LECTURE NOTES : ADVANCED FOOD PRECESS

ENGINEERING
SUMMARY
UNIT I: THERMAL PROCESSING, EVAPORATION
AND DRYING
1. Thermal Processing

Thermal processing involves the application of heat to food to destroy microorganisms and
enzymes that cause spoilage, thereby extending shelf life.

1.1 Death Rate Kinetics

 Thermal death time (TDT): Time required to kill a given number of microorganisms
at a specific temperature.
 Decimal reduction time (D-value): Time required at a given temperature to reduce
microbial population by 90%.
 Z-value: Temperature change required to change the D-value by a factor of 10.
 F-value: Equivalent time at a reference temperature to achieve a specified microbial
lethality.

1.2 Thermal Process Calculations

 Determination of process time and temperature

 Heat penetration curves
 Lethality calculations
 Factors affecting thermal resistance (pH, water activity, food composition)

1.3 Methods of Sterilization and Equipment

 Batch retorts
 Continuous retorts
 Plate and tubular heat exchangers
 UHT (Ultra High Temperature) processing systems

1.4 Latest Trends in Thermal Processing

 Aseptic processing
 Ohmic-assisted thermal processing
 Continuous sterilization systems
 Energy-efficient heat recovery systems
2. Evaporation

Evaporation is used to concentrate liquid foods by removing water through boiling.

2.1 Properties of Liquids

 Boiling point elevation

 Latent heat of vaporization
 Heat transfer coefficients

2.2 Heat and Mass Balance

 Single effect evaporators

 Multiple effect evaporators
 Forward feed, backward feed and mixed feed systems

2.3 Aroma Recovery

 Importance of volatile compounds

 Aroma stripping and recovery systems
 Applications in fruit juice and dairy industries

2.4 Evaporator Equipment and Applications

 Falling film evaporators

 Rising film evaporators
 Forced circulation evaporators
 Applications in milk, fruit juice, and sugar industries

3. Drying

Drying reduces moisture content to improve shelf life and reduce storage and transportation
costs.

3.1 Drying Rates

 Constant rate period

 Falling rate period
 Critical moisture content

3.2 Theories of Drying

  Diffusion theory
 Capillary theory
 Heat and mass transfer mechanisms

3.3 Drying Equipment

 Tray dryers
 Spray dryers
 Drum dryers
 Fluidized bed dryers

3.4 Novel Dehydration Techniques

 Freeze drying
 Osmotic dehydration
 Microwave-assisted drying
 Infrared drying

UNIT II: NON-THERMAL PROCESSING

TECHNOLOGIES
Non-thermal processing techniques preserve food by inactivating microorganisms without
significant heat application, thereby retaining nutritional and sensory quality.

1. Microwave Processing

 Principle of dielectric heating

 Applications in heating, drying, and pasteurization

2. Food Irradiation

 Types: Gamma rays, electron beam, X-rays

 Mechanism of microbial inactivation
 Safety and regulatory aspects

3. Ohmic Heating

 Principle of electrical resistance heating

 Uniform heating and reduced processing time

4. Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)

 Mechanism of electroporation
  Applications in liquid foods

5. High Hydrostatic Pressure Processing (HPP)

 Principle and operation

 Applications in juices, meat, and seafood

UNIT III: FREEZING AND SEPARATION PROCESSES

1. Freezing

Freezing preserves food by reducing temperature below freezing point, slowing microbial and
enzymatic activity.

1.1 Freezing Curves

 Pre-freezing, phase change, and sub-cooling stages

1.2 Thermodynamics of Freezing

 Sensible and latent heat removal

 Freezing point depression

1.3 Freezing Time Calculations

 Plank’s equation
 Factors affecting freezing time

1.4 Freezing Equipment

 Air blast freezers

 Plate freezers
 Cryogenic freezers

2. Freeze Drying

 Principle of sublimation
 Equipment and process stages
 Applications in high-value foods

3. Separation Processes

3.1 Mechanical Filtration

  Gravity and pressure filtration
 Filter presses and rotary vacuum filters

3.2 Membrane Separation

 Microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis

 Principles and applications

3.3 Centrifugation

 Principle of centrifugal force

 Disc bowl and tubular centrifuges

3.4 Latest Developments

 Hybrid membrane systems

 Supercritical fluid extraction
 Novel separation technologies

UNIT IV: EXTRUSION, DISTILLATION AND

LEACHING
1. Extrusion

1.1 Theory of Extrusion

 Rheological behavior of food materials

 Heat and shear generation

1.2 Extrusion Equipment

 Single screw extruders

 Twin screw extruders

1.3 Applications

 Snacks, pasta, breakfast cereals, textured vegetable proteins

2. Distillation

2.1 Phase Equilibria

 Vapor-liquid equilibrium
 Raoult’s law
2.2 Multistage Calculations

 McCabe-Thiele method

2.3 Distillation Equipment

 Plate columns
 Packed columns

3. Leaching and Solvent Extraction

 Principle of mass transfer

 Equipment used in solid-liquid extraction
 Applications in oilseed processing and flavor extraction

PRACTICALS
Problem Solving

 Single and multiple effect evaporators

 Distillation and crystallization
 Extraction and leaching
 Membrane separation and mixing

Laboratory Experiments

 Rotary flash evaporator

 Humidifiers
 Reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration units

Design Exercises

 Design of plate and packed towers

Industrial Exposure

 Visit to food processing industries to understand real-life applications of unit

operations

Tutorials / Discussion Questions

 1. Compare thermal and non-thermal food processing techniques.
2. Explain the importance of D-value and Z-value in food sterilization.
3. Discuss advantages of multiple effect evaporators over single effect systems.
4. Explain why freeze drying is suitable for high-value food products.

Suggested Reading
 Singh RP and Heldman DR. Introduction to Food Engineering
 Toledo RT. Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering
 Fellows PJ. Food Processing Technology

UNIT I: THERMAL PROCESSING, EVAPORATION

AND DRYING
1. INTRODUCTION
Thermal processing, evaporation, and drying are among the most important unit operations in
food industries. They are widely used in Africa for processing milk, fruit juices, tomato paste,
palm wine, cassava products, fish, and cereals. These operations ensure food safety, extend
shelf life, reduce post-harvest losses, and add value to agricultural raw materials.

This unit focuses on the principles, kinetics, equipment, design considerations, and
industrial applications of these operations.

2. THERMAL PROCESSING
2.1 Definition and Objectives

Thermal processing is a widely used method in food preservation that involves the
controlled application of heat to food products. The primary goal is to inactivate or
destroy microorganisms and enzymes that can cause spoilage or foodborne illness, thereby
extending the product’s shelf life and ensuring safety.

Thermal processing techniques include pasteurization, sterilization, blanching, and

canning, and are used for liquids, semi-solids, and solid foods. The effectiveness of thermal
processing depends on temperature, time, food composition, and the type of
microorganisms present.

Key points:
  High temperatures denature microbial proteins and enzymes, leading to cell death.
 Both heat-sensitive and heat-resistant microorganisms must be considered.
 Over-processing can negatively affect flavor, color, texture, and nutrients, so
optimizing the process is crucial.

Hence :

Thermal processing is the application of heat to food in order to:

 Destroy pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms

 Inactivate enzymes

 Improve shelf life

 Maintain acceptable sensory and nutritional quality

Examples in African context:

 Pasteurization of milk in small-scale dairies

 Sterilization of canned fish, meat, and vegetables

 UHT processing of milk and fruit juices

2.2 Death Rate Kinetics

Death rate kinetics describe the relationship between time, temperature, and microbial
inactivation during thermal processing. These concepts allow food engineers to design safe
and efficient heat treatments.

Microbial Death Rate Kinetics

Microbial destruction by heat follows first-order kinetics (rate of removal directly

propotional to concentration).

2.2.1 Thermal Death Time (TDT)

 Definition: The time required to kill a specific number of microorganisms at a

given temperature.
 Importance: Determines how long food must be held at a certain temperature to
achieve safety.
 Example: If Clostridium botulinum spores in canned food require 10 minutes at
121°C for complete inactivation, the TDT is 10 minutes.

2.2.2 Decimal Reduction Time (D-value)

  Definition: The time required (in minutes) at a specific temperature to reduce the
microbial population by 90% (one log cycle).
 Significance:
o Used to quantify microbial resistance to heat.
o Smaller D-value → microorganisms are more sensitive to heat.
 Example: D121°C = 2 min → every 2 minutes at 121°C reduces microbial population
by 90%.

2.2.3 Z-value

 Definition: The temperature change needed to change the D-value by a factor of

10.
 Significance:
o Indicates thermal resistance over a range of temperatures.
o Smaller Z-value → small temperature changes greatly affect microbial
lethality.
 Example: Z = 10°C → increasing temperature by 10°C reduces D-value tenfold.

2.2.4 F-value (Process Lethality)

 Definition: The equivalent time (minutes) at a reference temperature (usually 121.1°C)

needed to achieve a specified microbial lethality.
 Significance:
o Allows comparison of thermal processes at different temperatures.
o Essential for process standardization and validation.

Importance in food engineering:

 Ensures safety without overprocessing

Key relationships:

 Higher temperature → lower D-value → shorter processing time.

 F-value integrates both temperature and time, providing a measure of total
microbial lethality.
 Process optimization involves achieving target F-value while minimizing quality
loss.

2.3 Thermal Process Calculations

Thermal process calculations involve determining:

 Processing temperature
 Holding time

 Total lethality

Thermal process calculations are essential in industries like food processing, pharmaceuticals,
and materials science. These calculations aim to ensure the desired level of microbial
inactivation or physical transformation while preserving product quality. The core elements
involved in thermal process calculations are:

1. Processing Temperature

Processing temperature refers to the temperature at which the product is heated during the
thermal process. It is critical for achieving the desired effects, such as microbial inactivation
or chemical changes.

 Key Factors:
o The type of microorganisms or enzymes targeted for inactivation.

o The thermal sensitivity of the product (e.g., food, medicine, etc.).

 o Regulatory and safety standards for the process.
o Heat transfer efficiency (depends on product composition, viscosity, and
equipment design).
 Example:
o In food sterilization, temperatures above 100°C (e.g., 121°C for canning) are
often used to destroy pathogens like Clostridium botulinum.

2. Holding Time

Holding time is the duration for which the product is maintained at the processing
temperature. It ensures that the desired level of inactivation or transformation is achieved.

 Key Considerations:
o Longer holding times increase lethality but may degrade product quality (e.g.,
nutrients, flavor, or texture).
o Balancing the holding time with temperature is critical for optimizing the
process.
o Holding time is usually determined by kinetic data, such as the D-value and z-
value of the target microorganism.
 Mathematical Insight:
o The D-value (decimal reduction time) is the time required at a specific
temperature to reduce the microbial population by 90%.
o Example: If the D-value of a microorganism at 121°C is 1 minute, then
holding the product at this temperature for 3 minutes would reduce the
microbial population by 99.9%.

3. Total Lethality

Total lethality measures the overall effectiveness of a thermal process in inactivating

microorganisms. It is often expressed as the "F-value," which represents the equivalent time
at a reference temperature (e.g., 121°C) to achieve the required microbial reduction.

 Key Concepts:
o F-value: The total time to achieve sterilization, considering both temperature
and time.
o Lethality Rate (L): The rate of microbial inactivation at a given temperature,
often calculated using the Arrhenius equation or other thermal death kinetics.
o Cumulative Lethality: The sum of lethality contributions across the entire
heating and cooling cycle.
  Formula:

Where:

o T = Temperature at time t
o Tref = Reference temperature (e.g., 121°C)
o z = Temperature increase needed to reduce the D-value by a factor of 10

 Practical Application:
o In food sterilization, the F-value ensures that even the most heat-resistant
spores are destroyed while minimizing over-processing.

Applications of Thermal Process Calculations

1. Food Industry:
o Sterilization and pasteurization of products like canned foods, milk, and
juices.
o Ensuring food safety while preserving flavor, color, and nutrients.
2. Pharmaceuticals:
o Sterilizing medical solutions, syringes, or surgical tools to meet regulatory
standards.
3. Materials Science:
o Calculating heat treatment conditions for metals, polymers, or ceramics to
achieve desired mechanical properties.

Balancing Quality and Safety

Thermal process calculations must strike a balance between safety (microbial inactivation)
and quality (preserving physical, chemical, and sensory attributes). Modern techniques, such
as predictive modeling and real-time monitoring, help achieve this balance.

Real-World Examples

1. Food Processing (Canning Industry)

  Scenario: A food manufacturer needs to sterilize canned vegetables to destroy
Clostridium botulinum spores. The target lethality is an F-value of 3 minutes at
121°C.
 Challenge: Determine the combination of processing temperature and holding time
that achieves the target lethality while preserving the texture and flavor of the
vegetables.

2. Pasteurization of Milk

 Scenario: Pasteurizing milk to destroy pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes while

preserving nutritional content. This usually requires heating to 72°C for 15 seconds
(high-temperature short-time pasteurization, HTST).
 Challenge: Calculate the lethality of the process and ensure compliance with safety
standards.

3. Sterilization of Medical Equipment

 Scenario: A hospital uses an autoclave sterilizer to process surgical tools. The process
involves heating the equipment to 121°C for 15 minutes.
 Challenge: Verify that the process achieves the required sterility assurance level
(SAL), which specifies the probability of a single viable microorganism on a
sterilized item.

Step-by-Step Tutorials

Example 1: Canned Food Sterilization

Problem: A batch of canned food is sterilized at 121°C for 3 minutes. The D-value of
Clostridium botulinum at 121°C is 0.2 minutes. Verify if the process achieves 12-log
reduction (commercial sterility).

Step-by-Step Solution:
4. Interpret the result:

o A 15-log reduction is achieved, which exceeds the required 12-log reduction.

The process is sufficient to ensure commercial sterility.

Example 2: Lethality Calculation for Milk Pasteurization

Problem: Milk is pasteurized at 72°C for 15 seconds. The target microorganism has a D-
value of 5 seconds at 72°C and a z-value of 10°C. Calculate the lethality of the process.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Example 3: Autoclave Sterilization

Problem: A surgical tool is sterilized at 121°C for 15 minutes. The D-value of the target
microorganism is 2 minutes at 121°C. Verify if the process achieves a sterility assurance
level (SAL) of 10−610−6.

Step-by-Step Solution:
Practice Problem

Problem: A food product is heated to 110°C for 10 minutes. The D-value of the pathogen at
110°C is 1 minute, and the z-value is 8°C. Calculate the equivalent lethality at 121°C.

Solution Steps:
 o Holding time = 10 minutes

Factors Affecting Thermal Resistance

 pH (acid foods vs low-acid foods)

 Water activity

 Fat and sugar content

 Size and shape of food container

Factors Affecting Thermal Resistance of Microorganisms

in Foods
Thermal resistance refers to the ability of microorganisms to survive heat treatment. The
effectiveness of thermal processing depends not only on temperature and time, but also on
several intrinsic and extrinsic factors related to the food and its packaging. The major
factors affecting thermal resistance are discussed below.

1. Effect of pH (Acid Foods vs Low-Acid Foods)

The pH of food is one of the most important factors influencing microbial heat resistance.

 Acid foods (pH ≤ 4.6)

o Examples: fruit juices, tomatoes, fermented foods

o Microorganisms, including bacterial spores, are less heat resistant in acidic

environments.
 o Acid conditions damage microbial cell membranes and enzymes, making them
more susceptible to heat.

o Therefore, milder heat treatments such as pasteurization are sufficient.

 Low-acid foods (pH > 4.6)

o Examples: meat, fish, milk, vegetables

o Heat-resistant spores (e.g. Clostridium botulinum) can survive mild heating.

o These foods require severe thermal processing (e.g. sterilization at 121.1°C).

Engineering implication:
Low-acid foods require longer processing times and higher temperatures, increasing energy
consumption and risk of quality loss.

2. Effect of Water Activity (aw)

Water activity (aw) measures the availability of free water for microbial growth and
chemical reactions.

 Microorganisms show maximum heat sensitivity at high water activity (aw ≈ 1.0).
 As water activity decreases:

o Microbial cells become more resistant to heat.

o Heat transfer within the food is reduced.

o Protein denaturation occurs more slowly.

Examples:

 Microorganisms in dry foods (powdered milk, spices, cereals) are more heat resistant
than those in liquid foods.
 Dry heat sterilization requires higher temperatures and longer times than moist heat
sterilization.

Engineering implication:
Foods with low water activity require higher thermal severity, even if microbial load is low.

3. Effect of Fat and Sugar Content

(a) Fat Content

Fat provides a protective effect to microorganisms during heating:

 Fat reduces heat transfer efficiency.

 It shields microorganisms from direct exposure to heat.

 Spores embedded in fatty matrices survive longer.

Examples:

 Microorganisms in milk cream or fatty meat products are more heat resistant than in
skim milk.

 Canned fish in oil requires longer processing time than fish in brine.

(b) Sugar Content

High sugar concentrations increase microbial heat resistance by:

 Reducing water activity.

 Stabilizing microbial cell structures.

 Delaying protein denaturation.

Examples:

 Jams, syrups, and sweetened condensed milk require more intense heat treatment.
 Fruit concentrates are more resistant to microbial destruction than fresh juices.

Engineering implication:
Foods with high fat or sugar content require adjusted process times to ensure safety.

4. Effect of Size and Shape of Food Container

The geometry of the container strongly influences heat penetration during thermal
processing.

(a) Size of Container

 Larger containers heat more slowly at the center.

 Increased distance from the heating medium increases processing time.

 Larger containers increase the risk of cold spots, where microorganisms may survive.

(b) Shape of Container

 Tall cylindrical containers heat slower at the center than shallow or flat containers.
 Irregular shapes cause uneven heat distribution.
Examples:

 Canned foods in large tins require longer sterilization times than foods in small cans
or pouches.
 Retort pouches allow faster heat penetration compared to metal cans.

Engineering implication:
Container size and shape must be considered during process design and validation to avoid
underprocessing.

Summary Table
Factor Effect on Thermal Resistance Processing Implication

Low pH Decreases resistance Mild heat sufficient

Low water activity Increases resistance Severe heating required

High fat/sugar Increases resistance Longer processing time

Large container Increases resistance Extended heating needed

Examination Tip

When discussing thermal resistance in exams:

 Always relate food composition to process severity

 Mention design implications for food engineers

 Use local examples (e.g. canned fish, tomato paste, milk)

Heat Penetration Curves

 Heating curve
 Cooling curve

 Used to estimate process time in canned foods

Heat Penetration Curves in Thermal Processing

Heat penetration curves are graphical representations of temperature changes with time
at a specific point (usually the cold spot) inside a food container during thermal processing.
They are essential tools in the design, evaluation, and validation of thermal processes,
especially for canned foods.

A typical heat penetration plot consists of two major curves:

1. Heating curve
2. Cooling curve

These curves are obtained by inserting a thermocouple at the cold spot of the food container
and recording temperature during heating and cooling in a retort.

1. Heating Curve
Description

The heating curve shows how the temperature inside the food increases with time during
the heating phase of thermal processing.

Axes

 X-axis: Time (minutes)

 Y-axis: Temperature (°C)

Shape of the Heating Curve

The heating curve is non-linear and typically consists of three regions:

1. Initial lag phase

o Slow temperature rise at the beginning.

o Due to resistance to heat transfer and temperature gradient between heating

medium and food.

2. Rapid heating phase

o Temperature increases more quickly.

o Heat penetrates towards the center of the container.

3. Asymptotic approach

o Temperature gradually approaches the retort temperature.

o The slope decreases as the temperature difference becomes smaller.

Key Features
  The curve never reaches the retort temperature exactly.
 The cold spot determines the minimum lethality achieved.

 The slope of the curve depends on:

o Food viscosity

o Container size and shape

o Mode of heat transfer (conduction or convection)

Typical Heating Curve Sketch (Description for Students)

Temperature (°C)
│ ─── Retort temperature
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│___
└──────────────────────────── Time (min)

2. Cooling Curve
Description

The cooling curve represents the decrease in product temperature with time after heating,
when the container is removed from the retort or cooling water is introduced.

Shape of the Cooling Curve

 The curve is also non-linear.

 Temperature decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly.

Phases of Cooling

1. Rapid initial cooling

o Large temperature difference between food and cooling medium.

2. Gradual cooling phase

o Rate of heat loss decreases as temperatures approach equilibrium.

Importance of Cooling Curve

  Significant microbial destruction can still occur during early cooling.
 Cooling contributes to the total lethality (F-value).

 Excessive cooling may lead to:

o Overprocessing

o Texture damage

o Container deformation

Typical Cooling Curve Sketch (Description)

Temperature (°C)
│___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
└──────────────────────────── Time (min)

3. Combined Heat Penetration Curve

In practice, heating and cooling curves are plotted on the same graph, forming a complete
heat penetration curve.

Temperature (°C)
│ ─── Retort temperature
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___
│___ ← Heating
│ ___
│ ___
│ ___ ← Cooling
│ ___
└──────────────────────────── Time (min)

4. Use of Heat Penetration Curves in Process Time

Estimation
Heat penetration curves are used to:

(a) Determine Process Time

  The area under the curve is related to microbial lethality.
 Engineers calculate the F₀ value by integrating time–temperature data.

(b) Locate the Cold Spot

 Ensures the most resistant microorganisms are destroyed.

 Prevents under-processing and food safety failures.

(c) Compare Packaging Systems

 Metal cans vs glass jars vs retort pouches.

 Smaller or thinner containers heat faster.

(d) Optimize Product Quality

 Avoids excessive heating.

 Balances safety and nutritional quality.

5. Application in Canned Foods (Local Examples)

Food product Importance of heat penetration

Canned fish (sardines, mackerel) Ensures destruction of C. botulinum spores

Tomato paste Controls spoilage organisms with minimal quality loss

Canned beans Prevents survival of heat-resistant spores

Palm soup concentrates Ensures uniform heating in viscous foods

Examination Tips
 Always label axes correctly when sketching curves.
 Indicate retort temperature.

 Mention cold spot.

 State that both heating and cooling contribute to lethality.

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance being heated or cooled reaches a temperature corresponding to one of its
phase transitions, further gain or loss of heat is a result of diminishing or enhancing
intermolecular attractions, instead of increasing or decreasing molecular kinetic energies.
While a substance is undergoing a change in state, its temperature remains constant.

Figure shows a typical heating curve.

Figure

: A typical heating curve for a substance depicts changes in temperature that result as the
substance absorbs increasing amounts of heat. Plateaus in the curve (regions of constant
temperature) are exhibited when the substance undergoes phase transitions.

Consider the example of heating a pot of water to boiling. A stove burner will supply heat at
a roughly constant rate; initially, this heat serves to increase the water’s temperature. When
the water reaches its boiling point, the temperature remains constant despite the continued
input of heat from the stove burner. This same temperature is maintained by the water as long
as it is boiling. If the burner setting is increased to provide heat at a greater rate, the water
temperature does not rise, but instead the boiling becomes more vigorous (rapid). This
behavior is observed for other phase transitions as well: For example, temperature remains
constant while the change of state is in progress.

Example

: Total Heat Needed to Change Temperature and Phase for a Substance

How much heat is required to convert 135 g of ice at −15 °C into water vapor at 120 °C?
Solution

The transition described involves the following steps:

1. Heat ice from −15 °C to 0 °C

2. Melt ice
3. Heat water from 0 °C to 100 °C
4. Boil water
5. Heat steam from 100 °C to 120 °C

The heat needed to change the temperature of a given substance (with no change in phase) is:
q = m × c × ΔT (see previous chapter on thermochemistry). The heat needed to induce a given
change in phase is given by q = n × ΔH.

Using these equations with the appropriate values for specific heat of ice, water, and steam,
and enthalpies of fusion and vaporization, we have:

Converting the quantities in J to kJ permits them to be summed, yielding the total heat
required:

Exercise

What is the total amount of heat released when 94.0 g water at 80.0 °C cools to form ice at
−30.0 °C?

Answer

In the previous unit, the variation of a liquid’s equilibrium vapor pressure with temperature
was described. Considering the definition of boiling point, plots of vapor pressure versus
temperature represent how the boiling point of the liquid varies with pressure. Also described
was the use of heating and cooling curves to determine a substance’s melting (or freezing)
point. Making such measurements over a wide range of pressures yields data that may be
presented graphically as a phase diagram. A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus
temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a
substance. These diagrams indicate the physical states that exist under specific conditions of
pressure and temperature, and also provide the pressure dependence of the phase-transition
temperatures (melting points, sublimation points, boiling points). A typical phase diagram for
a pure substance is shown in Figure

.
Figure

: The physical state of a substance and its phase-transition temperatures are represented
graphically in a phase diagram.

To illustrate the utility of these plots, consider the phase diagram for water shown in Figure

.
Figure

: The pressure and temperature axes on this phase diagram of water are not drawn to
constant scale in order to illustrate several important properties.

We can use the phase diagram to identify the physical state of a sample of water under
specified conditions of pressure and temperature. For example, a pressure of 50 kPa and a
temperature of −10 °C correspond to the region of the diagram labeled “ice.” Under these
conditions, water exists only as a solid (ice). A pressure of 50 kPa and a temperature of 50 °C
correspond to the “water” region—here, water exists only as a liquid. At 25 kPa and 200 °C,
water exists only in the gaseous state. Note that on the H2O phase diagram, the pressure and
temperature axes are not drawn to a constant scale in order to permit the illustration of several
important features as described here.

The curve BC in Figure

is the plot of vapor pressure versus temperature as described in the previous module of this
chapter. This “liquid-vapor” curve separates the liquid and gaseous regions of the phase
diagram and provides the boiling point for water at any pressure. For example, at 1 atm, the
boiling point is 100 °C. Notice that the liquid-vapor curve terminates at a temperature of 374
°C and a pressure of 218 atm, indicating that water cannot exist as a liquid above this
temperature, regardless of the pressure. The physical properties of water under these
conditions are intermediate between those of its liquid and gaseous phases. This unique state
of matter is called a supercritical fluid, a topic that will be described in the next section of this
module.

The solid-vapor curve, labeled AB in Figure

, indicates the temperatures and pressures at which ice and water vapor are in equilibrium.
These temperature-pressure data pairs correspond to the sublimation, or deposition, points for
water. If we could zoom in on the solid-gas line in Figure , we would see that ice has a vapor
pressure of about 0.20 kPa at −10 °C. Thus, if we place a frozen sample in a vacuum with a
pressure less than 0.20 kPa, ice will sublime. This is the basis for the “freeze-drying” process
often used to preserve foods, such as the ice cream shown in Figure

>

Figure

: Freeze-dried foods, like this ice cream, are dehydrated by sublimation at pressures below
the triple point for water. (credit: ʺlwaoʺ/Flickr)

The solid-liquid curve labeled BD shows the temperatures and pressures at which ice and
liquid water are in equilibrium, representing the melting/freezing points for water. Note that
this curve exhibits a slight negative slope (greatly exaggerated for clarity), indicating that the
melting point for water decreases slightly as pressure increases. Water is an unusual
substance in this regard, as most substances exhibit an increase in melting point with
increasing pressure. This behavior is partly responsible for the movement of glaciers, like the
one shown in Figure

. The bottom of a glacier experiences an immense pressure due to its weight that can melt
some of the ice, forming a layer of liquid water on which the glacier may more easily slide.
Figure

: The immense pressures beneath glaciers result in partial melting to produce a layer of
water that provides lubrication to assist glacial movement. This satellite photograph shows
the advancing edge of the Perito Moreno glacier in Argentina. (credit: NASA)

The point of intersection of all three curves is labeled B in Figure

. At the pressure and temperature represented by this point, all three phases of water coexist
in equilibrium. This temperature-pressure data pair is called the triple point. At pressures
lower than the triple point, water cannot exist as a liquid, regardless of the temperature.

Video

: Cyclohexane at the triple point.

Example

: Determining the State of Water

Using the phase diagram for water given in Figure 10.4.2, determine the state of water at the
following temperatures and pressures:

a. −10 °C and 50 kPa

b. 25 °C and 90 kPa
c. 50 °C and 40 kPa
d. 80 °C and 5 kPa
e. −10 °C and 0.3 kPa
f. 50 °C and 0.3 kPa

Solution
Using the phase diagram for water, we can determine that the state of water at each
temperature and pressure given are as follows: (a) solid; (b) liquid; (c) liquid; (d) gas; (e)
solid; (f) gas.

Exercise

What phase changes can water undergo as the temperature changes if the pressure is held at
0.3 kPa? If the pressure is held at 50 kPa?

Answer

Consider the phase diagram for carbon dioxide shown in Figure

as another example. The solid-liquid curve exhibits a positive slope, indicating that the
melting point for CO2 increases with pressure as it does for most substances (water being a
notable exception as described previously). Notice that the triple point is well above 1 atm,
indicating that carbon dioxide cannot exist as a liquid under ambient pressure conditions.
Instead, cooling gaseous carbon dioxide at 1 atm results in its deposition into the solid state.
Likewise, solid carbon dioxide does not melt at 1 atm pressure but instead sublimes to yield
gaseous CO2. Finally, notice that the critical point for carbon dioxide is observed at a
relatively modest temperature and pressure in comparison to water.

Figure

: The pressure and temperature axes on this phase diagram of carbon dioxide are not drawn
to constant scale in order to illustrate several important properties.

Example

: Determining the State of Carbon Dioxide

Using the phase diagram for carbon dioxide shown in Figure 10.4.5, determine the state of
CO2 at the following temperatures and pressures:

a. −30 °C and 2000 kPa

b. −60 °C and 1000 kPa
c. −60 °C and 100 kPa
d. 20 °C and 1500 kPa
e. 0 °C and 100 kPa
f. 20 °C and 100 kPa

Solution

Using the phase diagram for carbon dioxide provided, we can determine that the state of CO 2
at each temperature and pressure given are as follows: (a) liquid; (b) solid; (c) gas; (d) liquid;
(e) gas; (f) gas.

Exercise

Determine the phase changes carbon dioxide undergoes when its temperature is varied, thus
holding its pressure constant at 1500 kPa? At 500 kPa? At what approximate temperatures do
these phase changes occur?

Answer

Supercritical Fluids
Video

: Observe the behavior of supercritical fluids.

If we place a sample of water in a sealed container at 25 °C, remove the air, and let the
vaporization-condensation equilibrium establish itself, we are left with a mixture of liquid
water and water vapor at a pressure of 0.03 atm. A distinct boundary between the more dense
liquid and the less dense gas is clearly observed. As we increase the temperature, the pressure
of the water vapor increases, as described by the liquid-gas curve in the phase diagram for
water (Figure

), and a two-phase equilibrium of liquid and gaseous phases remains. At a temperature of 374
°C, the vapor pressure has risen to 218 atm, and any further increase in temperature results in
the disappearance of the boundary between liquid and vapor phases. All of the water in the
container is now present in a single phase whose physical properties are intermediate between
those of the gaseous and liquid states. This phase of matter is called a supercritical fluid, and
the temperature and pressure above which this phase exists is the critical point (Figure ).
Above its critical temperature, a gas cannot be liquefied no matter how much pressure is
applied. The pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature is called the critical
pressure. The critical temperatures and critical pressures of some common substances are
given in Table
.

Table

: Critical Temperatures and Critical Pressures of select substances

Substance Critical Temperature (K) Critical Pressure (atm)
hydrogen 33.2 12.8
nitrogen 126.0 33.5
oxygen 154.3 49.7
carbon dioxide 304.2 73.0
ammonia 405.5 111.5
sulfur dioxide 430.3 77.7
water 647.1 217.7

Video

: The liquid to supercritical fluid transition for carbon dioxide.

Like a gas, a supercritical fluid will expand and fill a container, but its density is much
greater than typical gas densities, typically being close to those for liquids. Similar to liquids,
these fluids are capable of dissolving nonvolatile solutes. They exhibit essentially no surface
tension and very low viscosities, however, so they can more effectively penetrate very small
openings in a solid mixture and remove soluble components. These properties make
supercritical fluids extremely useful solvents for a wide range of applications. For example,
supercritical carbon dioxide has become a very popular solvent in the food industry, being
used to decaffeinate coffee, remove fats from potato chips, and extract flavor and fragrance
compounds from citrus oils. It is nontoxic, relatively inexpensive, and not considered to be a
pollutant. After use, the CO2 can be easily recovered by reducing the pressure and collecting
the resulting gas.

Figure
: (a) A sealed container of liquid carbon dioxide slightly below its critical point is heated,
resulting in (b) the formation of the supercritical fluid phase. Cooling the supercritical fluid
lowers its temperature and pressure below the critical point, resulting in the reestablishment
of separate liquid and gaseous phases (c and d). Colored floats illustrate differences in
density between the liquid, gaseous, and supercritical fluid states. (credit: modification of
work by “mrmrobin”/YouTube)

Example

: The Critical Temperature of Carbon Dioxide

If we shake a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher on a cool day (18 °C), we can hear liquid CO2
sloshing around inside the cylinder. However, the same cylinder appears to contain no liquid
on a hot summer day (35 °C). Explain these observations.

Solution

On the cool day, the temperature of the CO2 is below the critical temperature of CO2, 304 K
or 31 °C (Table

), so liquid CO2 is present in the cylinder. On the hot day, the temperature of the CO2 is
greater than its critical temperature of 31 °C. Above this temperature no amount of pressure
can liquefy CO2 so no liquid CO2 exists in the fire extinguisher.

Exercise

Ammonia can be liquefied by compression at room temperature; oxygen cannot be liquefied

under these conditions. Why do the two gases exhibit different behavior?

Answer

Decaffeinating Coffee Using Supercritical CO2

Coffee is the world’s second most widely traded commodity, following only petroleum.
Across the globe, people love coffee’s aroma and taste. Many of us also depend on one
component of coffee—caffeine—to help us get going in the morning or stay alert in the
afternoon. But late in the day, coffee’s stimulant effect can keep you from sleeping, so you
may choose to drink decaffeinated coffee in the evening.

Since the early 1900s, many methods have been used to decaffeinate coffee. All have
advantages and disadvantages, and all depend on the physical and chemical properties of
caffeine. Because caffeine is a somewhat polar molecule, it dissolves well in water, a polar
liquid. However, since many of the other 400-plus compounds that contribute to coffee’s
taste and aroma also dissolve in H2O, hot water decaffeination processes can also remove
some of these compounds, adversely affecting the smell and taste of the decaffeinated coffee.
Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) and ethyl acetate (CH3CO2C2H5) have similar polarity to caffeine,
and are therefore very effective solvents for caffeine extraction, but both also remove some
flavor and aroma components, and their use requires long extraction and cleanup times.
Because both of these solvents are toxic, health concerns have been raised regarding the
effect of residual solvent remaining in the decaffeinated coffee.

Figure

: (a) Caffeine molecules have both polar and nonpolar regions, making it soluble in solvents
of varying polarities. (b) The schematic shows a typical decaffeination process involving
supercritical carbon dioxide.

Supercritical fluid extraction using carbon dioxide is now being widely used as a more
effective and environmentally friendly decaffeination method (Figure

). At temperatures above 304.2 K and pressures above 7376 kPa, CO2 is a supercritical fluid,
with properties of both gas and liquid. Like a gas, it penetrates deep into the coffee beans;
like a liquid, it effectively dissolves certain substances. Supercritical carbon dioxide
extraction of steamed coffee beans removes 97−99% of the caffeine, leaving coffee’s flavor
and aroma compounds intact. Because CO2 is a gas under standard conditions, its removal
from the extracted coffee beans is easily accomplished, as is the recovery of the caffeine from
the extract. The caffeine recovered from coffee beans via this process is a valuable product
that can be used subsequently as an additive to other foods or drugs.

Summary
Video

: An overview of phase changes and phase diagrams.

The temperatures at which phase transitions occur are determined by the relative strengths of
intermolecular attractions and are, therefore, dependent on the chemical identity of the
substance. The temperature and pressure conditions at which a substance exists in solid,
liquid, and gaseous states are summarized in a phase diagram for that substance. Phase
diagrams are combined plots of three pressure-temperature equilibrium curves: solid-liquid,
liquid-gas, and solid-gas. These curves represent the relationships between phase-transition
temperatures and pressures. The point of intersection of all three curves represents the
substance’s triple point—the temperature and pressure at which all three phases are in
equilibrium. At pressures below the triple point, a substance cannot exist in the liquid state,
regardless of its temperature. The terminus of the liquid-gas curve represents the substance’s
critical point, the pressure and temperature above which a liquid phase cannot exist.

2.4 Methods of Sterilization and Equipment

2.4.1 Batch Processing Equipment

 Still retorts

 Steam retorts

2.4.2 Continuous Processing Equipment

 Rotary retorts

 Hydrostatic sterilizers

2.4.3 Heat Exchangers

 Plate heat exchangers (milk, juices)

 Tubular heat exchangers

 Scraped surface heat exchangers (viscous foods)

2.4 Methods of Sterilization and Equipment

Sterilization is the process of destroying all viable microorganisms, including spores, to
ensure the safety and shelf life of food products. Different equipment and methods are
employed depending on the type of food, packaging, and production scale. These can be
broadly classified into batch, continuous, and heat exchanger systems.
2.4.1 Batch Processing Equipment

Batch processing involves treating a fixed quantity of food at a time. This is generally used
for low to medium volume production.

(a) Still Retorts

 Principle:
Food containers (cans, jars) are placed in a closed vessel filled with steam or water.
Heat is transferred via conduction and convection, raising the food temperature to
sterilization levels.
 Operation:

o Load containers on racks.

o Fill with saturated steam or water.

o Heat until desired F-value is reached at the cold spot.

o Cool before unloading.

 Applications:

o Canned vegetables, fruits, beans, and meats.

 Advantages:

o Simple design.

o Can handle a wide variety of container sizes.

 Limitations:

o Longer processing times.

o Less uniform heating compared to continuous systems.

(b) Steam Retorts

 Principle:
Similar to still retorts, but steam under pressure is injected directly, reducing
processing time.
 Applications:

o Canned fish, poultry, and high-moisture foods.

 Advantages:
 o Faster heat penetration than water-based still retorts.

o Improved energy efficiency.

 Limitations:

o High maintenance.

o Risk of uneven heating if not properly loaded.

2.4.2 Continuous Processing Equipment

Continuous systems are designed for large-scale, high-volume food processing, where
containers move continuously through the sterilizing medium.

(a) Rotary Retorts

 Principle:
Containers are loaded into baskets that rotate inside the retort while steam or hot
water circulates.
 Advantages:

o Uniform heating due to rotation.

o Suitable for viscous foods or high-density containers.

o Reduced cold spots.

 Applications:

o Tomato paste, stews, viscous sauces.

 Limitations:

o Higher capital cost.

o More complex to operate.

(b) Hydrostatic Sterilizers

 Principle:
Containers are moved on a conveyor submerged in hot water under hydrostatic
pressure. Heating occurs primarily through conduction from water to container.
 Applications:

o Canned fish in brine or oil.

 o Foods sensitive to agitation.

 Advantages:

o Minimal container movement reduces mechanical damage.

o Good for high-viscosity products.

 Limitations:

o Slower than rotary retorts.

o Requires large water volume and energy.

2.4.3 Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are used for continuous thermal sterilization of pumpable liquids, such
as milk, juices, soups, and sauces.

(a) Plate Heat Exchangers

 Principle:
Thin plates allow rapid heat transfer between the food product and heating medium
(steam or hot water).
 Applications:

o Milk pasteurization, fruit juices, beverages.

 Advantages:

o High heat transfer efficiency.

o Compact design.

o Easy to clean (CIP – Clean-in-place systems).

 Limitations:

o Not suitable for high-viscosity foods.

o Plate gaskets require regular maintenance.

(b) Tubular Heat Exchangers

 Principle:
Food flows through tubes, while heating or cooling medium flows outside (or inside
counter-currently).
  Applications:

o Soups, sauces, viscous dairy products.

 Advantages:

o Handles viscous and particulate-laden products better than plate exchangers.

 Limitations:

o Lower heat transfer efficiency compared to plate exchangers.

o More difficult to clean.

(c) Scraped Surface Heat Exchangers (SSHE)

 Principle:
Rotating blades scrape the product off the heated surface, preventing fouling and
ensuring uniform heating.
 Applications:

o Tomato paste, chocolate, fruit concentrates, and other viscous foods.

 Advantages:

o Efficient heating of very viscous products.

o Prevents burning or localized overheating.

 Limitations:

o Higher capital cost.

o Mechanical parts require maintenance.

Summary Table of Sterilization Equipment

Equipment Type Principle Applications Advantages Limitations

Steam or water bath Canned

Still Retort Simple, versatile Slow heating
heating vegetables, beans

Faster than still Maintenance

Steam Retort Pressurized steam Fish, poultry
retort intensive

Rotating baskets in Tomato paste,

Rotary Retort Uniform heating High capital cost
steam sauces
Equipment Type Principle Applications Advantages Limitations

Minimal
Hydrostatic Containers submerged Large water/energy
Fish in brine/oil mechanical
Sterilizer under pressure use
damage

Plate Heat Thin plates for liquid Not for viscous

Milk, juices High efficiency, CIP
Exchanger heating foods

Tubular Heat Lower efficiency,

Tubes for liquid heating Soups, sauces Handles viscosity
Exchanger hard to clean

Scraping viscous
Scraped Surface Tomato paste, Prevents burning, High capital,
product on heated
HE chocolate uniform maintenance
surface

African / Local Food Industry Examples

 Canned sardines in Cameroon & Nigeria: Rotary and hydrostatic sterilizers.

 Tomato paste production in Ghana & Nigeria: Scraped surface heat exchangers
and rotary retorts.

 Fresh fruit juice pasteurization: Plate heat exchangers.

 Milk pasteurization in local dairies: Plate or tubular heat exchangers.

2.5 Latest Trends in Thermal Processing

 Aseptic processing and packaging

 Ohmic-assisted heating

 Energy recovery systems

 Integration with non-thermal methods

2.5 Latest Trends in Thermal Processing

Thermal processing has evolved significantly in recent years due to the demand for high-
quality, safe, and energy-efficient foods. Modern trends focus on reducing thermal
damage, improving energy efficiency, and integrating with non-thermal technologies to
preserve sensory, nutritional, and functional properties of foods. The following are key
innovations in thermal processing.

2.5.1 Aseptic Processing and Packaging

Principle:

 Food is sterilized separately from the packaging.

 Sterile food is then filled into pre-sterilized containers under aseptic conditions.

Steps:

1. Liquid food is rapidly heated to sterilization temperature using heat exchangers.

2. The product is cooled to filling temperature.

3. Sterile filling into pre-sterilized containers under aseptic conditions.

Advantages:

 Extended shelf life without refrigeration.

 Minimal thermal damage due to short exposure to high temperature (HTST).

 Reduced packaging and energy costs compared to conventional canning.

Applications (African Context):

 Fruit juices and nectars in Nigeria, Ghana, and South Africa.

 UHT milk in local dairy industries.

 Liquid soups and sauces for urban retail markets.

Limitations:

 Requires highly controlled sterile environment.

 High initial capital investment for equipment.

2.5.2 Ohmic-Assisted Heating

Principle:

 Food is heated by passing electric current directly through it.

 Heat is generated internally due to electrical resistance (Joule heating).

Key Features:

 Rapid and uniform heating.

 Suitable for viscous liquids and particulate foods.

 Can be integrated with conventional retorts for hybrid processing.

Applications:

 Tomato paste, soups, and sauces.

  Heat-sensitive foods requiring shorter processing times.

Advantages:

 Reduced thermal gradients → better quality retention.

 Faster heating → energy savings.

 Can inactivate spores and enzymes efficiently.

Limitations:

 Requires food to be electrically conductive.

 Complex electrical and safety systems.

African Relevance:

 Pilot-scale use in processing tomato paste and fruit purees in local agro-processing
units.

2.5.3 Energy Recovery Systems

Principle:

 Reuse of waste heat from thermal processing to reduce overall energy consumption.
 Heat from cooling streams or condensers is recovered and used for pre-heating
incoming product.

Technologies:

 Plate heat exchangers for pre-heating.

 Multi-effect retorts and evaporators.

 Heat integration with water/steam systems.

Advantages:

 Significant energy savings (up to 30–50%).

 Reduced environmental footprint.

 Lower operating costs for large-scale plants.

Applications (African Context):

 Tomato paste and fruit juice plants in Nigeria and Cameroon.

 Dairy processing facilities using milk pasteurization.

Limitations:
  Requires careful system design and maintenance.
 Initial capital cost may be high.

2.5.4 Integration with Non-Thermal Methods

Principle:

 Combines thermal processing with non-thermal preservation technologies for

enhanced safety and quality.

Non-thermal methods include:

 High-pressure processing (HPP): Inactivates microbes with high hydrostatic

pressure.
 Pulsed electric fields (PEF): Disrupts microbial cell membranes.

 Irradiation: Breaks DNA of microorganisms.

 Microwave-assisted processing: Rapid, volumetric heating.

Advantages:

 Reduced thermal damage → better retention of flavor, color, and nutrients.

 Can reduce processing time or temperature.

 Enhances microbial safety in delicate products.

Applications (African Context):

 HPP juices in South African premium beverage market.

 Microwave-assisted sterilization in fruit puree production in Nigeria.

 Integration in research-scale pilot plants for minimally processed foods.

Limitations:

 High cost of non-thermal equipment.

 Regulatory approvals may be required.

 Skilled operation and maintenance needed.

Summary Table: Latest Trends in Thermal Processing

 African
Trend Principle Key Advantages Limitations
Applications

Aseptic Sterilize product Extended shelf life, High capital cost,

UHT milk, fruit
processing & separately, fill into reduced thermal requires sterile
juices
packaging sterile containers damage environment

Food must be
Ohmic-assisted Electrical current Uniform rapid heating, Tomato paste,
conductive, complex
heating heats food internally energy savings sauces
system

Lower energy costs, Requires careful

Energy recovery Tomato paste,
Reuse waste heat reduced design, high capital
systems fruit juice, dairy
environmental impact cost

Integration with Combine thermal + Better quality

Premium juices, High cost, skilled
non-thermal non-thermal retention, shorter
purees operation
methods processing processing

Examination Tips:

 Students should explain each trend with principle, advantage, and example.
 Diagrams showing aseptic processing lines or ohmic heating setup are often
requested.

 Relate trends to local food industries for context.

3. EVAPORATION
3.1 Definition and Purpose

Evaporation is the concentration of liquid foods by removal of water using heat.

Applications in Africa:

 Tomato paste production

 Concentration of fruit juices (mango, pineapple, orange)

 Milk concentration

 Sugar processing

3.2 Properties of Liquids Relevant to Evaporation

  Boiling point elevation
 Latent heat of vaporization

 Specific heat

 Viscosity

3.2 Properties of Liquids Relevant to Evaporation

Evaporation is a mass and heat transfer process in which water or other solvents are
removed from a liquid food, concentrating it or reducing water content. Understanding the
physical properties of the liquid is essential for designing evaporators, calculating energy
requirements, and optimizing efficiency.

The key liquid properties affecting evaporation are: boiling point elevation, latent heat of
vaporization, specific heat, and viscosity.

3.2.1 Boiling Point Elevation

Definition:

 Boiling point elevation occurs when solutes are dissolved in a liquid, increasing the
temperature at which the liquid boils compared to pure water.

Mechanism:

 Dissolved solids (sugars, salts, proteins) lower the vapor pressure of the liquid.
 To achieve boiling, the system must reach a higher temperature to overcome the
reduced vapor pressure.

Significance in Evaporation:

 Higher boiling temperature affects energy input required.

 Can influence flavor and color changes in heat-sensitive foods.

 Important for high-solids foods like fruit juices, tomato paste, and milk concentrates.

Local Food Industry Example:

 Concentration of mango or pineapple juice: as soluble solids increase, boiling point

rises, requiring adjustments in heating to avoid scorching.

Typical Values:

 10°Brix juice → ~100.5°C

 40°Brix juice → ~104–105°C

3.2.2 Latent Heat of Vaporization

Definition:

 Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid

into vapor at constant temperature and pressure.

Significance:

 Determines the energy requirement for evaporation.

 A key factor in evaporator sizing and steam consumption calculation.

Factors Affecting Latent Heat:

 Temperature: decreases slightly with increasing temperature.

 Composition: presence of sugars, salts, or fats may alter vaporization energy
slightly.

Typical Values:

 Water at 100°C → 2257 kJ/kg

 Fruit juice → slightly higher due to solutes (~2300 kJ/kg)

Local Example:

 Concentrating palm wine or sugarcane juice: high water content requires large heat
input; knowledge of latent heat is used to size evaporators efficiently.

3.2.3 Specific Heat

Definition:

 Specific heat (Cp) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of liquid by 1°C.

Significance in Evaporation:

 Determines the sensible heat requirement before boiling begins.

 Influences steam consumption and overall energy efficiency.

 Viscous liquids with high solids often have higher specific heat, requiring more pre-
heating.

Typical Values:
  Water: 4.18 kJ/kg°C
 Fruit juice (10–20°Brix): 3.9–4.0 kJ/kg°C

 Milk: 3.9 kJ/kg°C

Design Implication:

 Evaporators must supply enough heat to overcome both sensible heat (raising
temperature) and latent heat (vaporization).

3.2.4 Viscosity

Definition:

 Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow.

Significance in Evaporation:

 High viscosity reduces heat and mass transfer efficiency.

 Causes film formation on heat transfer surfaces, potentially leading to fouling or
scorching.

 Affects pumpability and circulation within evaporators.

Factors Affecting Viscosity:

 Temperature: increases in temperature reduce viscosity.

 Solids content: higher sugar or protein concentrations increase viscosity.

Local Food Industry Example:

 Tomato paste, mango puree, and milk concentrates: as solids increase, viscosity
rises, requiring mechanical circulation or scraped-surface evaporators to maintain
heat transfer efficiency.

Design Implication:

 Choice of evaporator type is influenced by viscosity:

o Thin liquids → falling film or rising film evaporators

o Thick liquids → forced circulation or scraped surface evaporators

Summary Table: Liquid Properties Relevant to Evaporation

 Property Definition Effect on Evaporation Example (African/Local)

Boiling Point Increase in boiling Requires higher temperature; Mango/pineapple juice

Elevation point due to solutes affects product quality concentration

Heat required to
Latent Heat of Determines energy Sugarcane juice, palm wine
convert liquid to
Vaporization requirement concentration
vapor

Heat required to raise Affects preheating and total

Specific Heat Milk, fruit juice pre-heating
1 kg by 1°C energy needed

Impacts heat/mass transfer; Tomato paste, mango

Viscosity Resistance to flow
fouling; type of evaporator puree, thick sauces

Examination Tips

 Understand why each property affects evaporator design.

 Be able to relate viscosity and solids content to type of evaporator.

 Give local examples to demonstrate practical understanding.

 Numerical problems often combine specific heat and latent heat to calculate steam
requirement or process time.

3.3 Heat and Mass Balance in Evaporators

3.3.1 Single Effect Evaporator

 One evaporator body

 High steam consumption
3.3 Heat and Mass Balance in Evaporators
Evaporation is essentially a heat and mass transfer operation, where thermal energy is
used to vaporize water (or other solvents) from a liquid. Understanding heat and mass
balances is essential for designing, operating, and optimizing evaporators.

 Mass balance: Accounts for the input and output of liquid and vapor.
 Heat balance: Accounts for the energy supplied, energy used to raise
temperature, and energy used for vaporization.

3.3.1 Single Effect Evaporator

A single effect evaporator consists of one evaporation body (or vessel) where liquid is
heated by steam or other heat source, and vapor is removed from the top. It is the simplest
type of evaporator.

Principle of Operation

1. Feed enters the evaporator at a specific temperature (usually preheated).

2. Steam is introduced in a jacket or coil surrounding the evaporation body.

3. Heat transfer occurs, raising the liquid to its boiling point.

4. Water vaporizes and leaves as vapor; the remaining concentrated liquid is removed
from the bottom.
Heat and Mass Balance

2. Solids Balance:
Observation:

 In a single effect evaporator, all steam is used only once, making it less energy-
efficient.
 High steam consumption is a major disadvantage.

Advantages

 Simple design and operation.

 Easy to maintain and clean.

 Suitable for small-scale production or pilot plants.

Limitations

 High steam consumption → energy intensive.

 Not suitable for large-scale production of high solids foods.

 Risk of overheating or product degradation due to long residence time.

Types of Single Effect Evaporators

1. Natural Circulation Evaporator

o Relies on density difference between boiling liquid and feed for circulation.

o Suitable for low-viscosity liquids.

2. Forced Circulation Evaporator

o Pumped circulation ensures uniform heating.

o Ideal for viscous liquids like fruit pulps or tomato concentrate.

3. Falling Film Evaporator

o Thin film of liquid flows down heated walls.

o Rapid evaporation and minimal thermal damage.

Energy Considerations
Steam economy (kg water evaporated per kg steam) is typically:

 Single effect: 1 kg steam → 1 kg water evaporated (economy ≈ 1)

 Multi-effect evaporators increase economy (see next section).

Local Food Industry Example:

 Concentration of mango, pineapple, or guava juice for juices and nectars.

 Small-scale tomato paste production in local agro-processing units.

Typical Process Diagram

Steam In
│
▼
┌─────────────────┐
│ │
│ Evaporator │
│ │
└─────────────────┘
▲ │
│ │
│ ▼
Feed Vapor
│
▼
Concentrate Out

 Feed is preheated if possible.

 Steam supplies latent heat.

 Vapor is removed and condensed for possible reuse.

Key Design Considerations

1. Steam availability and pressure – affects evaporation rate.

2. Heat transfer area – must be sufficient to achieve required concentration.

3. Residence time – shorter times reduce thermal degradation.

4. Product viscosity – may require forced or scraped surface circulation.

Examination Tips

 Be able to draw single effect evaporator diagrams.

  Solve mass and energy balance problems: calculate concentrate flow, vapor flow,
and steam required.

 Discuss advantages, limitations, and local applications.

3.4 Multiple Effect Evaporators

 Use vapor from one effect as heating medium for the next

 Improved steam economy

Types:

 Forward feed
 Backward feed

 Mixed feed

3.4 Multiple Effect Evaporators (MEE)

Multiple effect evaporators are widely used in the food processing industry to concentrate
liquids efficiently while reducing steam consumption. They exploit the latent heat of
vaporization of water by reusing vapor generated in one effect as the heating medium for
the next.

3.4.1 Principle of Operation

1. The feed liquid enters the first effect (boiling vessel), where it is heated by live steam.
2. Water evaporates from the feed; the resulting vapor is used as the heating medium
for the second effect.

3. This process continues through multiple effects (typically 2–6) to concentrate the
liquid progressively.

4. Each successive effect operates at lower pressure and temperature than the
previous one, enabling vapor reuse.

Key Concept:

 Steam economy:
 Steam economy=kg water evaporatedkg steam used\text{Steam economy} = \frac{\text{kg
water evaporated}}{\text{kg steam
used}}Steam economy=kg steam usedkg water evaporated

o Single effect: economy ≈ 1

o Two effects: economy ≈ 2

o n-effects: economy ≈ n

Advantage: Reduced energy cost compared to single effect evaporators, especially important
for high-volume production.

3.4.2 Types of Multiple Effect Evaporators

1. Forward Feed

Configuration:

 Feed enters the first effect (highest temperature) and passes sequentially to the last
effect.

Advantages:

 Small temperature difference between effects → minimizes product degradation.

 Easy to design and operate.

Limitations:

 Less suitable for very viscous products due to reduced flow in later effects.

Applications (African Context):

 Fruit juice concentration (pineapple, mango) where quality retention is critical.

2. Backward Feed

Configuration:

 Feed enters the last effect (lowest temperature) and moves toward the first effect
(highest temperature).

Advantages:

 Lower risk of fouling in the early (hot) effect due to lower initial solids concentration.
 Suitable for viscous liquids that tend to foam or scale.
Limitations:

 Slightly lower heat efficiency compared to forward feed.

Applications:

 Concentration of tomato paste, milk whey, and other viscous liquids.

3. Mixed Feed (or Balanced Feed)

Configuration:

 Feed is split between different effects to maintain consistent solids content and
temperature differences.

Advantages:

 Minimizes thermal degradation.

 Reduces foaming and scaling in viscous products.

Applications:

 High-solids food products such as concentrated fruit pulps, syrups, and sugar
solutions.

3.4.3 Advantages of Multiple Effect Evaporators

 Reduced steam consumption: Steam from one effect is reused, significantly

improving energy efficiency.
 Lower operating cost: Reduced energy input compared to single effect.

 Better product quality: Gradual heating reduces thermal damage to flavor, color,
and nutrients.

 Scalability: Can handle high-volume production for commercial industries.

3.4.4 Limitations

 High capital cost: Multiple vessels and piping required.

 Complex design and operation: Pressure control and level monitoring needed.

 Maintenance: Fouling, scaling, and corrosion may be more critical due to multiple
stages.
3.4.5 Heat and Mass Balance in Multiple Effect Evaporators

 Let F = feed rate, C = concentrate, V1, V2,..., Vn = vapor from each effect.
 Overall mass balance:

 Energy balance:
o Heat input in first effect = latent heat of vaporization of water evaporated.

o Heat in successive effects = reused vapor energy.

Example Calculation Concept:

 If 5 tons/h of water are evaporated in a three-effect evaporator using 1 ton/h of live

steam:

 Energy consumption is five times lower than a single effect evaporator.

3.4.6 Design Considerations

1. Number of effects: Balance between energy efficiency and capital cost.

2. Operating pressures: Each effect is at a lower pressure than the previous one.

3. Temperature differences: Small ∆T between effects reduces product degradation.

4. Feed viscosity and solids content: Determines whether forced circulation or falling
film is needed.

5. Evaporator type:

o Thin liquids → falling film or rising film evaporators

o Viscous liquids → forced circulation or scraped surface evaporators

3.4.7 Local Food Industry Applications

Product Type of MEE Notes

Pineapple juice Forward feed, falling film Preserves flavor and vitamin C

Tomato paste Backward feed, forced circulation High solids, viscous product

Sugarcane juice Mixed feed High volume, prevents scaling

Palm sap concentrate Forward feed Minimizes caramelization during evaporation

3.4.8 Typical Process Diagram of MEE

Steam In
│
▼
┌─────────────┐ Vapor → Effect 2
│ Effect 1 │────►
│ (Highest T) │
└─────────────┘
│ Vapor → Effect 3
▼
┌─────────────┐
│ Effect 2 │
│ (Medium T) │
└─────────────┘
│ Vapor → Condenser
▼
┌─────────────┐
│ Effect 3 │
│ (Lowest T) │
└─────────────┘
│
▼
Concentrate Out

Examination Tips

 Be able to draw MEE diagram with vapor flow.

 Explain forward, backward, and mixed feed types with pros and cons.

 Solve mass and energy balance problems to estimate steam economy.

 Give local examples for African fruit juices, tomato paste, and syrup concentration.

3.5 Aroma Recovery

 Volatile aroma compounds lost during evaporation

 Recovery using condensers and aroma traps
Applications:

 Fruit juice industries in Ghana, Cameroon, Nigeria

3.5 Aroma Recovery

During evaporation processes in the food industry (e.g., fruit juice concentration, milk
processing, coffee, or tea extracts), volatile aroma compounds are often lost with the
vapor. These compounds are critical for the flavor and overall sensory quality of the final
product. If not recovered, the product may have a dull or flat taste, which reduces consumer
acceptability and market value.

3.5.1 Sources of Aroma Loss

 Volatilization: Many aroma compounds are small, low-boiling molecules that easily
vaporize at the temperatures used in evaporators.
 Steam stripping: In multiple-effect evaporators, water vapor can carry away aroma
compounds along with moisture.

 Mechanical losses: Some loss may occur due to inadequate sealing or turbulence in
evaporator systems.

3.5.2 Methods for Aroma Recovery

To preserve product quality, aroma compounds are captured and returned to the product or
used separately as flavor concentrates. Common recovery techniques include:

1. Condensers
o Vapors leaving the evaporator are cooled in condensers.

o During condensation, water and volatile compounds can be separated.

o The condensed aroma-rich fraction can then be blended back with the
concentrated product.

2. Aroma Traps (Absorption/Adsorption Systems)

o Absorption traps: Volatile compounds are absorbed into a suitable medium,

such as alcohol, oils, or other food-grade solvents.

o Adsorption traps: Materials like activated carbon, polymer resins, or silica

gels selectively adsorb volatile compounds from vapor streams.

o The trapped aromas can later be desorbed and reintroduced to the product.

3. Recycling Steam or Vapor

 o In some systems, a portion of the vapor containing aroma compounds can be
recirculated back into the evaporator or product stream.

3.5.3 Benefits of Aroma Recovery

 Enhances flavor intensity of concentrated or processed foods.

 Improves product consistency, particularly for juices, dairy products, or flavorings.

 Reduces economic loss of valuable volatile compounds.

 Supports sustainable processing, minimizing waste of natural food aromas.

3.5.4 Practical Applications

 Fruit juice concentration: Aroma distillates from apple, orange, or mango juices are
captured and added back after concentration.
 Coffee and tea processing: Aromatic fractions are recovered to maintain
characteristic flavors.

 Dairy evaporation: Milk or whey concentrates retain natural flavors by aroma

recovery systems.

3.6 Evaporator Equipment

  Rising film evaporator
 Falling film evaporator

 Forced circulation evaporator

3.6 Evaporator Equipment

Evaporation is a critical unit operation in food processing for concentrating liquids, such as
fruit juices, milk, sugar solutions, and other liquid foods. The choice of evaporator
equipment depends on the product’s thermal sensitivity, viscosity, foaming tendency, and
the desired evaporation rate. Key types of evaporators include rising film, falling film, and
forced circulation evaporators.

3.6.1 Rising Film Evaporator (Vertical Tube Evaporator)

 Design: Vertical tubes with liquid fed at the bottom. Steam heats the outer walls of
the tubes, causing the liquid inside to boil.
 Operation:

o As the liquid is heated, vapor bubbles form and rise rapidly, creating a thin
liquid film along the walls.

o The vapor-liquid mixture moves upwards and separates at the top of the tubes.

 Advantages:

o High heat transfer efficiency due to thin liquid film.

o Suitable for low to medium viscosity liquids.

o Relatively compact design.

 Limitations:

o Not ideal for viscous or heat-sensitive liquids, as residence time may be long
at the bottom.

o Can cause foaming and scaling in some products.

 Applications:

o Milk concentration, sugar solutions, and some fruit juices.

3.6.2 Falling Film Evaporator

 Design: Vertical tubes with liquid introduced at the top and allowed to flow
downwards as a thin film along the tube walls. Steam surrounds the tubes to provide
heat.
 Operation:
 o The liquid film is heated gently as it flows down, generating vapor.

o Vapor separates at the bottom or side of the tubes.

 Advantages:

o Short residence time, minimizing thermal degradation of heat-sensitive

products.

o Suitable for low- to medium-viscosity liquids and foaming products.

o Energy-efficient, especially when used in multiple-effect configurations.

 Limitations:

o Less effective for very viscous liquids that cannot form a uniform film.

 Applications:

o Fruit juice concentration (orange, apple, mango).

o Dairy products and liquid egg concentrates.

3.6.3 Forced Circulation Evaporator

 Design: The liquid is circulated through the evaporator using a pump rather than
relying on natural convection. Often includes a heat exchanger (evaporator body)
and separator for vapor-liquid separation.
 Operation:

o The pump forces liquid through the heated tubes or coils.

o Rapid circulation prevents film burnout, scaling, or localized overheating.

 Advantages:

o Ideal for viscous liquids that cannot form natural films (e.g., tomato paste,
honey, molasses).

o Reduces fouling and improves heat transfer.

o Can operate at higher concentrations and with uniform heating.

 Limitations:

o Higher energy consumption due to pumping.

o More complex and costly equipment.

  Applications:

o Thick fruit pulps, syrups, tomato paste, molasses, and other viscous food
liquids.

3.6.4 Selection Criteria

When choosing an evaporator type, consider:

 Thermal sensitivity of the product.

 Product viscosity and tendency to foam.

 Desired concentration factor.

 Energy efficiency and operating cost.

 Potential for scaling or fouling.

4. DRYING
4.1 Definition and Objectives

Drying removes moisture to inhibit microbial growth and enzymatic reactions.

Local applications:

 Drying of fish, cassava (gari), maize, rice, spices

4.2 Drying Rates and Periods

 Constant rate period

 Falling rate period

 Critical moisture content

4.2 Drying Rates and Periods

Drying is a critical unit operation in food processing, aimed at reducing the moisture content
of a product to a safe level for storage or further processing. The drying rate of a material
varies over time and typically occurs in distinct periods:

4.2.1 Constant Rate Period

 Definition: The period during which the surface of the material remains saturated
with water.
 Characteristics:
o Moisture is removed at a nearly constant rate, limited by external heat and
mass transfer.
o Water evaporates from the surface as fast as it is supplied by capillary flow
from the interior.
o Drying rate depends on air temperature, humidity, and velocity.
 Applications:
o Most evident in thin-layer drying of high-moisture foods such as fruits,
vegetables, and grains.

4.2.2 Falling Rate Period

 Definition: The period when the surface is no longer saturated, and the drying rate
decreases continuously.
 Characteristics:
o Moisture must diffuse from the interior to the surface.
o Controlled by internal mass transfer mechanisms (e.g., diffusion through
pores or cell structure).
o The drying rate decreases over time due to reduced surface moisture.
 Applications:
o Most foods spend the majority of the drying process in this period, especially
thick or dense materials.

4.2.3 Critical Moisture Content

 Definition: The moisture content at which the drying process transitions from the
constant rate period to the falling rate period.
  Importance:
o Determines the design of dryers and optimal drying conditions.
o Above the critical moisture content, drying is surface-controlled; below it,
drying is diffusion-controlled.

4.3 Theories of Drying

 Diffusion theory
 Capillary theory

 Combined heat and mass transfer

4.3 Theories of Drying

Drying involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer, and several theories explain how
moisture moves from the interior of a material to its surface:

4.3.1 Diffusion Theory

 Principle: Moisture moves from the interior to the surface due to a moisture
concentration gradient.
 Mechanism:
o Governed by Fick’s law of diffusion.
o Important in the falling rate period, where surface water is depleted.
 Applications:
o Used to model drying of grains, fruits, and porous solids.

4.3.2 Capillary Theory

 Principle: Water is transported from the interior to the surface through capillary
pores or channels in the material.
 Mechanism:
o Moisture moves by capillary action, driven by surface tension.
o Often coupled with surface evaporation at the dryer interface.
 Applications:
o Relevant in highly porous foods like coffee beans, bread, and vegetables.

4.3.3 Combined Heat and Mass Transfer Theory

 Principle: Drying is the result of coupled heat and mass transfer processes.
 Mechanism:
 o Heat supplied to the material raises surface temperature and facilitates
evaporation.
o Simultaneously, moisture moves from the interior via diffusion or capillary
flow.
 Applications:
o Comprehensive approach used in dryer design and simulation of industrial
drying processes.
o Explains temperature and moisture profiles in thick or heat-sensitive products.

4.4 Drying Equipment

 Tray dryers (small-scale processors)

 Spray dryers (milk powder)

 Drum dryers (cereal pastes)

 Fluidized bed dryers

4.4 Drying Equipment

Drying equipment is designed to remove moisture from foods efficiently while preserving
quality, color, flavor, and nutrients. The choice of dryer depends on the product type,
moisture content, heat sensitivity, and production scale. Common industrial and
laboratory dryers include tray dryers, spray dryers, drum dryers, and fluidized bed dryers.

4.4.1 Tray Dryers (Small-Scale Processors)

  Design:
o Consist of stainless steel trays arranged in a chamber through which heated
air is circulated.
o Air may flow naturally (convection) or be forced by fans.
 Operation:
o Food is spread thinly on trays.
o Moisture evaporates into the circulating hot air.
 Advantages:
o Simple design, easy to operate, low cost.
o Suitable for small-scale production and research.
 Limitations:
o Low drying rate compared to industrial dryers.
o Uneven drying possible if trays are overloaded.
 Applications:
o Drying fruits, vegetables, herbs, and small food samples.

Diagram idea: Show a vertical chamber with stacked trays, hot air inlet, and moisture-laden
air outlet.

4.4.2 Spray Dryers (Milk Powder, Juice Powders)

 Design:
o Consist of a spray nozzle, a hot air chamber, and a cyclone separator.

 Operation:
o Liquid feed is atomized into fine droplets.
o Droplets contact hot air and dry almost instantly.
o Powder is collected at the bottom or in a cyclone separator.
 Advantages:
o Rapid drying, minimal thermal degradation.
o Produces uniform fine powders.
 Limitations:
o High initial cost, high energy consumption.
o Not suitable for extremely viscous liquids.
 Applications:
 o Milk powder, coffee, egg powder, fruit juice powders.

Diagram idea: Show a nozzle spraying liquid into a hot air chamber, with droplets drying
into powder collected at the bottom and in a cyclone.

4.4.3 Drum Dryers (Cereal Pastes, Starchy Foods)

 Design:
o Consist of large rotating heated drums.

o Food paste is applied as a thin layer on the drum surface.

 Operation:
o The drum rotates, and heat transfers from the drum to the product.
o Drying occurs in a thin film, and dried flakes are scraped off the drum.
 Advantages:
o Suitable for viscous pastes.
o Continuous operation and moderate energy use.
 Limitations:
o Product must be pumpable and viscous.
o Not suitable for heat-sensitive liquids.
 Applications:
o Cereal flakes, starch powders, mashed potatoes.

4.4.4 Fluidized Bed Dryers

 Design:
o Consist of a perforated bed where solid particles are suspended in a hot air
stream.
 Operation:
o Hot air flows upward, fluidizing the particles.
o Moisture is removed efficiently due to high air-solid contact.
 Advantages:
o Fast drying, uniform heat transfer.
o Good for granular or particulate foods.
 Limitations:
 o Not suitable for sticky or very fine powders (may require pre-coating).
 Applications:
o Grains, instant coffee, powdered foods, small pellets.

4.5 Novel Dehydration Techniques

 Freeze drying
 Osmotic dehydration (fruits)

 Microwave-assisted drying

 Infrared drying

4.5 Novel Dehydration Techniques

While conventional drying methods (tray, drum, fluidized bed) are widely used, novel
dehydration techniques have been developed to enhance product quality, reduce drying
time, and improve energy efficiency. These methods are particularly important for heat-
sensitive foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and high-value bioactive compounds.

4.5.1 Freeze Drying (Lyophilization)

 Principle:
o Food is first frozen and then dried by sublimation, where ice directly
converts to vapor under low pressure (vacuum).
 Advantages:
o Preserves flavor, color, texture, and nutrients.
o Produces a porous, lightweight product ideal for rehydration.
  Limitations:
o High energy consumption and long processing time.
o Expensive equipment.
 Applications:
o Instant coffee, fruits, vegetables, herbs, pharmaceuticals.

Diagram idea: Show frozen product in a vacuum chamber with ice sublimating to vapor and
being collected as moisture outside.

4.5.2 Osmotic Dehydration (Fruits)

 Principle:
o Food is immersed in a concentrated sugar or salt solution, creating an
osmotic gradient that draws water out of the product.
o Often used as pre-treatment before conventional drying.
 Advantages:
o Reduces thermal damage during later drying steps.
o Enhances taste, sweetness, and texture.
 Limitations:
o Slow process and partial dehydration only.
o Requires additional steps to remove excess sugar or salt if needed.
 Applications:
o Fruit slices (apple, mango, pineapple), vegetables, candied products.

Diagram idea: Show fruit immersed in concentrated sugar solution, water exiting the fruit,
and sugar diffusing in.

4.5.3 Microwave-Assisted Drying

 Principle:
o Uses microwave radiation to heat water molecules volumetrically inside the
food.
o Often combined with hot air or vacuum for better control.
 Advantages:
o Rapid drying and reduced energy consumption.
o Preserves color, nutrients, and flavor better than conventional hot air drying.
  Limitations:
o Uneven heating possible in thick or dense products.
o Equipment cost higher than conventional dryers.
 Applications:
o Herbs, fruits, vegetables, and instant foods.

Diagram idea: Show microwaves penetrating a food sample, water vapor leaving the
surface, sometimes combined with airflow.

4.5.4 Infrared Drying

 Principle:
o Uses infrared radiation (IR) to transfer energy directly to the food surface,
causing rapid moisture evaporation.
 Advantages:
o Rapid and energy-efficient, especially for thin-layer drying.
o Can be combined with hot air or vacuum for enhanced performance.
 Limitations:
o Limited penetration depth; thick products may dry unevenly.
o Surface overheating possible if not controlled.
 Applications:
o Thin fruit slices, vegetables, herbs, and high-value bioactive powders.

Summary Table Idea:

Technique Principle Advantages Limitations Applications

Excellent
Sublimation under
Freeze Drying quality, Expensive, slow Coffee, fruits, herbs
vacuum
lightweight
Osmotic Water removed via Preserves Partial dehydration, Fruits, candied
Dehydration osmotic gradient texture, taste slow products
Microwave- Volumetric heating Fast, nutrient Herbs, fruits,
Uneven heating
Assisted of water molecules retention vegetables
Surface
Surface heating by Energy-efficient, Thin slices of
Infrared overheating,
IR radiation fast fruits/vegetables
shallow penetration
5. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS (UNIT I)
1. Explain the significance of D-value, Z-value, and F-value in thermal processing.
2. Compare single effect and multiple effect evaporators.

3. Describe drying mechanisms during the falling rate period.

4. Discuss the importance of evaporation in tomato processing industries in Africa.

6. ASSIGNMENT (UNIT I)
1. A milk processing plant concentrates milk from 9% to 45% total solids at a feed rate
of 2000 kg/h. Calculate product and water evaporated.
2. Discuss energy-saving strategies in evaporators used in developing countries.

7. EXAM QUESTIONS (UNIT I)

Section A (Short Answers)

1. Define thermal death time.

2. What is boiling point elevation?

Section B (Essay / Problems)

1. With the aid of diagrams, explain the operation of a falling film evaporator.
2. Solve a mass balance problem on a multiple effect evaporator.

8. MARKING GUIDE (UNIT I – SAMPLE)

 Definitions: 2 marks each
 Correct equations: 4 marks

 Calculations: 6 marks

 Clarity and presentation: 2 marks

9. RELEVANCE TO AFRICAN FOOD INDUSTRIES
 Reduces post-harvest losses
 Promotes value addition

 Enhances food security

 Encourages agro-industrial development

Recommended Reading
 Singh RP & Heldman DR – Introduction to Food Engineering
 Fellows PJ – Food Processing Technology

 Toledo RT – Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering