By: Dana Sayegh

Chapter 5: Stoichiometry Study Guide

1. Foundation Concepts: Formulas, Equations, and Mass

i. Relative Masses (Ar and Mr)

These are used to compare the masses of atoms and molecules.

• Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): The average mass of one atom of an element compared
to 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Ar is found on the Periodic Table (usually the
larger number).

• Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): The sum of the Ar of all atoms in a molecule. (For
ionic compounds, it's called Relative Formula Mass).

Example: Mr of H₂O = (2 × Ar of H) + (1 × Ar of O) = (2 × 1) + (1 × 16) = 18

ii. Chemical Equations and Balancing

A chemical equation shows the reactants and products in a reaction. Balancing ensures
the Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed—the number of atoms of each element must
be the same on both sides.

• Reactants → Products

• Coefficients (large numbers) are placed in front of a formula to balance the

equation. Subscripts (small numbers) cannot be changed.

State Symbol Meaning

(s) Solid

(l) Liquid

(g) Gas

(aq) Aqueous (dissolved in water)

Example (Unbalanced): H₂ + O₂ → H₂O

Example (Balanced): 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

By: Dana Sayegh

iii. Formulas (Molecular vs. Empirical)

Formulas represent the composition of a compound.

• Empirical Formula: The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.

Example: Glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆. The empirical formula is CH₂O (ratio 1:2:1).

• Molecular Formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. It

is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula.

Calculating Empirical Formula:

1. Find the mass (or %) of each element.

2. Convert mass to moles (moles = mass / Ar).

3. Divide all mole values by the smallest mole value (this gives the ratio).

4. If not whole numbers, multiply by a factor to get the simplest whole-number ratio.

iv. Ion Charges (Common Polyatomic Ions)

The stability of ionic compounds depends on the charges balancing out. You must know
the charges of simple ions and common polyatomic ions.

Polyatomic Ion Formula & Charge

Hydroxide OH⁻

Nitrate NO₃⁻

Sulfate SO₄²⁻

Carbonate CO₃²⁻

Ammonium NH₄⁺

Phosphate PO₄³⁻
By: Dana Sayegh

2. The Mole Concept and Calculations

vi. The Mole Concept - Avogadro's Constant

The mole (unit: mol) is the amount of substance that contains the same number of
particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

• Avogadro's Constant : The number of particles in one mole of any substance.

6.02 ×1023 particles/mol

• Molar Mass (M): The mass of one mole of a substance. It has the same numerical
value as Ar or Mr, but the units are g/mol.

vii. Mole Calculations (The 3 Types)

Stoichiometry links the amount of a substance (in moles) to its mass,

volume of gas, or volume of solution.

Type 1: Mass Calculations (Mass ↔ Moles)

• Formula: Moles= Mass ÷ Molar Mass

Type 2: Gas Calculations (Volume of Gas ↔ Moles)

• The volume occupied by one mole of any gas (at room temperature and pressure,
r.t.p.) is called the Molar Gas Volume.

• Molar Gas Volume at r.t.p. (25°C and 1 atm):

24 dm3/ mol or 24,000cm3/mol

• Formula: Moles= Volume ÷ Molar Volume

Type 3: Solution Calculations (Concentration ↔ Moles)

viii. Concentration mol/dm³ and g/dm³

Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in a fixed volume of

solvent.

• Molar Concentration (Concentration in mol/dm³):

Concentration= Moles ÷ Volume in dm3

By: Dana Sayegh

• Mass Concentration (Concentration in g/dm³):

Concentration= Mass ÷ Volume in dm3

3. Stoichiometry Calculations (Mass-Mole-Mass)

Stoichiometry uses the mole ratios from a balanced chemical equation to calculate the
amount of one substance given the amount of another.

General Method:

1. Mass → Moles: Convert the known quantity (mass, volume, concentration) of the
given substance into moles.

2. Mole ↔ Mole: Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to find the moles of
the unknown substance.

3. Moles → Mass: Convert the moles of the unknown substance into the desired final
quantity (mass, volume, or concentration).

4. Percentage Calculations
Percentage Composition

The percentage by mass of a particular element in a compound.

Percentage Composition = (Value of Ar of the element ÷ total Ar) × 100

Percentage Purity

Measures the proportion of the desired compound in an impure sample.

Percentage Purity= (pure ÷ impure) × 100

Percentage Yield

Compares the actual amount of product obtained in an experiment to the theoretical

amount calculated from stoichiometry.

• Theoretical Yield: The maximum amount of product that should be made

• Actual Yield: The amount of product actually obtained in the lab.

Percentage yield=(Actual/ predicted) × 100

By: Dana Sayegh

5 -Limiting and Excess Reactants

Key Definitions

• Limiting Reactant (Reagent): The reactant that is completely used up in a

chemical reaction. It determines (limits) the maximum amount of product that can
be formed (the Theoretical Yield).

• Excess Reactant (Reagent): The reactant that is not completely used up; some of
it remains after the reaction is complete.

Calculating the Limiting Reactant

The limiting reactant must be identified whenever the amounts of all reactants are given.

1. Write the Balanced Equation: This provides the stoichiometric mole ratio.

2. Calculate Moles of Both Reactants: Use the formula: Moles= Mass/Molar mass

3. Determine the Theoretical Requirement:

o Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to calculate how many moles
of Reactant B are needed to react completely with the calculated moles of
Reactant A.

4. Compare and Deduce:

o If the moles of B you have are less than the moles of B you need (from step
3), then Reactant B is the limiting reactant.

o The limiting reactant is the one you must use for all subsequent product
calculations.

6-Acid-Base Titration Calculations

Titration is a quantitative analytical technique used to find the unknown concentration of a
solution (analyte) by reacting it with a solution of known concentration (titrant).
By: Dana Sayegh

Steps:
1. Write the Balanced Chemical Equation:

This gives the mole ratio (e.g., 1 mole Acid : 2 moles Alkali)

2. Calculate Moles of the KNOWN Solution (Titrant)

3. Use the Mole Ratio to Find Moles of the UNKNOWN Solution
(Analyte)
4. Calculate the Concentration of the UNKNOWN Solution
By: Dana Sayegh

7- Finding the Formula of a Hydrated Salt (Water of Crystallisation)

A hydrated salt contains water molecules incorporated into its crystal

structure, written as Salt .xH2O Example: CuSO4 . 5H2O

Calculation Steps to Find x:

1. Find the Mass of Each Component:

o Mass of Hydrated Salt (initial)
o Mass of Anhydrous Salt (final)
o Mass of Water lost = (Mass of Hydrated Salt) - (Mass of
Anhydrous Salt)

2. Convert Mass to Moles

3. Find the Simplest Mole Ratio:

Divide the moles of H2O by the moles of Anhydrous Salt.

Round the result to the nearest whole number to find x

Example: 6.25g of CuSO4 . xH2O is heated, leaving 4g of anhydrous CuSO4

(Mr=160)

1. Mass of H2O lost = 6.25g – 4g= 2.25 g

2. Moles of CuSO4 = 4.00 / 160 = 0.025mol
3. Moles of H2O = 2.25 / 18 = 0.125mol
4. Ratio x = 0.125 / 0.025 = 5
5. Formula is CuSO4 . 5H2O

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Forgetting to Balance: Using an unbalanced equation will give an incorrect
mole ratio.
2. Mixing Units: Using cm³ instead of dm³ (or 24,000 instead of 24). Remember: 1
dm³ = 1000 cm³.
3. Misapplying Mole Ratio: Confusing the mole ratio from the equation with the
formula's subscript numbers. The ratio applies to the entire substance.
4. Not Rounding Ratios: When calculating the empirical formula, the final ratio
must be the simplest whole-number ratio. If you get 1:1.5, multiply everything by
2 to get 2:3.
By: Dana Sayegh

5. Mixing empirical and molecular formulas

6. Rounding too early which may lead sometimes to an inaccurate answer

Worked Examples
Example 1: Calculating $M_r$

Calculate the Mr of Sulfuric Acid, H₂SO₄. (Ar: H=1, S=32, O=16)

Solution:

Mr = (2 × Ar(H)) + (1 × Ar(S)) + (4 × Ar(O))

Mr = (2 × 1) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98

Example 2: Calculating Percentage Composition

Calculate the percentage by mass of Oxygen in H₂O. (Mr=18)

Solution:

Mass of O = 16

Percentage O = (16 / 18) × 100% = 88.9%

Example 3: Moles from Mass

How many moles are in 196 g of H₂SO₄? (Mr=98)

Solution:

Moles = Mass / Mr = 196 g / 98 g/mol = 2 mol

Example 4: Moles from Gas Volume (r.t.p.)

What volume does 0.5 mol of CO₂ gas occupy at r.t.p.? (Molar Gas Volume = 24
dm³)

Solution:

Volume = Moles × 24 dm³/mol = 0.5 mol × 24 dm³/mol = 12 dm³