One Shot

Solutions

By- Kundan Sir

 Basic Concepts
1. Mole (n)
● Definition:
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles (atoms, molecules, or ions).
This number is called Avogadro’s number.
● Formula:
Given mass
Number of moles =
Molar mass
Example:
Molar mass of H₂O = 18 g/mol
36
Moles in 36 g of H₂O: 𝑛 = 18 = 2 moles
 2. Molarity (M)
● Definition:
Molarity is the number of moles of solute present in one litre of solution.
Moles of solute
● Formula: Molarity (M) = Unit: mol L⁻¹ or M
Volume of solution (in litres)
1
● Example: 1 mole of NaCl dissolved in 1 litre of solution: 𝑀 = = 1𝑀
1
● Note: Molarity depends on temperature because volume changes with temperature.

3. Molality (m)
● Definition: Molality is the number of moles of solute present in one kilogram of solvent.
Moles of solute
● Formula: Molality (m) = Unit: mol kg⁻¹
Mass of solvent (in kg)
1
● Example: 1 mole of glucose dissolved in 1 kg of water: 𝑚 = 1 = 1 𝑚
● Note:
Molality is independent of temperature because mass does not change with temperature.
 4. Mole Fraction (X)
● Definition:
Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of one component to the total moles of all components in the solution.
𝑛𝐴
● Formula: 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑛
𝐴 +𝑛𝐵
● Properties: No unit
Sum of mole fractions of all components = 1
● Example: If a solution has
2 moles of ethanol
3 moles of water
2 2
Mole fraction of ethanol: 𝑋ethanol = 2+3 = 5

Quick Comparison Table

Term Definition Depends on Temperature

Mole Amount of substance No

Molarity Moles per litre of solution Yes

Molality Moles per kg of solvent No

Mole fraction Ratio of moles No

 1. Solid in Liquid :-
● Definition: A solid substance dissolved in a liquid solvent.
● Example: Sugar in water, Salt in water
Most common type of solution

2. Liquid in Liquid
● Definition: A liquid substance dissolved in another liquid.
● Example: Alcohol in water, Acetic acid in water
If both liquids mix completely, they form a homogeneous solution.
 3. Gas in Liquid
● Definition: A gas dissolved in a liquid solvent.
● Example: Carbon dioxide in soda water,
Oxygen dissolved in water (important for aquatic life)

4. Solid in Solid
● Definition: A solid solute dissolved in a solid solvent.
● Example: Alloys like brass (zinc in copper) ,Steel (carbon in iron
 5. Liquid in Solid
● Definition: A liquid solute dissolved in a solid solvent.
● Example: Amalgam (mercury in silver or gold)

4. Gas in Gas
● Definition: A gas dissolved in another gas.
● Example: Air (oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. dissolved in nitrogen)

Summary Table (Exam-Friendly)

Solute Solvent Example
Solid Liquid Sugar in water
Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
CO₂ in soda
Gas Liquid
water
Solid Solid Brass
Liquid Solid Amalgam
Gas Gas Air
 Solubility of Gas in Liquid
● Definition :- The solubility of a gas in a liquid is the amount of gas that dissolves in a given
volume of liquid at a specific temperature and pressure.
● Example: Carbon dioxide dissolved in water (soda water)

Factors Affecting Solubility of Gas in Liquid

1. Effect of Pressure (Henry’s Law)
● Definition: At constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas above the liquid.
● Statement of Henry’s Law :- 𝑝 = 𝑘𝐻 𝑥 Where:
𝑝= Partial pressure of the gas
𝑥= Mole fraction of gas in liquid
𝑘𝐻 =Henry’s law constant
Higher pressure → more gas dissolves
Used in soda bottles (CO₂ under high pressure)
 2. Effect of Temperature
● Solubility of gases decreases with increase in temperature
● Dissolution of gas is generally exothermic
Example: Warm soda loses CO₂ faster than cold soda

3. Nature of Gas and Liquid

● Gases which react with the solvent are more soluble
● Polar gases dissolve better in polar solvents
Example: NH₃ is highly soluble in water, O₂ is less soluble in water
 Applications of Solubility of Gases
● Scuba Diving - High pressure causes more nitrogen to dissolve in blood →
decompression sickness
● Carbonated Drinks - CO₂ dissolved under high pressure
● Aquatic Life - Oxygen dissolved in water is essential for fish

Important Points for Board Exam

Henry’s law statement & formula
Effect of temperature & pressure
Real-life applications
Short numerical based on Henry’s law
 Raoult’s Law
1. Statement of Raoult’s Law
Raoult’s law states that:
● “For a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component is directly proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.”

2. Mathematical Expression
For a binary solution containing components A and B:

For component A: 𝑃𝐴 = 𝜒𝐴 𝑃𝐴0

For component B: 𝑃𝐵 = 𝜒𝐵 𝑃𝐵0
Where:
● 𝑃𝐴 , 𝑃𝐵 =Partial vapour pressure of A and B in solution
● 𝑃𝐴0 , 𝑃𝐵0 =Vapour pressure of pure A and B
● 𝜒𝐴 , 𝜒𝐵 =Mole fraction of A and B
3. Total Vapour Pressure of Solution
𝑃total = 𝜒𝐴 𝑃𝐴0 + 𝜒𝐵 𝑃𝐵0
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵

4. Raoult’s Law for Non-Volatile Solute

If the solute is non-volatile, then: 𝑃 = 𝜒solvent 𝑃0

Where:
● 𝑃= Vapour pressure of solution
● 𝑃0 =Vapour pressure of pure solvent

𝑃0 −𝑃
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure:- 𝑃0
= 𝜒solute
✓ This is a colligative property
 5. Ideal Solutions
Definition :- A solution that obeys Raoult’s law at all concentrations is called an
ideal solution.

Conditions:
● A–A, B–B, A–B intermolecular forces are equal
● No heat change on mixing (ΔH = 0)
● No volume change on mixing (ΔV = 0)
Examples:
● Benzene + Toluene
● n-Hexane + n-Heptane

6. Non-Ideal Solutions
● Definition :- Solutions that deviate from Raoult’s law are called non-
ideal solutions.
a) Positive Deviation :-
● Vapour pressure higher than ideal
● A–B interactions are weaker than A–A or B–B
Example:
● Ethanol + Acetone
Effect:
● Lower boiling point
● Shows minimum boiling azeotrope

(b) Negative Deviation

● Vapour pressure lower than ideal
● Strong A–B interactions (hydrogen bonding)
Example:
● Chloroform + Acetone

Effect:
● Higher boiling point
● Shows maximum boiling azeotrope
 7. Vapour Pressure–Composition Graph
● Ideal solution → straight line
● Positive deviation → curve above straight line
● Negative deviation → curve below straight line

✓ (Important for diagram questions)

8. Applications of Raoult’s Law

1. Used to calculate vapour pressure of solutions
2. Basis of colligative properties
3. Helps in understanding distillation and azeotropes
 9. Limitations of Raoult’s Law
● Applicable only to ideal solutions

Fails for:
● Electrolytes
● Associated or dissociated solutes
● Solutions with strong interactions
Difference Between Ideal and Non-Ideal
Solutions
Ideal Solution Non-Ideal Solution
Obeys Raoult’s law over the entire range of Does not obey Raoult’s law over the entire
concentration. range of concentration.
Vapour pressure of solution is exactly as Vapour pressure shows positive or
predicted by Raoult’s law. negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
Enthalpy change of mixing (ΔHmix) = 0. ΔHmix ≠ 0 (may be positive or negative).
Volume change on mixing (ΔVmix) = 0. ΔVmix ≠ 0 (expansion or contraction occurs).
Intermolecular forces between A–A, B–B, Intermolecular forces between A–B
and A–B molecules are equal. molecules are different from A–A and B–B.
No heat is absorbed or released during Heat may be absorbed (endothermic) or
mixing. released (exothermic) during mixing.
Molecules mix without disturbing the original Mixing causes structural changes due to
structure. different attractions.
Shows positive or negative deviation from
Shows no deviation from ideal behavior.
ideal behavior.
Example: Ethanol + Water (positive
Example: Benzene + Toluene, n-hexane +
deviation), Chloroform + Acetone (negative
n-heptane.
deviation).
 Colligative Properties
Definition: Colligative properties are those properties of a
solution that depend only on the number of solute particles
present, not on the nature of the solute. These properties are
significant mainly for dilute solutions.

Main Types of Colligative Properties

There are four important colligative properties:
1. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure
● When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the vapour pressure of the
solvent decreases.
● The decrease in vapour pressure depends on the number of solute particles.

𝑝0 −𝑝
Raoult’s Law (for ideal dilute solutions): = 𝑥2
𝑝0

Where:
● 𝑝0 =vapour pressure of pure solvent
● 𝑝= vapour pressure of solution
● 𝑥2 =mole fraction of solute
2. Elevation in Boiling Point (ΔTᵦ)
● Adding a solute raises the boiling point of the solvent.
● This happens because vapour pressure becomes lower, so higher temperature
is required to boil.

Formula: Δ𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑚

Where:
● Δ𝑇𝑏 =elevation in boiling point
● 𝐾𝑏 =molal elevation constant
● 𝑚= molality of solution
3. Depression in Freezing Point (ΔT𝒻)
● Presence of solute lowers the freezing point of the solvent.
● Solute particles interfere with the formation of solid crystals.

Formula: Δ𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 𝑚

Where:
● Δ𝑇𝑓 =depression in freezing point
● 𝐾𝑓 =molal depression constant
● 𝑚= molality
4. Osmotic Pressure (π)
● Osmosis: flow of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane from dilute to
concentrated solution.
● Osmotic pressure is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

Formula (Van’t Hoff equation): 𝜋 = 𝐶𝑅𝑇

Where:
● 𝜋= osmotic pressure
● 𝐶= molar concentration
● 𝑅= gas constant
● 𝑇= temperature in Kelvin

Important Points for Board Exams

● Colligative properties depend on number of particles, not their chemical nature.
● Used to calculate molar mass of solute.
● Electrolytes show abnormal colligative properties due to dissociation.
● Non-electrolytes show normal behaviour.
 Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
Used to explain abnormal behaviour:
Observed colligative property
𝑖=
Calculated colligative property

● 𝑖 > 1 →dissociation (NaCl)

● 𝑖 < 1→ association (acetic acid)
1. Azeotropic Mixture
A mixture of two or more liquids that boils at a constant temperature
and has the same composition in liquid and vapour phase, so it
cannot be separated by simple distillation.

Example: Ethanol–water mixture (95.6% ethanol).

2. Isotonic Solution
A solution that has the same osmotic pressure as another solution (or
cell fluid), so no net movement of water occurs across the membrane.

Example: 0.9% NaCl solution for human blood cells.

3. Hypotonic Solution
A solution having lower osmotic pressure than the cell fluid, causing
water to enter the cell and the cell may swell.

Example: Distilled water for red blood cells.

4. Hypertonic Solution
A solution having higher osmotic pressure than the cell fluid, causing
water to move out of the cell and the cell shrinks.

Example: Concentrated salt solution.

 Numerical for Practice
Q1. Elevation in Boiling Point
Calculate the boiling point of a solution containing 15 g of urea in 250 g of water.

Given: 𝐾𝑏 = 0.52 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

Solution: Moles of urea = 15 / 60 = 0.25 mol

Mass of water = 250 g = 0.25 kg
0.25
Molality: 𝑚 = = 1𝑚
0.25
Elevation in boiling point: Δ𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 𝑚 = 0.52 × 1 = 0.52𝐾
Boiling point of solution: = 100 + 0.52 = 100.52∘ 𝐶
Q2. Depression in Freezing Point
Calculate the freezing point of a solution prepared by dissolving 10 g of NaCl in 200
g of water.

Given: 𝐾𝑓 = 1.86 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

Van’t Hoff factor for NaCl = 2

Solution:
Moles of NaCl = 10 / 58.5 = 0.171 mol
Mass of water = 0.2 kg
0.171
Molality: 𝑚 = = 0.855𝑚
0.2
Depression in freezing point: Δ𝑇𝑓 = 𝑖𝐾𝑓 𝑚 = 2 × 1.86 × 0.855 = 3.18𝐾
Freezing point: = 0 − 3.18 = −3.18∘ 𝐶

● \
Q3. Osmotic Pressure
Calculate the osmotic pressure of a solution at 27°C containing 2 g of glucose
dissolved in 500 mL solution.
𝑅 = 0.082 𝐿 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1

Solution:
Moles of glucose = 2 / 180 = 0.0111 mol
Volume = 0.5 L
0.0111
Molarity: 𝑀 = = 0.0222𝑀
0.5
Temperature: 𝑇 = 27 + 273 = 300𝐾
Osmotic pressure: 𝜋 = 𝑀𝑅𝑇 = 0.0222 × 0.082 × 300 = 0.55 atm
Q4. Molar Mass from Elevation in Boiling Point
A solution containing 3 g of a non-volatile solute in 50 g of benzene shows an
elevation in boiling point of 0.25 K.
Given: 𝐾𝑏 = 2.53 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
Calculate the molar mass of the solute.

Solution:
Mass of solvent = 0.05 kg
𝐾𝑏 ×1000×𝑤2
Formula: Δ𝑇𝑏 =
𝑀2 ×𝑤1

2.53 × 1000 × 3 2.53 × 1000 × 3

0.25 = 𝑀=
𝑀 × 50 0.25 × 50
𝑀 = 607.2 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1