I.
Core Functions of the Digestive System
The primary function is to break down food into tiny, absorbable components that
the body can use for energy, growth, and cell repair. The process involves six
main activities:
1. Ingestion: Taking food and liquids into the mouth.
2. Secretion: Releasing digestive juices (water, acids, enzymes, buffers) by
cells in the tract and accessory organs.
3. Mixing and Propulsion: Churning food and moving it through the tract via a
process called peristalsis.
4. Digestion: The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
○ Mechanical Digestion: Physical breakdown into smaller pieces (e.g.,
chewing, churning in the stomach).
○ Chemical Digestion: Enzymatic breakdown of large molecules into
smaller building blocks (e.g., proteins into amino acids).
5. Absorption: The passage of digested end products (plus vitamins, minerals,
and water) from the lumen of the GI tract into the blood or lymph.
6. Defecation: The elimination of indigestible substances from the body as
feces.
II. Major Organs: The Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
This is a continuous, muscular tube that runs from the mouth to the anus. Think of
it as a "food processing highway."
● Mouth (Oral Cavity):
○ Structures: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands.
○ Function: Mechanical digestion (chewing/mastication) begins here.
Saliva, containing the enzyme salivary amylase, starts the chemical
breakdown of starches. The tongue shapes food into a bolus for
swallowing.
● Pharynx (Throat):
○ Function: A common passageway for food, liquid, and air. It initiates
the voluntary phase of swallowing.
● Esophagus:
○ Function: A muscular tube that transports the bolus from the pharynx
to the stomach via peristaltic waves. It passes through the diaphragm
at the esophageal hiatus.
● Stomach:
○ Function: A J-shaped organ that acts as a holding tank.
■ Mechanical Digestion: Mixing and churning food with gastric
juices to create a semi-fluid paste called chyme.
■ Chemical Digestion: Gastric glands secrete gastric juice
containing hydrochloric acid (HCl) (kills bacteria, denatures
proteins) and the enzyme pepsin (begins protein digestion).
The stomach lining is protected by a thick mucus layer.
● Small Intestine:
○ Length: ~ 6-7 meters (20-23 feet) long.
○ Sections: Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.
○ Function: This is the primary site for chemical digestion and
absorption.
■ Digestion: Receives chyme from the stomach and digestive
secretions from the liver and pancreas. Enzymes here break
down proteins into amino acids, fats into fatty acids, and carbs
into simple sugars.
■ Absorption: The inner lining has finger-like projections called
villi, which are covered in microvilli (brush border). This
massive surface area is designed to maximize nutrient
absorption into the bloodstream and lymphatic system
(lacteals).
● Large Intestine (Colon):
○ Length: ~ 1.5 meters (5 feet) long.
○ Sections: Cecum, Colon (ascending, transverse, descending,
sigmoid), Rectum, Anal Canal.
○ Function: The final stage of the process.
■ Absorption: Absorbs most of the remaining water and
electrolytes (e.g., sodium).
■ Formation: Houses a vast population of gut bacteria (gut flora)
that ferment undigested material (like fiber), producing some
vitamins (e.g., Vitamin K, some B vitamins) and gas.
■ Elimination: Compacts the remaining waste into feces and
stores it until defecation.
III. Accessory Organs
These organs are not part of the GI tract tube but are essential for digestion. They
secrete substances into the tract via ducts.
● Salivary Glands:
○ Function: Secrete saliva (water, mucus, salivary amylase) into the
mouth to moisten food and begin starch digestion.
● Liver:
○ Function: The body's largest internal organ and a metabolic
powerhouse.
■ Bile Production: Produces bile, a fluid (not an enzyme) that
emulsifies fats—breaking large fat globules into smaller
droplets to increase surface area for fat-digesting enzymes.
■ Processing: Processes absorbed nutrients (glucose, amino
acids, fats) and toxins.
■ Storage: Stores glycogen (stored glucose), vitamins, and iron.
● Gallbladder:
○ Function: A small, pear-shaped sac that stores and concentrates bile
produced by the liver. It releases bile into the small intestine when fat
is present.
● Pancreas:
○ Function: A gland with both endocrine (hormone) and exocrine
(digestive) functions.
■ Exocrine: Produces pancreatic juice, a cocktail of enzymes
(trypsin for protein, pancreatic amylase for carbs, lipase for
fats) that is released into the duodenum. It also secretes
bicarbonate to neutralize acidic chyme from the stomach.
IV. Layers of the GI Tract Wall
From the inside (lumen) to the outside, the wall of the GI tract has four main layers:
1. Mucosa: The innermost, moist, epithelial layer. Its functions include
secretion of mucus and enzymes, absorption of nutrients, and protection.
2. Submucosa: A thick layer of connective tissue containing blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and nerves. It nourishes surrounding tissues and
transports absorbed nutrients.
3. Muscularis Externa: A layer of smooth muscle, typically consisting of an
inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. Its contractions produce
peristalsis (waves of contraction) and segmentation (mixing and churning).
4. Serosa (Visceral Peritoneum): The outermost layer, a thin serous membrane
that protects the tract and reduces friction with surrounding organs.
V. Chemical Digestion Summary Table
Nutrient Starting Enzyme(s) / Source End Product (for
Molecule Substance absorption)
Carbohy Starches Salivary Saliva, Disaccharides
drates Amylase, Pancreas
Pancreatic
Amylase
Disacchari Brush Border Small Monosaccharides
des Enzymes (e.g., Intestine (e.g., glucose)
maltase, lining
sucrase,
lactase)
Proteins Proteins Pepsin (in HCl Stomach Smaller
environment) polypeptides
Polypepti Pancreatic Pancreas Peptides & Amino
des enzymes (e.g., Acids
trypsin)
Peptides Brush Border Small Amino Acids
Peptidases Intestine
lining
Lipids Large Fat Bile Liver Emulsified Fat
(Fats) Droplets Droplets
Emulsified Pancreatic Pancreas Fatty Acids &
Fats Lipase Monoglycerides
Nucleic DNA, RNA Nucleases Pancreas Nucleotides
Acids