Electromechanical Measuring Instruments

Introduction

●​ The instruments which is used to measure any quantity are known as

measuring instruments.
●​ These instruments are also known as Analog Instruments.

Classification of Analog Instruments

Analog Instruments
Based on Quantity to be measure Based on principle Based on representation
Voltage by Voltmeter Electromagnetic Indicating type
Current by Ammeter Electrostatic Recording type
Power by Wattmeter Thermal Integrating type
Energy by Energy meter Induction Null type
Power factor by Power Factor meter

Indicating type instruments

●​ Instrument which display the reading at the time of measurement like
voltmeters, Ammeters and wattmeter.
●​ It does not have storage facility.
●​ On turn off the supply, the pointer comes to initial or zero position.

Recording type instruments

●​ Instruments which record the continuous variation of an electrical
quantity.

Ex- Magnetic tape recorder, x – y recorder, speedometer cock pit voice

recorder, Galvanometer.

Integrating type instruments

●​ Instruments which give the summation of product of an electrical
quantity with time like-energy meter.

Order of an instrument

Zeroth order Instrument

When the transfer function for an instrument is constant.
Ex – potentiometer
 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
i.e.,​ 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

First order Instrument

1
∵ 𝑇(𝑠) = 1+𝑆𝑇

●​ All temperature measuring devices are first order instrument.

Second order Instrument

All indicating type instruments are second order instrument like – voltmeter,
Ammeter etc.
2
ω𝑛
𝑇(𝑠) = 2 2
𝑆 +2ξω𝑛𝑆+ω𝑛

ξ > 1 = overdamped
ξ = 1 = Critical damped
ξ < 1 = underdamped
Practical 0.6 ≤ ξ ≤ 0.8. The nearest the value of ξ is to unity, the faster is
response time.

Types of torques in indicating instruments

Deflecting torque (Td)

●​ Torque required to move the pointer from its initial position.
●​ Deflecting torque is proportional to the quantity being measured.

Controlling torque (Tc)

●​ Torque responsible for opposing the deflecting torque.
●​ Controlling torque produced output must be proportional to Input.
●​ It brings the pointer back to its original position in the absence of
Input.
●​ At steady state |Td| = |Tc|

Damping torque
●​ Torque required to reduce the number of oscillations or damp out the
oscillations.
●​ Damping torque can be created by various means like Air Friction
damping, fluid friction damping, eddy current damping.
Sources of controlling torques

Spring Control

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 1

●​ Spring control torque can be expressed as Tc = Kc θ

Where,
𝑁.𝑚 𝑁−𝑚
Kc = spring constant ( 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
)

●​ Most Commonly used material to prepare a control spring ‘Phosphor

bronze’ is preferred.
●​ ‘Beryllium – copper’ is also used to prepare the control spring but it is
costly.
●​ In case of MI & ESV, if spring is broken suddenly always the pointer
swinging beyond the full scale.
●​ In case of PMMC & EMMC, if spring is broken suddenly always the
pointer come back to zero position.

Functions
●​ It is used to produce controlling torque.
●​ It carries the current into the coil & out from coil in moving coil
instrument.
●​ Whenever springs are connected in opposite directions, then it is used
to compensate the temperature effect.

Properties
●​ The spring must be non-magnetic
●​ Maximum stress developed in spring must be below the elastic limit.
●​ The spring should have almost zero temperature coefficient.
●​ The area of cross-section of spring must be sufficient in order to carry
rated current.
Drawback
●​ Due to variation in temperature, the length of spring is also varied. As
a result, spring constant will also change.

Lat t°C = L[1 + ∝ ΔT]

●​ The spring becomes losses due to ageing effect. As a result, spring
constant decreases.
1
●​ ∵ ↑θ∝ 𝐾 ↓ which means instrument read wrong reading.
𝑐

Gravity Control
In this method, a small weight is attached to the moving system in such a
way that it produces a controlling torque.

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 2

Tc =mglsin(θ)
Advantages
●​ No Ageing effect.
●​ No temperature effect
●​ Cost is lesser because small weight is applied

Disadvantages
●​ It is suitable only for vertical position
●​ Tc ∝ sin θ i.e., Non-linear scale
 F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 3

●​ The place where we are keeping the meter must be plane surface,
otherwise, level zero error occurs.

Errors in indicating instruments

Frictional Error
●​ Friction Error produced between bearing & spindle which causes the
errors in indicating instruments.

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 4

∵ Td = Tc + Tf or Tc = Td - Tf
Where, Tf = μN = μmg
●​ Two ways to decrease friction i.e.,
Either decrease the frictional torque (Tf) or increase Deflecting torque
(Td).
Hence, torque to weight ( ) ratio should be increased to minimize
𝑇𝑑
𝑊
friction error.

Temperature error
Temperature error occurs due to coil resistance changes.

Frequency error
In case of A. C. measurement,
F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 5

𝑉 𝑉
∵𝐼= |𝑍|
= 2 2
𝑅 +(2π𝑓𝐿)

which implies that, current varies with frequency. So, reading would be
changed.

Damping Techniques

Air friction damping techniques

●​ In this techniques using air friction to damped out the oscillations
●​ Require less maintenance
●​ Cost is less
●​ Used in EMMC, MI instruments.

Drawbacks
●​ It is less effective

Fluid friction damping techniques

●​ In this techniques, fluid frictions or viscosity is used to damped out the
oscillations.
●​ It is more effective.

Drawbacks
●​ Require more maintenance
●​ It is costly
●​ Due to leakage of fluid takes place, it is difficult to clean the
instrument.

Eddy current techniques or Electromagnetic

●​ It is used in PMMC, Induction type instruments.
●​ In electromagnetic damping, opposite torque is directly proportional to
magnitude of current flowing through the coil.

NOTE
●​ Order of priority-

Eddy current damping > Air friction damping > Fluid friction damping
●​ Order of effectiveness
 Eddy current damping > fluid friction damping > Air friction damping

Permanent Magnet moving coil (PMMC) Instruments

PMMC
●​ The PMMC instrument uses two permanent magnets to create a
stationary magnetic fields.

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 6

●​ It consists of ‘U’ shaped permanent magnets or Concave shape

prepared by ALNICO or ALCOMAX.
●​ Iron core is used to make magnetic field radial.
●​ Aluminum former is used to provide eddy currents.
●​ Copper coil is used to carry current and to provide deflecting torque.
●​ Deflecting torque (Td) = NBIA
Where,
N = turns in the coil
A = Area of cross-section of coil
NBA = G = Galvanometer constant
So,
Td = GI or Td ∝ I
 F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 7

At Steady state
|Td| = |Tc|
⇒ GI = Kθ
𝐺
⇒θ = 𝐾
𝐼

⇒θ∝I
i.e, Linear scale
∆θ(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
●​ Sensitivity = ∆𝐼(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)
∆θ
●​ Current sensitivity = ∆𝐼

∆θ θ 𝐵𝐴𝑁
𝑆= ∆𝐼
= 𝐼
= 𝐾𝑐

Observation S ↑ ∝ B ↑, S ↑ ∝ A ↑, ↑ S ∝ N ↑
1
But ↑𝑆∝ 𝐾𝑐↓

Hence, PMMC has high sensitivity.

Advantages of PMMC
●​ Scale is uniform.
●​ High torque to weight ratio.
𝑘Ω 𝑘Ω
●​ High sensitivity i.e., 𝑠 = 20 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑡𝑜 30 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
●​ Spring control torque is used.
●​ It is used to measure average value or D. C. value. That’s why
frequency error is completely absent in the PMMC instrument.
●​ Low power consumption i.e., 20 μW to 200 μW
●​ Less temperature error, hysteresis error & stray magnetic field error.
●​ Eddy current damping is used.
●​ If pure A.C. signal is applied then for half cycle torque is positive and
remaining half cycle, torque is negative. Hence, the pointer will keep
oscillating about the zero position.
Disadvantages
●​ Cannot measure A.C. signal
●​ It can only measure up to 100 mA or 50 mV.
●​ Temperature effect

As T ↑ → K ↓ → Tc ↓
T ↑ → B ↓ → Td ↓
●​ Costly

Enhancement of PMMC

Extension range of PMMC Ammeter

In this, we connect very, small resistance is in parallel with PMMC

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 8

Rm : meter resistance
Rsh : shunt resistance
𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ = 𝑚−1

Where,
m is multiplication factor
𝐼
𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚

Always, m > 1
Therefore, Rsh in mΩ
NOTE
●​ Shunt is prepared by Manganin for D.C. instruments while shunt is
prepared by constantan for A.C. instruments.
●​ Shunt resistance should have very low temperature coefficient (i.e, ∝=
0.00015/°C)
●​ Shunt resistance should not be varying with time and temperature.
●​ Swamping resistance is used to compensate the effect of temperature.

Extension range of PMMC voltmeter

In this we connect resistance in series with PMMC.
F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 9

𝑉
𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚
= multiplication factor

Rs = Rm (m – 1)
Always, m > 1
Therefore, Rs is in k Ω
NOTE
●​ Series multiplier is prepared by Eurekha material
(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚)
●​ Sensitivity of voltmeter 𝑆𝑉 = ( ) 1
𝐼𝑓
𝑠
= 𝑉
Ω
𝑉

Or Rv = Sv × range
Rv = Resistance of voltmeter.
●​ Voltmeter should have higher sensitivity so that resistance is high &
loading effect is minimum.

Application of PMMC
●​ Used as Ammeter, voltmeter.
●​ Used in Rectifier type instruments, megger instrument, thermocouple
instruments, techogenerator.

* Rectifier type instrument

Half wave rectifier meter

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 10

𝐼𝑚 2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
π
(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+𝑅𝑓)π
0.45 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔)𝐴𝐶 = (𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+𝑅𝑓)π
F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 11

𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = =
(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+𝑅𝑓) (𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+𝑅𝑓)
( )𝐴𝐶 = 0. 45 (𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔)𝐷𝐶
Hence, 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔

(S)AC = 0.45 (S)DC

𝑟𝑚𝑠 π
Form factor = 𝑎𝑣𝑔
= = 2. 22
2

Hence,
Reading of HWR type instrument =2.22 × PMMC reading

Full wave rectifier meter

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 12

2𝐼𝑚 2 2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
π
(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+2𝑅𝑓)π
0.9 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔)𝐴𝐶 = (𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+2𝑅𝑓)
With D. C. Input
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔)𝐷𝐶 = (𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+2𝑅𝑓) =
(𝑅𝑠+𝑅𝑚+2𝑅𝑓)
Hence,
(Iavg)AC = 0.9 (Iavg)DC
SAC = 0.9 SDC
Where, s is sensitivity
Form factor = 1.11
Hence,
Reading of FWR = 1.11 × PMMC reading

Error due to calibration of instruments

(𝐹𝐹)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑−(𝐹𝐹)𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = (𝐹𝐹)𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
×100%

Here, FF is form factor.

Moving Iron Instruments (MI)

MI Instruments
The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of
current or voltage is known as the moving iron instrument.

Classification of MI instruments
(I) Attraction type instrument
●​ Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be
attracted by the magnet. The force of this attraction depends upon the
strength of attraction field.
●​ If the magnet is electromagnetic then the magnetic field strength can
easily be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing through
its coil.
●​ Accordingly, the amount of attraction force acting on the piece of iron
would also be increased & decreased.
●​ The controlling torque is provided by springs but gravity control can be
used for panel type of instruments which are vertically mounted.
●​ Damping is provided by air friction usually by a vane moving in a sector
shaped chamber.

(II) Repulsion type instruments

●​ Spring control torque & air friction damping are employed.
●​ There are two vanes inside the coil, one fixed & other movable.
●​ Whenever two pieces of iron are kept side by side & a magnet is brought
nearer to them the, iron pieces will repel each other. This repulsion force is
due to the external magnetic field. This repulsion force increases, if the field
strength of the magnet is increased.
Deflecting torque:

In MI instruments, the deflecting torque is given by

1 2 𝑑𝐿
𝑇𝑑 = 2
𝐼 𝑑θ

Where,
 I = operating current (in Ampere)
L = Inductance (in Henry)
θ = deflecting angle (in radians)
●​ As the operating torque is directly proportionally to the square of the operating
current, Hence, this instrument possesses high operating torque.
●​ At steady state condition-

|Tc| = |Td|
1 2 𝑑𝐿
𝐾θ = 2
𝐼 𝑑θ

⇒ θ ∝ I2 Non-linear scale.

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 13

Advantages:
●​ Works for both A.C. & D.C. In case of A.C., if measure RMS value.
●​ Robust construction
●​ Friction error is less.

Disadvantages:
●​ Non-uniform scale.
●​ Weak operating field
●​ Low torque to weight ratio.
Ω Ω
●​ Low sensitivity i.e, 𝑠 = 30 𝑉
𝑡𝑜 40 𝑉
●​ Hysteresis & stray magnetic field error is more; temperature error is also more
power consumption.

Note:
1 2 𝑑𝐿
Since, 𝑇𝑑 = 2
𝐼 𝑑θ
𝑑𝐿
Here, 𝑑θ
term is not exactly constant.
1 2 𝑑𝐿
So, 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 2
𝐼 𝑑θ It can not follow perfect square law.

Hence, this ‘MI’ instrument is Not a ‘TRUE RMS’ meter.

●​ Ni-Iron alloy is used to reduce Hysteresis error.

Condition for linearity:

𝑑𝐿
θ 𝑑θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Error in MI instruments

Frequency error
●​ Instrument suffers from severe frequency error when it is using at low voltage &
High frequency communication circuit.
●​ This instrument is best suitable for power frequency application i.e., 50 Hz
●​ For Ammeter:

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 14

If time constant of shunt & meter are equal, then meter is independent of
frequency.
𝐿𝑠ℎ 𝐿𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ
= 𝑅𝑚

●​ For voltmeter, in order to eliminate frequency error, connect a compensating

capacitor across series resistance.
𝐿𝑚
●​ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒→𝐶𝑐 = 2
𝑅𝑠

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 15

Practically Exact
𝐿𝑚
𝐶𝑐 = 0. 41 2
𝑅𝑠
Electrodynamometer type Instrument
●​ It works on the principle of D.C. motor i.e., when a current – carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force.
●​ It consists of two coils i.e., fixed coil and moving coil.
●​ As moving coil rotates, angle between fixed coil & moving coil will change.
Hence, mutual inductance (M) will change.i.e., M = f(θ)

Deflecting Torque

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 16

●​ Deflecting Torque (Td) is given by,

𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐼1𝐼2 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑑θ

Where,
I1 = current through fixed (current) coil
I2 = current through moving (potential) coil
θ = Angle between I1 & I2
M = Mutual inductance
●​ If A.C. current,

Then
𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠1 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ 𝑑θ

Application:
●​ If fixed coil & moving coil connected in series & in series with load i.e., I1 = I2 =
I, then it can act as an Ammeter [θ ∝ I2]
●​ If fixed coil & moving coil connected in series and in parallel to the load. i.e.
𝑉
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝑅𝑠
then it can act as a voltmeter [θ ∝ V2]

●​ If current coil in series with the load and potential coil in parallel with load.
𝑉
i.e., I1 = I & 𝐼2 = 𝑅𝑠
then it can act as a wattmeter. It measures the active power.

Advantages:
●​ It works for both A.C. & D.C.
●​ Coils are air core type so that hysteresis error is completely absent.
●​ It has high accuracy as compared to MI.

Disadvantages:
●​ Non-uniform scale.
●​ Low torque to weight ratio.
𝑚𝑊𝑏 𝑚𝑊𝑏
●​ Very weak operating field i.e., 𝐵 = 5 2 𝑡𝑜 6 2
𝑚 𝑚
Ω Ω
●​ Low sensitivity i.e., 𝑠 = 10 𝑉
𝑡𝑜 30 𝑉
●​ Frictional error & stray magnetic field error is more.
●​ More power consumption

Note:
BPMMC > BMI > BEMMC

( )
𝑇𝑑
𝑊
𝑃𝑀𝑀𝐶
> ( )
𝑇𝑑
𝑊
𝑀𝐼
> ( )
𝑇𝑑
𝑊
𝐸𝑀𝑀𝐶

SPMMC > SMI > SEMMC

Here, B is operating field & S is sensitivity

Thermal instrument
●​ The instrument works on the principle of heating are called thermal instruments.
●​ These are used for measurement of current at high frequencies.

Hot wire instruments

●​ In this instrument, deflection is proportional to square of current.
●​ It can measure both D.C & A.C. quantities.
●​ It is used for High frequency current because heat is independent of frequency.
●​ Air friction damping is used.
●​ It has a very slow response.

Thermo-couple meter
●​ The thermo-couple produces voltage proportional to the temperature
differences.

VDC = K1(T1 – T2) + K2(T1 – T2)2 + ….

i.e., VDC ∝ K ΔT
●​ It is also measure both A.C. & D.C.
●​ It can also be used as a high frequency.
Electrostatic meter
●​ It is work on the principle of electric field.
●​ Fluid friction damping is used.
●​ It is used to measure High voltages (in kV)

●​

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 28

2 𝑑𝑐
●​ 𝑇𝑑 = 1
2
𝑉 𝑑θ
𝑑𝑐
●​ Condition for linearity: θ 𝑑θ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Enhancement of voltmeter

F1_Gaurav Gupta_Anil_24.03.21_D 29

𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑠 = (𝑚−1)

Where,
Cm = meter capacitance
Cs = series multiplier capacitance