are there any limitations to your plans to
utilize handouts ?
4.4 NON-PRINT MEDIA.
This group includes audio / sound media, visual media, audio-visual media, and teaching machines. Audio
/ sound media include radio, radio-vision, audio-cassette, discs and telephone. Visual media include
chalkboard, live lecture, silent film, overhead projector, slides etc.
Audio-visual media include television, video-cassettes, 16mm film, 8 mm film (with sound), filmstrips,
slides (with sound).
Teaching machines include computers and micro-processors.
4.4.1 Audio media .
Audio or sound media utilize the sense of hearing . This is a very powerful sense as it accounts for 83% of
what we learn . It is also known that we retain a substantial percentage of what we learn through this sense
. To utilize this we need to use the ear .The human ear can respond to and identify tones as low as 30 cycles
per second ( Hz) to 15,000 Hz. Speech maybe recorded in the range 1,000 – 2,500 Hz. Musical events ,
drama and panel discussions are recorded in stereo to preserve the full dimensional quality of the original
performance .Audio materials constitute one of the most commonly used teaching / learning materials in
the classroom . The teacher can use ready made or design materials. The advantages of making one’s own
materials are numerous but of importance are :
• The teacher takes into account the objectives of that particular lesson .
• The environment is taken into account
• The needs of the learners is taken into account
• The learners have a chance in collecting , assembling and manipulating parts of the finished product .
• The urge to improvise locally available materials is highly encouraged
Audio materials are prefarable because :
• The materials are relatively cheap
• The materials are readily available
• The technical equipment required to record , edit or playback them are easy to operate , they are
portable and can be used anywhere .
• They are open to improvisation , revision , additions or omissions .
Audio visual technology play the following roles :
• They provide the teacher with the means to extend the students’ horizon of experience
• They provide meaningful information
• They stimulate students interest
• They guide students response
• They overcome physical limitations
• They stimulate problem solving
• They provide diagnostic and remedial tools
4.4.1 .1 Radio
A facility to produce radio programme materials commonly known as a studio must on the minimum have
a mixer console , microphones for presenters , record / disc playing decks also known as turntables , tape
recording decks , editing facilities , and monitoring facilities . Script writers prepare the materials for
recording as outlined in unit 5 of this module .
[Link] Radiovision
This is a hybrid mode which combines audio materials with visuals thus enabling multi-sensory stimulation
of the learner to take place. The audio materials can be combined with textual materials , slides or
photographic materials . They are ideal for individualized instruction .
[Link] Tape / Audio cassettee
When selecting a tape or cassette recorder for instructional use , we should bear in mind portability , and
ease of use on one hand and ease of editing on the other hand . Tape recorders also known as reel to reel
provide for easy editing while cassette recorders are portable and easy to use . Many portable tape recorders
give reasonable performance for special and popular music recording and reproduction even though the
frequency response of cassettes is below the 15 KHz. audible by human beings .
[Link] Phono discs , turntable / record player
These media were common and useful before the 1980’s when the audio cassette technology literally phased
them out . They had the disadvantage of not being copied or duplicated , although this was also good for
copyright purposes.
[Link] Telephone
The telephone can be very useful as an instructional media especially for distance education students . They
can easily get in touch with their lecturers for individual assistance . With good organization it is also
possible to network and carry out teleconferencing . However , this is prohibited by the high tariffs . Also
lack of infrastructure especially in rural areas make it impossible to access telephone facilities . The
introduction of cell phone technology has slightly improved accessibility though the cost is still prohibitive
. The cell phone has also in a way opened ways to phone-in participation which are popular in most radio
as well as television programmes .
4.4.2 Visual media
Visuals are two dimensional materials designed to communicate messages to students. They often include
verbal as well as symbolic visual cues. These are instructional materials that utilize the sense of sight only
, and normally requires to be accompanied by explanations from the teacher . They include the following .
[Link] Chalkboard
This is the most common and widely used type of display media in schools . It can be used to give key
words , outlines , lists , diagrams , graphs and sketches . For effective use of the chalkboard the teacher
should :
 Decide in advance how to plan to develop explanations on the board point by point as the lesson
proceeds
 Draw complex diagrams well in advance , cover them with a pull down projection screen and remove
only when ready to use . Always allow enough time to the learner
 Use coloured chalk to make diagrams attractive and highlight important information .
 Use templates made of plywood or heavy cardboard for tracing frequently used shapes
 Check the visibility of the board from several positions around the room
 Use drawing aids or outlines to create visuals on the board
 Use temporary guidelines to help you to write in a straight line on the board
 Move around so that you block what you have written on the board
 Talk to your students and not to the board
[Link] Overheard projector and transparencies
Overhead transparencies may be created from clear acetate, photographic film , or any of a number of other
transparent materials capable of being imprinted with an image. The materials range from single, simple
transparencies to elaborate sets with multiple overlays. The OHP is a useful visual aid to support mass
instruction . It has largely replaced the chalkboard . It has the following advantages :
• The teacher can use it while facing the class unlike the chalkboard
• It can be used to show pre-prepared materials which can be used over and over again
• It is clean , quiet , and user friendly and requires minimum technical skill apart from replacing the bulb
• It requires no room darkening thus allowing pupils to take or make notes simultaneously
The overhead projector ( OHP ) is used to project transparencies that are similar to large slides . It projects
a large picture. Transparencies can be used to visually present concepts , processes , facts , statistics ,
outlines and summaries to small groups as well as large groups . A series of transparencies can be used to
systematically present a well planned lesson . Presentation using an OHP can be improved by :
 Using a pointer on the transparency to direct attention to a detail
 Using a felt pen or a special pencil to add details or mark points on the transparency during presentation
.
 Control the rate of presenting information by covering a transparency with paper and exposing the data
when you are ready to discuss each point.
 Superimposing additional transparent sheet as overlays to add complexity to the concept present in the
base transparency .Moving overlay sheets so as to rearrange elements of a diagram .
 Simultaneously project other visual materials ( on slides or in motion pictures ) that illustrate or apply
the generalizations shown on the transparency .
Some of the methods of preparing transparencies include :
 Using felt pens
 On thermal film using a thermal copier , this is a good method of preparing one colour transparency
from single sheets
 On electrostatic film using an electrostatic copy machine , the final product is not as good as from the
other methods .
 On diazo film using a diazo printer and developer. This is an excellent method for preparing colour
transparencies and requires translucent originals .
In preparing transparencies , remember to :
 Not to crowd the transparency with too much information
 To make characters of a suitable size ( minimum 6 mm . in height )
 To provide satisfactory space between lines of text
 To make lines thick enough for easy reading
 To select colour and their intensity for strong images during projection .
For effective use of transparencies the following utilization checklist would be useful :
• Use the same frame size for all your transparencies
• Number the transparencies sequentially in the order in which they will be used
• Place your notes on the frame of the transparency
 • Focus the image so that it fills the screen
• Add meaningful details to the transparency as needed
• Direct student attention to parts of the transparency
• Overlay new information in steps
• Shift the student’s attention back to you by switching off the OHP
QUESTION 4.2
Discuss the problems you face in using an overhead projector in teaching . How would you overcome
some of them ?
[Link] Slides
These are a simple form of graphic presentation. They are small transparent photographs individually
mounted for one at a time projection. The main item of cost is taking the photographs, but the slides
themselves are easy and cheap to make and put together. They consist of single frames of 35mm or similar
film mounted in cardboards, metal or plastic binders often between glass sheets for added protection. Many
slides can also be arranged to form a filmstrip .The advantages of slides are:
 They are easier to make, handles, use and store besides being cheap.
 Useful for showing photographs, diagrams and other graphics.
The main disadvantage is that they require the room to be darkened, implying that pupils cannot take notes
.
When making and utilizing slides or a filmstrip , one must consider the following checklist :
 Express the idea and limit the topic
 Decide whether the program is motivational , informational , or instructional
 Consider the audience
 Prepare the content outline
 Organize the content and sketch the storyboard to assist in visualization of content
 Decide whether you need a single slide or a filmstrip to achieve your objective
 Prepare a scene by scene script as a guide
 Consider the specifications necessary for your materials
 If need be , select other people to assist in the preparation
 Darken the room if need be so that all can see
 Begin and end with a black slide or frame
 Make sure slides are in the correct order and right –side up
 Stand facing the class and use a remote control to advance the slides or filmstrip
 Consider adding music before or after your live or recorded narration
The slides can be accompanied by recorded and synchronized narration , it will then fall under audio-visual
. It can then be used in the following ways :
 As informal comments
 As formal reading of narration
 As recorded narration and other sounds

ACTIVITY 4.5
Comment on the frequency of use and the quality of slides you have used in teaching ?
Other non-print instructional materials include computers , photographic materials and camera , duplicating
machines , photocopier, fax machine , electronic mail ( e – mail ) , and typesetting with printery .
4.4.3 Audio visual media
However , there are those materials that combine both sound and vision . They are more useful in teaching
and learning as they appeal to both the senses of hearing and sight . They include the following :
4.5 Television .
Television refers to live broadcasts while video refers to images captured on tape or disc. Television can
come in several formats . Formats include open circuit television, closed circuit television ( CCTV) , cable
television , one-way and two-way ( interactive ) television .It is a hybrid mode which combines audio
materials with visuals., thus enabling multi-sensory stimulation of the learner to take place. The audio
materials can be combined with textual materials, slides or photographic materials. They are ideal for
individualized [Link] of cost and maintenance inhibit the use of TV in many areas. Features
of TV are similar to those of radio, but the visual element gives an added dimension, so given a choice
people will often prefer TV to radio as they find it more interesting and the TV makes it possible to use
broadcasting for visual presentation ( e.g. in Geography or Science subjects) which would otherwise have
to be done in print. Television is ideal for communication with illiterates. Some evidence exists however
that illiterates listen educational TV less often than literate viewers.
For effective use of television the following utilization checklist would be useful :
• If possible determine the content and objectives of the program in advance
• Check the equipment in advance to be sure its in operating order
• Be sure that all students can see and hear the program without interference
• Plan introductory and follow up activities
• Participate actively in reviewing the program with your students
4.6 Video cassettes /recorder and video camera
The use of the video camera to produce instantly on location has slowly diminished the educational quality
as well as reliance on the film . Through its use it is possible for pupils on a field excursion or listening to
a guest speaker to record the events for future reference . The use of the video also allows for immediate
use of the product . Comparatively it is cheaper to do this than to shoot and produce a film . Unlike film it
is not sensitive to light , loading and unloading the tape is easier. In this respect it is cheaper than film and
can be reused many times . Sound and pictures are more easily recorded together , as one only needs a
camera , microphone and a video recorder .Copyrights notwithstanding , it is also possible to make copies
of the instructional material directly from open circuit television .
4.7 Film
Film can be used to present information , describe a process , clarify complex concepts , teach a skill ,
condense and expand time and affect attitude . Compared to video it has higher resolution , better colour
fidelity , wider exposure latitude and a greater contrast range . Film produces a superior projected picture
especially when enlarged for large group viewing . The film formats especially the 16 mm and the projectors
are standardized . Motion picture cameras and projectors require less maintenance than do the video
equipment . Note that these advantages of film over video are slowly being achieved for the video as more
advanced technical achievements are made.
The following utilization checklist would be useful when using films and video :
• Check lighting , seating, and volume controls before the show
• Prepare students by reviewing previously learned content and by asking new questions
• Stop the video tape or film at appropriate points for discussion
• Highlight major points by writing them on the chalkboard or overhead transparency
• Support the show with meaningful follow up activities
QUESTION 4.3
Discuss the advantages and limitations of the film and the video recording as used in instruction .

4.8 Operating audio visual equipments

Since the classroom can decide to use instructional materials at any time during the teaching it is necessary
for him / her to know how to operate the large variety of equipments . The teacher should not be over
dependent on a technician as the institution may not be endowed enough to afford the needed technical staff
. Since the institution may have various equipments , they should have a copy of a manual of operating
instructions for each model of equipment , the manual contains details of equipment features and operating
techniques . It is important that all users maintain a high standard of performance , this leads to the
realization of the following benefits :
• Equipment can be kept to in working condition for a maximum amount of time
• The cost of equipment maintenance , repair and replacement can be minimized
• Incidents of the equipment failing to give the expected output can be reduced .
The sound produced should as much as possible resemble the original sound . The quality of the sound
produced is affected by :
• The type and quality of equipment selected
• Operator’s skill in using the equipment .
Factors that affect the quality of sound reproduced during playback include :
• Characteristics of the original sound
• Environmental conditions in recording / playback
• Capability of the recording medium to capture all the frequencies of the original sound .
• Capability of the playback system to reproduce program material in full frequency and without
distortion .
• Ability of the operator to manipulate the equipment
• Matching . All the components in an audio system should be of equal quality and have similar
performance characteristics .
For operating most of the equipment , the teacher as well as the pupils must master the use of controls
such as the normal play , record , fast forward ( speed selection ) , pause , rewind and stop buttons . In
some cases the controls may be manual as well as through a remote control devise .
4.9 Locating sources of audio visual materials
Having discussed most of the audio visual resources , we have seen that some of them could be designed
and produced by the teacher and / or pupils , it is advisable to note that they are also available at the
following locations :
• Kenya Institute of Education
• The British Council Libraries
• Teacher Advisory Centres
• Kenya National Library Services
• Learning Resource Centres of the local Teacher Training College .
• Community Media Centres ( if there are any)
• Media Centres in other schools .
• Community resources available within the locality such as factories .
ACTIVITY 4.6
Visit one of the locations where instructional materials can be found . Enumerate the broad groups
of audio visual materials that can be found at the location .

ASSIGNMENT (Work in groups)

Implementing e-learning as part of educational technologies in African schools has been

challenging.
a). Discuss FIVE impediments you would expect to encounter if you were to implement e-
learning in your schools? (10 marks)
b) Discuss how you would reduce the impediments identified in (a) above. (10 marks)