Course out come

Human Anatomy and Physiology – I (Theory) (BP101T)

After completion of this course student will be able to:
Describe the levels of structural complexity within the body& control of the internal
BP101T.1
environment

Compare modes of transport of different bio molecules and inter & intra cellular
BP101T.2
communications.

Describe the structure, locations and functions of epithelial, connective, nervous and
BP101T.3
muscle tissue.
Discuss the anatomical organization and physiological functions of varioussense organs,
BP101T.4
skeletal muscles and osseous system.
BP101T.5 Discuss the cellular components of blood, lymphatic system their physiology and
disorders.
BP101T.6 Outline organization, physiology and disorders of cardiovascular and peripheral nervous
system.
 Course out come
Human Anatomy and Physiology – I (Theory) (BP101T)
After completion of this course student will be able to:
BP101T.1- Describe the levels of structural complexity within the body& control of
the internal environment

BP101T.2- Compare modes of transport of different bio molecules and inter & intra
cellular communications.

BP101T.3-Describe the structure, locations and functions of epithelial, connective,

nervous and muscle tissue.

BP101T.4- Discuss the anatomical organization and physiological functions of

various sense organs, skeletal muscles and osseous system.

BP101T.5- Discuss the cellular components of blood, lymphatic system their

physiology and disorders.

BP101T.6- Outline organization, physiology and disorders of cardiovascular and

peripheral nervous system.
1. Anatomy and physiology help us to learn about the
Structure and Function of human body
2. Physiology elucidates the various feedback
mechanisms of physiological processes the maintain
the equilibrium and thus makes life compatible.
3. It helps us to understand the inter-relationship
between different structure and their functions
4. Parameters of normal body health can be assessed
5. With good knowledge of anatomy and physiology,
effective medicine can be designed to normalize.
 Course Content:
Unit I
• Introduction to human body
– Definition and scope of anatomy and physiology,
levels of structural
– organization and body systems, basic life
processes, homeostasis, basic anatomical
terminology.
Unit I
• Cellular level of organization
– Structure and functions of cell, transport across cell
membrane, cell division, cell junctions.
– General principles of cell communication, intracellular
signaling pathway activation by extracellular signal
molecule, Forms of intracellular signaling:
a) Contact-dependent b) Paracrine c) Synaptic d) Endocrine
Unit I
Tissue level of organization
– Classification of tissues, structure, location and
functions of epithelial, muscular and nervous and
connective tissues.
Unit II 10 hours
• Integumentary system
– Structure and functions of skin
Unit II 10 hours
• Skeletal system
– Divisions of skeletal system, types of bone, salient features and functions
of bones of axial and appendicular skeletal system Organization of skeletal
muscle, physiology of muscle contraction, neuromuscular junction
Unit II 10 hours
• Joints
– Structural and functional classification, types of joints
movements and its articulation
Unit III 10 hours
• Body fluids and blood
– Body fluids, composition and functions of blood,
hemopoeisis, formation of hemoglobin, anemia,
mechanisms of coagulation, blood grouping, Rh
factors, transfusion, its significance and disorders of
blood, Reticulo endothelial system.
Unit III 10 hours
• Lymphatic system
– Lymphatic organs and tissues, lymphatic vessels,
lymph circulation and functions of lymphatic system
Unit IV 08 hours
• Peripheral nervous system:
– Classification of peripheral nervous system: Structure
and functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system. Origin and functions of spinal and
cranial nerves.
Unit IV 08 hours
• Special senses
– Structure and functions of eye, ear, nose and tongue
and their disorders.
Unit V 07 hours
• Cardiovascular system
– Heart – anatomy of heart, blood circulation, blood vessels, structure and
functions of artery, vein and capillaries, elements of conduction system of
heart and heartbeat, its regulation by autonomic nervous system, cardiac
output, cardiac cycle. Regulation of blood pressure, pulse,
electrocardiogram and disorders of heart
 Scope of anatomy and Physiology
1. Anatomy and physiology help us to learn about the
Structure and Function of human body
2. Physiology elucidates the various feedback
mechanisms of physiological processes the maintain
the equilibrium and thus makes life compatible.
3. It helps us to understand the inter-relationship
between different structure and their functions
4. Parameters of normal body health can be assessed
5. With good knowledge of anatomy and physiology,
effective medicine can be designed to normalize.
 Anatomy and Physiology refer to two
branches which always work in tandem.

The word Anatomy is derived from Greek words,

ana-apart and tomy-to cut.
Anatomy: Deals with the study of location, dimension
and composition of structure
Physiology: Deals with the study of functioning of
structure either alone or in combination with other
structures
 Life Processes
• Life processes can be defined or explained as
the different types of process or we can say
different types of function performed by a living
thing to survive in the environment is called Life
Processes.
• Their are some basic common life processes
carried out by living things and they are
• Metabolism:
– Is the sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the
body.
– It includes the breakdown of large, complex molecules
into smaller, simpler ones and the building up of complex
molecules from smaller, simpler ones.
• Responsiveness:
– Is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in
its environment.
– Nerve cells respond to changes in the environment by
generating electrical signals, known as nerve impulses.
– Muscle cells respond to nerve impulses by contracting,
which generates force to move body parts.
• Movement
– It includes motion of the whole body, individual
organs, single cells, and even tiny organelles inside
cells.
• Growth :
– Is an increase in body size. It may be due to an
increase in
(1) the size of existing cells
(2) the number of cells, or
(3) the amount of material surrounding cells.
• Differentiation
– It the process where by unspecialized cells become
specialized cells.
• Reproduction
– Refers to either The formation of new cells for
growth, repair, or replacement or the production of a
new individual.
• The composition of the internal environment is
maintained within narrow limits, and this fairly
constant state is called homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is required in order for the systems
and organs within the human body to function
effectively and work optimally.
• Large part of this system is the interstitial fluid,
which surrounds body cells, and should be kept
at an internal 37 degrees C
• Homeostasis is the condition in which a system
(such as the human body) is maintained in a
more or less steady state.
• It is the job of cells, tissues, organs, and organ
systems throughout the body to maintain many
different variables within narrow ranges
compatible with life.
• Why Homeostasis Is Important In Living
Organisms?
 What is Homeostasis?
• The word homeostasis comes from the Greek
words “homoios” which means “same“, and
“stasis” which means “steady” or “standing still“.
• In 1930, the term was officially coined by
American physiologist Walter Cannon in one of
his books entitled “The Wisdom of the Body
 Examples of Homeostasis
• Almost all living organisms widely exhibit
homeostasis.
• The following are just a few examples from
the human body and our ecosystems.
1. Maintenance of Body Temperature :
– One of the most common examples of homeostasis
is the regulation of Body temperature.
– In humans, the normal range falls on 37 degrees
Celsius or 98. 6 degrees Fahrenheit.
– In order to maintain this, the body controls
temperature either by producing heat or releasing
excess heat.
• Maintenance of Glucose Level :
– A special type of sugar in our bloodstream
called Glucose and it needs to be level for the person
to be healthy.
– If this sugar level gets too high, then the pancreas
releases a hormone called insulin to balance the
Glucose in the bloodstream.
– On contrast, if the sugar level drops too low, then
stored Glycogen (form of sugar) in liver
and muscles get converted into Glucose to maintain
the optimal balance.
• Protection From infection: Bacteria or Virus
• Maintenance of Blood Pressure
– The healthy blood pressure (BP) for humans is 120/80
(120 – systolic pressure / 80 – diastolic pressure).
– If the BP is too high, then brain sends signals to heart
to slow down the heart pumping to normalize the
pressure.
– Similarly, if the BP is too low, then the heart
compensates by increasing the pressure in arteries to
keep the balance.
– This whole orchestration is done via the nervous
and endocrine systems.
• Maintenance of Fluid Volume
– Homeostasis is also important to regulate fluid (i.e.
water) as well as the concentration of ions in the
body.
– Aside from the said functions, the kidney also
maintains homeostasis by holding essential
substances (e.g. sugars and proteins) so they
are not flushed out of the body.
• Maintenance of Breathing Patterns
– Breathing is an involuntary action and the nervous
system helps to keep the homeostasis by ensuring
the body gets its most essential oxygen (O2) by
proper breathing patterns.
• Removal of Wastes/Toxins
– The lymphatic system (network of tissues and
organs to help get rid of toxins from the body)
maintains homeostasis by getting rid of toxins such
as urine, feces, CO2, bile, sweat and worn out cells
from the body.
• Regulation of Light Entry in Eyes
– The way Homeostasis is maintained by the eyes is
by contracting the pupil when excess light enters;
on contrast, the pupil expands when exposed to
darkness to get a sense of the visual.
• Stable Population in An Ecosystem
– In an ecological perspective , an ecosystem
maintains equilibrium in a different way.
– An ecosystem in homeostasis occurs when there is
a relatively stable number of population of
organisms.
• An example of this occurs when a huge number in the
population gets wiped out due to natural disasters
of anthropogenic activities.
 Mechanism Maintaining Homeostasis
• Maintaining homeostasis requires four interacting
components:

Control
centre Effector

Sensor

Stimulus
• The stimulus is provided by the variable being
regulated.
• The sensor monitors the values of the variable
and sends data on it to the control centre.
• The control centre matches the data with normal
values. If the value is not at the set point or is
outside the normal range, the control centre
sends a signal to the effector.
• The effector is an organ, gland, muscle, or other
structure that acts on the signal from the control
centre to move the variable back toward the set
point.
• Homeostasis is maintained by control systems which detect and
respond to changes in the internal environment.
• A control system has three basic components: detector, control
centre and effector.
– The control centre determines the limits within which the
variable factor should be maintained.
– It receives an input from the detector or sensor, and integrates
the incoming information.
– When the incoming signal indicates that an adjustment is
needed the control centre responds and its output to the
effector is changed.
– This is a dynamic process that maintains homeostasis.
Example of a negative feedback mechanism: control of room temperature by a
domestic boiler.
• Two important component of Feedback
Mechanism
– Negative
– Positive
Negative :
– In systems controlled by negative feedback the effector
response decreases or negates the effect of the original
stimulus, restoring homeostasis (thus the term negative)
– Two processes controlled by negative feedback are body
temperature regulation and control of blood glucose.
 Body Temperature
• Body temperature regulation involves negative feedback,
whether it lowers the temperature or raises

Homeostasis of body temperature is maintained by negative feedback loops.

 Positive Feedback
• In positive feedback mechanisms, the stimulus
progressively increases the response, so that as
long as the stimulus is continued the response is
progressively being amplified.
– Examples include blood clotting and uterine
contractions during labour.
 Blood Clotting

The diagram demonstrates positive feedback, using the example of blood clotting in the
body.

• When a wound causes bleeding, the body responds with a positive

feedback loop to clot the blood and stop blood loss.
• Substances released by the injured blood vessel wall begin the
process of blood clotting.
• Platelets in the blood start to cling to the injured site and release
chemicals that attract additional platelets.
• As the platelets continue to amass, more of the chemicals are
released and more platelets are attracted to the site of the clot.
• The positive feedback accelerates the process of clotting until the
clot is large enough to stop the bleeding
 Childbirth

Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop.

• Living organisms need to maintain
homeostasis constantly in order to properly
grow, work, and survive. In general,
homeostasis is essential for normal cell
function, and overall balance.
• In the human body, chemicals like Oxygen (O2), Carbon dioxide
(CO2) and digested food enter and exit the cells using the concept
called diffusion and osmosis.
• For this process to function properly, homeostasis helps our body
to keep both water and salt balance level.
• Enzymes in the cell help in the speedy chemical reactions to order
to keep the cells alive but these enzymes need to be in an optimal
temperature to function properly.
• Again, homeostasis plays a crucial role in maintaining a constant
body temperature (37C/98.6F) for enzymes to do their jobs.
• Mechanisms to attain homeostasis are stable as they need to resist
any change that happens within and outside the organism’s
environment.
• These mechanisms vary depending on the individual and may
either be positive or negative feedback.
• When they do, homeostatic imbalance may
result, in which cells may not get everything
they need or toxic wastes may accumulate in
the body.
• If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance
may lead to disease — or even death.
• Diabetes is an example of a disease caused by
homeostatic imbalance.
– In the case of diabetes, blood glucose levels are no
longer regulated and may be dangerously high.
– Medical intervention can help restore homeostasis
and possibly prevent permanent damage to the
organism.
• Normal aging may bring about a reduction in
the efficiency of the body’s control systems, which
makes the body more susceptible to disease.
• Aging is a normal process characterized by a
progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore
homeostasis (the maintenance of relatively stable
conditions).
• Aging produces observable changes in structure
and function and increases vulnerability to stress
and disease.
Older people, for example, may have a harder time regulating their
body temperature.
This is one reason they are more likely than younger people to
develop serious heat-induced illnesses, such as heat stroke.
• Scientists and health-care professionals use a
common language of special terms when
referring to body structures and their functions.
• To help improve communication when
discussing the basic parts of the body and the
relationships those parts have to one another,
• Anatomists and health-care professionals use
specific directional terms, words that describe
the position of one body part relative to
another.
 Body Positions:
• In anatomical position the body is “Upright” (The feet are
placed on the floor flat and directed forward, the hands are at
the sides with the palms facing forward as shown in the
following figure.
• Supine Position:
– Body lying flat on back, knees straight and hands at
side as shown in the figure.

• Prone Position:
– Body lying flat on stomach, knees straight and hands
at side as shown in the figure
 Directional terms
• Directional terms are the words that are used for
describining the location of one part of the body
with respect to the other they are used to describe
the relationship between two body parts.
• They are generally used in pairs that opposite
meaning such as
– superior and inferior- means towards upper part and
towards the lower part of the body respectively.
Directional terms
• Anterior (or ventral) Describes the front or
direction toward the front of the body. The toes
are anterior to the foot.
• Posterior or dorsal: Located at the back or near
to the rear or hind end of the body
• Medial : located in the middle or nearer to the
median axis of the body
• Superior (or cranial) describes a position above
or higher than another part of the body proper.
• Proximal: Located to the point of attachment
or origin or midline of the body
• Intermediate: located between two parts of
the body
• Distal: located away from the point of
attachment or origin or midline of the body
 BODY PLANES &SECTION
• A plane ids defined as an imaginary flat surface
that joins or passes through various parts of the
body.
• A section is defined as the act of cutting or
dividing the body or any organ along any planes.
• Such as frontal, transverse or midsagittal plane.
• Types of plane and section
– Frontal or coronal plane
– Sagittal plane:
– Transverse plane
 The plane divided the body or any
The plane that divides the body organ in to front(anterior) and
or any organ into right and left back Posterior is known as frontal
parts is known as sagittal plane. or cronal plane

The plane that divides the body or

any organ into upper (superior
and lower (Inferior)region is
known as transverse plane