Module 2

Differential Amplifier (Subtracting Amplifier)

• The basic difference amplifier can be used as a subtractor or
subtracting amplifier .
• The output is proportional to the difference between its two input
signals
• The currents I1, I2 and If is given by

• We know that

and
• If V2 = 0, then

If V1=0, then
• When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the
differential amplifier can be simplified to the following expression:

• If all the resistors are all of the same value, that is: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 then the
circuit will become a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier. The output expression
will become
Vout = V2 – V1.
 Summing amplifier or Adder
• If more than one input signal is applied to an any one input terminal of OP-
AMP, the circuit will add all these input signals to produce their addition at the
output.
• Adder circuit can be classified into two categories as:
• Inverting adder
• Non-inverting adder
Inverting Adder

Fig. shows the inverting summing amplifier with three inputs Vin1, Vin2 and Vin3
are applied to the inverting terminal through resistors Rin1, Rin2 and Rin3
respectively and Rf is the feedback resistor.
• Expression for output voltage:
• Let current through resistors Rin1, Rin2 and Rin3 be I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
• apply KCL at node A to write,
• I1 + I2 + I3 = IB2 + If ------(1)
But for ideal op-amp, Ri = ∞, therefore IB2 = 0 and VA = VB = 0 due to virtual
ground concept.
Hence, I1 + I2 + I3 = If
From input side, I1 = (V1 - VA) / Rin1 = V1 / Rin1
Similarly, I2 = (V2 - VA) / Rin2 = V2 / Rin2
and I3 = (V3 - VA) / Rin3 = V3 / Rin3
And from output side,
If = (VA – VO) / Rf = (- VO) / Rf
Substituting these values in eq. 1, we get,

(V1/ Rin1) + (V2/ Rin2) + (V3 / Rin3) = (-VO / Rf)

∴ VO = - [(Rf/Rin1)V1 + (Rf/Rin2)V2 + (Rf/Rin3)V3]

If we substitute Rf = Rin1 = Rin2 = Rin3 = R, then we get

VO = - (V1 + V2 + V3)

Thus output voltage is the negative sum of the input voltage. Therefore this
circuit is called as “inverting adder”.
 Non - Inverting Adder
• An adder circuit which can produce the addition of its input signals without
inversion is called as the non-inverting adder.
• Fig. shows the non-inverting adder with three inputs V1 ,V2 and V3
• Let the voltage at the (-) input terminal be Va. The voltage at (+) input terminal
will also be Va. The nodal equation at node ‘a' is given by

( . . I1+I2+I3 =0, Since no current is flowing into the input terminal)

.
• From which we have
• The op-amp and two resistors Rf and R constitute a non-inverting amplifier with

• Therefore, the output voltage is

• which is a non-inverted weighted sum of inputs.

• Let R1 = R2 = R3 = R = Rf / 2.
• Then, Vo = V1 + V2 + V3
• The positive sign indicates that the inversion does not take place in this adder
and therefore it is called as the non-inverting adder.
 Voltage to Current Converter (V to I Converter)
• An electronic circuit that produces a current which is directly proportional to
the applied voltage is known as a voltage to current converter (V to I
converter).

• There are two types of V-I converters

1. floating load type

2. Grounded load type

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER WITH FLOATING LOADS (V/I)

• Voltage to current converter in which load resistor RL is floating (not connected

to ground).
• Vin is applied to the non inverting input terminal, and the feedback voltage
across R1 devices the inverting input terminal.
• This circuit is also called as a current – series negative feedback amplifier.
Because the feedback voltage across R1 (applied Non-inverting terminal)
depends on the output current and is in series with the input difference voltage
Vid .
• Writing KVL for the input loop,
Vin = Vid + Vf
Vin = Vf
Vin = RL i0
• From the fig input voltage Vin is converted into output current of Vin/RL [Vin ->i0
] . In other words, input volt appears across R1. If R1 is a precision resistor, the
output current (i0 = Vin/RL ) will be precisely fixed.
Applications:
• 1. Low voltage ac and dc voltmeters
• 2. Diode match finders
• 3. LED
• 4. Zener diode testers.
VOLTAGE – TO CURRENT CONVERTER WITH GROUNDED LOAD

• This is the other type V – I converter, in which one terminal of the load is
connected to ground.
• This is the other type V – I converter, in which one terminal of the load is
connected to ground. Figure shows the V-I converter with grounded load.
• To establish relationship between V1 and the load current IL. Applying KCL at
node 1,
I1 +I2=IL
(𝑉𝑖𝑛−𝑉1) (𝑉0−𝑉1)
+ = IL
𝑅 𝑅
Vin+Vo−2V1=ILR --------------- (1)
But, for a non-inverting amplifier, the transfer gain A is
𝑅𝑓
A = 1+
𝑅
In this circuit,
Rf=R1=R
𝑅
∴A=1 + = 2
𝑅
• Thus, the voltage at the output terminal is,
Vo=2V1
Now the Equation (1) becomes
Vin+2V1−2V1=ILR
∴Vin=ILR
Hence, the output load current is,
𝑉𝑖𝑛
IL =
𝑅
Thus, the output current is related to the input voltage Vin and the resistor R.
 CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER (I –V)
• A current to voltage converter or I to V converter is an electronic circuit that takes
current as the input and produces voltage as the output. An op-amp based current
to voltage converter produces an output voltage when current is applied to its
inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based current to voltage
converter is shown in the figure.
• The nodal equation at the inverting terminal's node is
0−𝑉0
-Ii + =0
𝑅𝑓
𝑉0
-Ii =
𝑅𝑓
V0=−RfIi
• Thus, the output voltage, V0 of current to voltage converter is the (negative)
product of the feedback resistance, Rf and the input current, Ii.
• The output voltage, V0 is having a negative sign, which indicates that there
exists a 1800 phase difference between the input current and output
voltage.
Instrumentation Amplifier
• The instrumentation amplifier, is another type of operational amplifier circuit
consisting of two or more op-amps connected together to provide a very high
impedance at both of its two input terminals.
• The instrumentation amplifier is basically a modified differential amplifier
circuit with two input buffer stages designed for high-accuracy applications. It
excels at amplifying very small differential signals while rejecting common-
mode noise, making it ideal for interfacing to low-power sensors or analogue
control systems.
• The operational amplifiers, A1 and A2 are non-inverting amplifiers forming the
input of the instrumentation amplifier circuit. While operational amplifier A3 is
a differential amplifier forming the output stage.
• Op-amps A1 and A2 form a cross-coupled input stage with a differential input
and a differential output. With feedback resistor R3 connected across op-amp
A1, the negative feedback of the op-amp causes the voltage potential at node
A with respect to ground to be at the same as the input voltage V1, from the
op-amps virtual short concept.
• Likewise, the voltage potential at node B is held to a value equal of the input
voltage at V2, again from the virtual short concept. This then establishes a
voltage drop across resistor RG equal to the voltage difference between input
voltages V1 and V2.
• As RG is shared by both A1 and A2, the voltage at the summing junction of each
op-amp is equal to the voltage applied to its positive input terminal.
• This voltage drop causes a current, (I) to flow through RG. Since the negative
feedback loops of the two-input op-amps draw no current, that same value of
current must also flow through R3 and R4 which are connected in series with
RG. That is, the current I flowing through the series resistors R3, RG, and R4 is the
same.
• Then applying Ohm’s law at the outputs of A1 and A2
Vo1 Vo2
I= −
R3+RG+R4

Let R3=R4=Rf

Vo1 Vo2
I= − …………………………… (1)
2Rf+RG

• The current flowing through RG between nodes A and B is given as:

 VA−VB V1−V2
I= = ……………………… (2)
RG RG

• Equating equations 1 and 2 we get

Vo1 Vo2 V1−V2

− =
2Rf+RG RG

2Rf
 Vo2-Vo1 =( V2-V1)(1+ ) ………………….. (3)
RG
• The output of the differential amplifier is defined as:

𝑅2
Vo = (Vo2-Vo1)
𝑅1
• Substituting the value of Vo2-Vo1 from equation 3

𝑅2 2Rf
Vo = (1+ ) (V2-V1)
𝑅1 RG

• This is the total differential mode gain (AD) of the instrumentation amplifier
circuit
Integrator
• The ideal integrator circuit is obtained by replacing the feedback resistor Rf
in the inverting amplifier configuration by “C”.
• In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is
connected to ground. According to virtual short concept, the voltage at the
inverting input terminal of op-amp will be equal to the voltage present at its
non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of
op-amp will be zero volts.
• The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal is −
• Integrating both sides of the equation shown above, we get

• If RC=1sec, then the output voltage, V0 will be −

• So, the op-amp based integrator circuit will produce an output, which is the
integral of input voltage Vi , when the magnitude of impedances of resistor
and capacitor are reciprocal to each other.
Applications of an integrator:
• In the triangular wave or ramp generator
• In the analog to digital converter
• In analog computers to solve differential equations.
• As a low pass filter.
 Differentiator
• An op-amp based differentiator produces an output, which is equal to the
differential of input voltage that is applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit
diagram of an op-amp based differentiator is shown in the figure
• The non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input
terminal of opamp will be equal to the voltage present at its non-inverting
input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp will be
zero volts.
• The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is −

• If RC=1sec, then the output voltage V0 will be −

• Thus, the op-amp based differentiator circuit shown above will produce an
output, which is the differential of input voltage Vi , when the magnitudes of
impedances of resistor and capacitor are reciprocal to each other.

Applications of differentiator:
• In the P-I-D controller.
• As a high pass filter
• In the wave shaping circuits to generate narrow pulses corresponding to any
sharp change in the input signal.
PRECISION RECTIFIERS
• Rectifiers convert bipolar AC signals into unipolar DC signals. The circuit
mainly uses diodes that block signals when reverse biased and allow signals
when forward biased. But when forward biased diode can only allow signals
above 0.7V (cut-in voltage of Silicon diode). So the rectifier cannot precisely
rectify ac signals of peak to peak voltages below 0.7V. For eradicating this
disadvantage of not rectifying signals below 0.7V we use operational
amplifiers for rectification.
• OP AMP inverting amplifier circuits are added with diodes to function as
precision rectifiers to rectify voltages below 0.7V (cut-in voltages).
Precision Half-wave Rectifier

An inverting amplifier with input resistor R1 and feedback resistor R2 is altered

by adding two diodes D1 and D2 in series as shown in the fig.
• positive half cycle: The inverting terminal becomes positive in positive input
cycle and since it is an inverting amplifier and output terminal becomes
negative. Thus Diode D1 becomes reverse biased and remains in OFF state but
diode D2 becomes forward biased and remains ON. Since Diode D1 is OFF and
diode D2 is ON and D2 provides short circuit between inverting and non-
inverting terminals, so the output Vout is zero.
• Negative half cycle: The inverting terminal becomes negative in negative input
cycle and since it is an inverting amplifier and output terminal becomes
positive. Thus Diode D1 becomes forward biased and remains in ON state but
diode D2 becomes reverse biased and remains OFF. Since Diode D1 is ON and
diode D2 is OFF and provides high resistance path between inverting and non-
inverting terminals. But resistor R2 provides alternate path between input and
output.
• Since D1 is ON, it connects Vout with output terminal. Now the circuit becomes
normal inverting amplifier and so output Vout is the input multiplied by scaling
factor (-R2/R1).
Half-wave precision rectifier-waveforms
Full-wave Rectifier

Two inverting amplifiers with input resistor R and feedback resistor R is altered
by adding two diodes D1 and D2 in series as shown in the fig.
• Positive half cycle: The inverting terminal of first OP AMP becomes positive, in
positive input cycle and diode D1 is forward biased. But diode D2 is reverse
biased because output terminal becomes negative. Now D1 is ON and D2 is
OFF. The circuit looks as shown in fig.

• Thus output voltage Vo is double inverted signal of input voltage Vi. Since gain
of both amplifiers is R/R=1, and Vo = Vi.
• Negative half cycle: The inverting terminal of the first OP AMP becomes
negative in negative input cycle, the Diode D1 becomes reverse biased and
remains in OFF state but diode D2 becomes forward biased and remains ON.
Since Diode D1 is OFF and diode D2 is ON the circuit becomes as shown in fig.

• Let the output voltage of op-amp A1 be V. Smce the differential input to A2 is

zero, the inverting input terminal is also at voltage V, as shown in the Fig.
• Applying KCL at node 'a' we have

• To find Vo in terms of V, consider the equivalent circuit of A2, as shown in the Fig.
• Substituting value of V from eq(1) to eq(2) we get,

• Hence for Vi < 0 the output is positive.

• The waveforms are shown in figure