8 Conics

Duality again
A complete quadrangle consists of
4 points, A, B, C, and D, no 3 collinear, and the 6 joins determined by these points.
A complete quadrilateral consists of
4 lines, a, b, c, and d, no 3 concurrent, and the 6 points determined by these lines.

a complete quadrangle a complete quadrilateral

The reciprocal of a complete quadrangle is a complete quadrilateral (and vice-versa).

We can think of an n-gon as being composed of n points and the successive lines between
these points, or, in the opposite aspect, as n lines and the successive points of intersections
of these lines. In general, the dual or reciprocal of an n-gon is another n-gon of the opposite
aspect.

39
Reciprocals of circles
The problem we are concerned with here is this: What is the image of a circle under
reciprocation?
We can view a circle as a locus of points or as an envelope of lines. (In fact every smooth
curve can be viewed in these two aspects).

To find the reciprocal of the circle, view the circle in one aspect and see what curve is
generated by the reciprocal aspect. Throughout, we use ω to denote the reciprocating
circle.

Special cases
The reciprocal of the reciprocating circle ω is ω itself.
If the circle α is concentric with ω, and if the radius of α is s and the radius of ω is r. the
reciprocal of α is another circle, β, concentric with ω with radius r2 /s.

r
s

O
α ω β

40
Theorem 8.1. Let α and ω be two non-concentric circles with centres A and O respectively.
The reciprocal of α with respect to ω is

(i) an ellipse if O is inside α;

(ii) a parabola if O is on α;
(iii) a hyperbola if O is outside α.

In each case, the focus of the conic section is O and the directrix is the polar of A. If the
radius of α is s, the eccentricity ε of the conic is given by
ε = OA/s .

s s s
O O O
A A A

ω α ω α ω α

(parabola) (ellipse) (hyperbola)

Proof. We will prove case (ii). The proofs of (i) and (iii) are similar.
Recall that a parabola with focus O and directrix a is the set of all points P such that
dist(P, a) = P O. (See the next two sections for the connection between the focus-directrix
definition and the more common cartesian definition.)

K
Let p be tangent to α. P
T
Let P be its pole.
s
Let P 0 be the inverse of P .
P'
←→
Let M = p ∩ OA
p M M' O A' A
Let M 0 be the inverse of M . r

Let m be the polar of M . (Note that P is on

ω α
m (because M is on p).)
m a
We will show that P K/P O = 1.

M O0 + OA0
 0
M O OA0

PK r
= = +
PO PO PO r r
P 0O
   
r r 0 1 1
= + =P O +
r M O OA M O OA
P 0O M A
 
M O + OA
= P 0O = ·
M O · OA M O AO
TA MA
= · (because 4M P 0 O ∼ 4M T A)
M A AO
TA s
= = = 1.
AO s

41
The focus-directrix definition of a conic
Let d be a fixed line. Let F be a fixed point not on the line. Let dist(X, d) denote the
perpendicular distance from the point X to the line d. Let ε be a fixed positive constant.
The set of all points X for which
FX
=ε
dist(X, d)
is a conic section. The point F is the focus of the conic and the line d is the directrix
of the conic. The positive constant ε is the eccentricity of the conic, and

if ε = 1, the conic is a parabola,

if ε < 1, the conic is an ellipse,

if ε > 1, the conic is a hyperbola.

The cartesian definitions derived from the focus-directrix definitions

Let d be the vertical line through (−r, 0).
Let F be the point (0, 0). Then, X(x,y)
FX F X2
= ε =⇒ = ε2
dist(X, d) (dist(X, d) )2
(-r,0) F(0,0)
x2 + y 2
=⇒ = ε2 .
(x + r)2

After rearranging we get

d
(1 − ε2 )x2 − 2rε2 x + y 2 = ε2 r2
If ε = 1, the x2 term disappears and the equation takes the form

y 2 − 2rx = r2 ,

which we recognize as being the cartesian equation for a parabola.

If ε 6= 1, then after some additional rearrangement we get
2 2
rε2 y2
 
rε
x− + = .
1 − ε2 1 − ε2 1 − ε2

This is of the form

y2
(x − h)2 + = a2 ,
1 − ε2
which is the cartesian equation for an ellipse if ε < 1 or for a hyperbola if ε > 1.

Pascal’s Theorem
Two facts that we will not prove in these notes:

1. Given any conic in the plane, there is a reciprocating circle ω and a circle α such that
the conic is the reciprocal of α with respect to α.
2. The reciprocal of a conic is a conic.

42
Theorem 8.2. Pascal’s mystic hexagram theorem holds for conics.

CD AF

Proof. Let the vertices of the hexagon in-

scribed in the conic be A, B, C, D, E, F . Let
α and ω be circles such that the conic is the
A
reciprocal of α with respect to ω. Then, α is
the reciprocal of the conic. B
The points A, B, C, D, E and F on the
conic have polars a, b, c, d, e, f that are tangent C
to the circle α. Brianchon’s Theorem (which AB DE
holds for the circle α), tells us that the joins
of a ∩ b and d ∩ e, b ∩ c and e ∩ f , c ∩ d and a ∩ f D
f
are concurrent. Then, taking reciprocals, the
points AB ∩ DE, BC ∩ EF , and CD ∩ AF are BC EF
collinear.
E

Using the same idea, the following can be seen to be true.

Theorem 8.3. Brianchon’s Theorem holds for conic sections.

43