Comprehensive Study Notes: Nerve Cells (Neurons)
I. Core Functions of Neurons
Neurons are the fundamental units of the nervous system, responsible for
receiving, processing, and transmitting electrochemical information throughout
the body. Their two primary physiological properties are:
1. Excitability (Irritability): The ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it
into a neural impulse.
2. Conductivity: The ability to transmit the impulse to another neuron, muscle,
or gland.
II. Structure of a Typical Neuron
Neurons have a unique structure specialized for signal transmission. They consist
of three main parts:
● 1. Cell Body (Soma or Perikaryon):
○ Structure: The central part of the neuron, containing the nucleus and
most of the cell's organelles (like mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and
rough ER called Nissl bodies). It lacks centrioles, which explains why
mature neurons cannot divide.
○ Function: It's the metabolic center of the cell, responsible for protein
synthesis and maintaining the life of the neuron. It also receives and
integrates signals from other neurons.
● 2. Dendrites:
○ Structure: Short, branched, tapering processes that extend from the
cell body. Their surface area is often increased by dendritic spines.
○ Function: They are the primary receivers of signals. Dendrites contain
receptors for neurotransmitters and conduct incoming signals toward
the cell body. Think of them as the neuron's "antennae."
● 3. Axon:
○ Structure: A single, long, slender process that extends from the cell
body at a region called the axon hillock (trigger zone). It may have
side branches called axon collaterals.
○ Axoplasm & Axolemma: The cytoplasm of the axon and its plasma
membrane.
○ Synaptic Terminals (Axon Terminals): The swollen, distal ends of the
axon branches. They contain synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitters.
○ Function: Its job is to generate and conduct nerve impulses away
from the cell body toward another cell. The axon terminal is the site
where the signal is passed to the next cell via a synapse.
III. Structural Classification of Neurons
Neurons are classified by the number of processes extending from the cell body.
1. Multipolar Neurons:
○ Structure: Have one axon and multiple dendrites.
○ Location: This is the most common type in humans; they are the
major neuron type in the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord) and also include motor neurons.
2. Bipolar Neurons:
○ Structure: Have one axon and one dendrite, with the cell body in
between.
○ Location: Rare; found in special sense organs like the retina of the
eye, the olfactory (smell) epithelium, and the inner ear.
3. Unipolar (Pseudounipolar) Neurons:
○ Structure: Have a single short process that emerges from the cell
body and then splits like a T into two long branches (one acting as a
dendrite, one as an axon).
○ Location: Primarily found as sensory neurons in the peripheral
nervous system (e.g., in dorsal root ganglia).
IV. Functional Classification of Neurons
Neurons are also classified by the direction in which they transmit impulses
relative to the central nervous system (CNS: brain and spinal cord).
1. Sensory (Afferent) Neurons:
○ Function: Transmit impulses from sensory receptors (in skin, organs,
etc.) TOWARD the CNS. They inform the CNS about the internal and
external environment. Most are structurally unipolar.
2. Motor (Efferent) Neurons:
○ Function: Transmit impulses AWAY from the CNS to effector organs
(muscles and glands). They initiate action. They are structurally
multipolar.
3. Interneurons (Association Neurons):
○ Function: Lie entirely within the CNS. They receive signals from many
sensory neurons and integrate, store, or process that information and
relay it to motor neurons. They make up over 99% of the neurons in
the body and are structurally multipolar. They are the "middle-man"
of the nervous system.
V. The Nerve Impulse: A Primer on Signal Transmission
● Resting Membrane Potential:
1. An inactive, unstimulated neuron is polarized. The inside of the cell is
negatively charged relative to the outside (approx. -70mV). This is
maintained by the sodium-potassium pump and the leakage of
potassium ions.
● Action Potential:
1. This is the nerve impulse itself—a brief, rapid reversal of the
membrane potential.
2. Depolarization: A stimulus causes sodium (Na+) gates to open. Na+
rushes into the cell, making the inside temporarily positive.
3. Repolarization: Sodium gates close. Potassium (K+) gates open. K+
rushes out of the cell, restoring the negative charge inside.
4. Propagation: This wave of depolarization travels down the axon like a
domino effect.
VI. The Synapse
● Definition: The functional junction between two neurons or between a
neuron and an effector cell (muscle or gland). There is a tiny gap called the
synaptic cleft.
● Process of Synaptic Transmission:
1. An action potential arrives at the synaptic terminal.
2. This triggers voltage-gated calcium (Ca2+) channels to open.
3. Calcium influx causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the
presynaptic membrane.
4. Neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) are released into the
synaptic cleft.
5. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
6. This binding causes ion channels on the postsynaptic cell to open,
creating a new electrical signal (either excitatory or inhibitory).
7. Neurotransmitters are quickly removed from the cleft (via reuptake,
enzyme degradation, or diffusion) to terminate the signal.
VII. Neuroglia (Glial Cells): The Support Cells
Neurons cannot function alone. They are supported by glial cells, which
outnumber neurons 10 to 1.
In the CNS (Central Nervous System):
● Astrocytes: Most abundant. They support neurons, form the blood-brain
barrier, regulate the chemical environment, and mop up leaked ions.
● Microglia: The immune cells of the CNS. They protect neurons by
phagocytizing pathogens and debris.
● Ependymal Cells: Line the fluid-filled ventricles of the brain and spinal cord;
help circulate cerebrospinal fluid.
● Oligodendrocytes: Wrap their flat extensions around axons to form the
myelin sheath in the CNS.
In the PNS (Peripheral Nervous System):
● Schwann Cells: Form the myelin sheath around PNS axons. They also assist
in the regeneration of damaged axons.
● Satellite Cells: Surround and support neuron cell bodies within ganglia.
VIII. Myelination and Saltatory Conduction
● Myelin Sheath: A whitish, fatty, protein-lipid substance that insulates the
axon. It is produced by oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS).
● Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann
cells/oligodendrocyte extensions.
● Function of Myelin:
○ Insulation: Prevents the leakage of electrical current.
○ Speed: Forces the action potential to "jump" from node to node. This
is called saltatory conduction, and it dramatically increases the speed
of nerve impulse transmission (up to 50x faster than unmyelinated
fibers).
● White Matter vs. Gray Matter:
○ White Matter: Regions of the nervous system containing bundles of
myelinated axons.
○ Gray Matter: Regions containing neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and
unmyelinated axons.